NOTES

CHEMISTRY
SOLUTIONS

REVISION NOTES
CHAPTERWISE &
TOPICWISE
Page 1
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTIONS
INDEX

Chapter 2: Solutions
Concepts Covered:
1. Introduction
➢ Types of Solutions
➢ Classification of Solution
2. Strength of Solutions
➢ Mass Percentage (%w/w)
➢ Volume Percentage (%v/v)
➢ Mass by Volume Percentage (% w/v)
➢ Parts Per Million (ppm)
➢ Mole Fraction (x)
➢ Molarity, M
➢ Molality, m
➢ Normality, N
➢ Some Important Relationships
• Dilution Law
• Molarity and Normality
3. Vapour Pressure
➢ Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions and Raoult’s Law
➢ Vapour Pressures of Solutions of Solids in Liquids and Raoult’s Law
4. Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions
➢ Ideal Solutions
➢ Non – Ideal Solutions
• Solutions Showing Positive Deviation from Raoult’s Law
➢ Azeotropes
• Minimum Boiling Azeotrope
• Maximum Boiling Azeotrope
5. Solubility
➢ Solubility of Solid in Liquid
➢ Henry’s Law
6. Colligative Properties
➢ Relative lowering of vapour pressure
➢ Elevation in boiling point
➢ Depression in freezing point
➢ Osmosis
• Osmotic Pressure
• Berkley Hartley method
• Reverse Osmosis
• Application
7. Abnormal Molar Masses
➢ Van’t Hoff Factor
➢ Association
➢ Dissociation
➢ Modified Expressions
➢ Vapour Pressure
Page 2
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTIONS
INDEX

➢ Thermodynamics of Dissolution
• Boiling Point Elevation
• Freezing Point Depression
➢ Ostwald Walker Method
➢ Some Important Formulas related to this chapter
6. Mind Map
(Colourful & Interactive/ Complete All Concept Covered)
Practice Questions (All Topics Available)
Page 3
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
A solution is a specific kind of combination. In chemistry, mixtures are made up of several
compounds, each preserving its chemical characteristics. In general, non-chemical methods such as
filtering, heating, and spinning can separate mixtures. A solution is a homogenous combination, but
that is not all there is more to it.

The term “homogeneous” refers to a combination that is the same throughout. Two identical-sized
samples, one in the bottom, the other from the top, might be taken. When uninterrupted,
homogeneous mixes do not settle out, but heterogeneous mixtures do.

Definition

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more than two

components.

Example: The presence of ordinary salt in water.

Solution Characteristics

The qualities of a solution are as follows:

• A homogenous mixture is referred to as a solution.

• A solution’s component particles have a diameter of less than 10-9
metres.
• The constituent particles of such a solution are invisible to the human eye.
• A ray of light travelling through a solution is not scattered.
• As a result, the route of the light beam is hidden in solutions.
• Filtration cannot distinguish solute particles.
• When left uninterrupted, solute or solvent molecules do not settle.
• At a certain temperature, solutions are stable.

Types of Solutions

All the three states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) may behave either as solvent or
solute. When a solution is composed of only two chemical substances, it is termed as
binary solution. Depending upon the state of solute or solvent, binary
solutions can be classified as:
Page 4
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
INTRODUCTION

Types of Solution Solute Solvent Common Example

Gaseous Solution Gas Gas Oxygen and nitrogen gas mixture.
Liquid Gas A mixture of chloroform and nitrogen gas
Solid Gas Nitrogen gas with camphor
Liquid Solution Gas Liquid Water with oxygen dissolved in it
Liquid Liquid Ethanol is a liquid that can be dissolved in
water.
Solid Liquid Glucose that has been dissolved in water
Solid Solutions Gas Solid Hydrogen solution in palladium
Liquid Solid Mercury and sodium amalgam
Solid Solid Dissolving copper in gold

Classification of Solution

Binary solutions

Binary solutions are solutions that have two components in them. Components are substances that
are used to make a solution.

Solvent

The solvent is the component that is present in the greatest quantity. The physical condition of a
solution is determined by the solvent.

Solute

Solute refers to the other component in the solution that is present in smaller amounts.

Each element could be solid, liquid, or gaseous.

Page 5
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02 SOLUTION
STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS

STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS
Strength of solution refers to the amount of solute dissolved per unit of solution or solvent. There
are several methods for determining the strength of a solution.

Mass Percentage (%w/w)

Mass percentage is also called weight by weight concentration of solute, Mass Percent is defined as
the amount of solute (in grams) present in 100 gm of the solution.

“It denotes the mass of a component in 100 g of solution.”

Mass of solute
Mass % of solute = × 100
Total mass of solution
Mass of solvent
Mass % of solvent = × 100
Total mass of solution

Volume Percentage (%v/v)

Volume Percentage is also called volume by volume concentration of solute. It is defined as the
amount of solute (in ml) present in 100 ml of the solution.

"It represents the volume of a component in a solution of 100mL."

Volume of solute
Volume % of solute = × 100
Total volume of solution
Volume of solvent
Volume % of solvent = × 100
Total volume of solution

Mass by Volume Percentage (% w/v)

"It denotes the mass of the solute in grams in 100mL of solution."

Mass of solute in g
Mass by vol, percent = × 100
Vol. of sol. in mL

Parts Per Million (ppm)

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02 SOLUTION
STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS

Parts per Million means the number of parts of solute present per 1 million parts of the solution.
Parts per Million is used to measure the concentration of quantities present in trace amounts.

For example, if you have to calculate the presence of a mineral in seawater then the concept of PPM
is used.

No. of parts of the component

Parts per million = × 106
Total no. of all the components of sol.

Mass to mass, volume to volume, and mass to volume are all ways to express
concentration in parts per million.

w Weight of solute (g)

ppm ( ) = × 106
w Weight of solution (g)

w Weight of solute (g)

ppm ( ) = × 106
V Volume of solution (mL)

moles Moles of solute

ppm ( )= × 106
moles Moles of solution

Mole Fraction (x)

Mole fraction of a component is given by the moles of one component divided by the total no. of
moles present in that solution. It is expressed by X.

"It denotes the number of moles of a solute in one mole of solution."

No. of molos of the component

Mole fraction =
Total no. of moles all the components

If the amount of moles of A and B in a binary mixture is n A and nB, respectively, the mole fraction of
A will be
nA
xA =
nA + nB
Page 7
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02 SOLUTION
STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS

Molarity, M

It is the no. of moles of solute present in one litre of the solution, and it is denoted
by M. When molarity of a solution is one, it is called one molar solution.

"It represents the number of moles of solute in 1 litre of solution."

Moles of solute
Molarity, M =
Vol. of sol in L

Molarity is measured in milligrams per litre and is denoted by the letter’s 'M' or 'Molar.' "The density
of a solution is its mass per unit volume."

Mass of sol.
Density, d =
Vol. of sol.
m
=
V

Molality, m

Molality of a solution refers to the number of moles of solute dissolved in per kilogram of solvent.

“It denotes the number of moles of solute present per kilogramme of solvent.”

Moles of solute
Molality, m =
Mass of solvent in kg

Molality is measured in mol/kg, which can also be written as 'm' or 'molal.'

• If molality of a solution is one, it is called molal solution.

• Concentration of one molal solution is less than that of one molar solution.
• Molality is used preferably over molarity in experimental calculations as molality is
temperature independent while molarity is affected by temperature.

Normality, N

It is the no. of gram equivalents of a solute present in a litre of solution, and is denoted by N.
Page 8
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02 SOLUTION
STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS

It denotes the number of solute equivalents in 1 litre of solution.

No. of Equivalents of solute

Normality, N =
Vol. of sol. in L
Weight
No. of equivalents, eq =
W
Equivalent weight ( )
E
M
E = ( ) (Z is the valency factor).
z

Some Important Relationships

Dilution Law

When we dilute a solution with solvent, the amount of solute remains constant, and
we can write:

M1 V1 = M2 V2 and N1 V1 = N2 V2

Molarity and Normality

Normality = Z × Molarity

Important

The temperature has no effect on the mass per cent, ppm, mole fraction, or molality, however
temperature influences molarity and normality. This is because the volume is affected by
temperature whereas mass is not.
Page 9
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
VAPOUR PRESSURE

VAPOUR PRESSURE
Vapour pressure is the force exerted by a liquid’s (or solid’s) vapour above the surface of the liquid.
At a particular temperature and thermodynamic equilibrium, this pressure is formed in a closed
container. The rate of liquid evaporation is controlled by the equilibrium vapour pressure. The vapour
pressure increases with increasing temperature. When atmospheric pressure and vapour pressure
are equal, a liquid is said to have reached its boiling point.

Definition

At a given temperature, the vapour pressure of a liquid/solution is

the pressure exerted by vapours in equilibrium with the
liquid/solution.

Vapour pressure ∝ escaping tendency

Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions and Raoult’s Law

(Raoult’s law for volatile solutes)

Raoult's law states that the partial vapour pressure of each component in a solution of volatile liquids
is directly proportional to its mole fraction.

p1 ∝ x1 and p1 = p01x1

Component 2 is the same way.

P 2 = p 02x 2

The total pressure P(total) over the solution phase in the container, according to
Dalton's partial pressure law, is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the
solution's components and is given as:

p(iotal) = p1 + p2

We get by substituting the values of p1 and p2

p(total) = x1p01 and x2p02

= (1 − x2) p01 + x2p02

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02 SOLUTION
VAPOUR PRESSURE

= p01 + (p02 − p01) x2

At constant temperature, the plot of vapour pressure and mole fraction of an ideal solution. The
partial pressures of the components are shown by the dashed lines I and ∥. p1 and p2 are directly
proportional to x1 and X2, respectively, as can be seen from the plot. The total vapour pressure is
represented in the figure by line III.

Mole Fraction in The Vapour Phase

Using Dalton's rule of partial pressures, if y1 and y2 are the mole fractions of components 1 and 2 in
the vapour phase, then:

p1 = y1ptotal

p2 = y2ptotal

Generally

pi = yiptotal

Vapour Pressures of Solutions of Solids in Liquids and Raoult’s Law

(Raoult’s law for non-volatile solutes)

When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent to make a solution, the number of solvent molecules
leaving from the surface is reduced, lowering the vapour pressure.
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02 SOLUTION
VAPOUR PRESSURE

The amount of non-volatile solute present in the solution, regardless of its composition, determines
the drop in solvent vapour pressure.

In its most general form, Raoult's law states that the partial vapour pressure of each volatile
component in a solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction for every solution.

p1 ∝ x1

p1 = x1p01 = ptotal

If Raoult's law holds true for all concentrations, a solution's vapour pressure will vary linearly from
zero to the pure solvent's vapour pressure.
Page 12
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

Ideal Solutions

An ideal solution is a mixture in which the molecules of different species are distinguishable,
however, unlike the ideal gas, the molecules in ideal solution exert forces on one another. When
those forces are the same for all molecules independent of species then a solution is said to be ideal.

An ideal solution is one in which each component follows Raoult's rule under all temperature and
concentration circumstances.

An ideal solution can be obtained by mixing a solute and a solvent which consist of similar molecular
structure and size. If we take two substances X and Y and mix them, we will see that there are several
intermolecular forces that exist between them.

Example:

• X and X experience intermolecular forces of attraction.

• Y and Y experience intermolecular forces of attraction.
• X and Y experience intramolecular forces of attraction.

Here, when the intermolecular forces of attraction are the same or

equal, it gives us an ideal solution.

Properties

An ideal solution most of the time has physical properties that are closely related to
the properties of the pure components. Some of its properties are.

• The enthalpy of solution is zero. If the enthalpy of the solution gets closer to
zero it is more likely to show an ideal behaviour.

ΔHmix = 0

• The volume of mixing is also zero.

ΔVmix = 0

Examples

• Benzene + toluene
Page 13
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

• Hexane + heptane
• Ethyl bromide + ethyl iodide
• Chlorobenzene + bromobenzene
• CCl4 + SiCl4
• All dilute solutions

Graph

Non – Ideal Solutions

A non-ideal solution is one in which the interaction among different molecules constituents in the
solutions are not perfect. The magnitude of the intermolecular function can be used to identify a
non-ideal solution. The interactions between the solvent and the solvent, as well as the solvent and
the solute, can influence the value of a non-ideal solution. The solute has been well soluble in that
solvent if the solvent-solute interactions are greater than the other two kinds of interactions. The
end outcome is a less-than-ideal solution. On the other hand, highly dilute solutions exhibit ideal
solution behaviour more often than non-ideal solution behaviour. This is because the number of
solutes in a dilute is lower, resulting in less attraction between them.

Properties

• It does not follow Raoult's law

• The enthalpy during the formation of the solution is not zero. ΔH(mix), not 0
• The volume after mixing may not be constant. ΔV(mix) not 0.
Page 14
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02 SOLUTION
IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

The non-ideal solutions show deviation from Raoult's law. Based on deviation the non-ideal solutions
are of the following two types:

• Solutions Showing Negative Deviation from Raoult’s Law

• Solutions Showing Positive Deviation from Raoult’s Law

Solutions Showing Negative Deviation from Raoult’s Law

Negative deviation is seen when total vapour pressure for any mole
fraction is less than that expected from Raoult’s law. This happens
when the new interactions are stronger than the interactions in the pure
components (A—B > A—A or B—B interactions).

ΔH = –ve, ΔV = –ve, ΔS = +ve

(V·P)obs. < V·Pexp.

PA < PA0. xA, PB < PB0· xB; PT < PA°.xA + PB°.xB

It forms maximum boiling azeotrope, for example, CHCl3 + CH3COCH3. For such
solutions, ΔV and ΔH are negative.

Examples:

• Chloroform + benzene or diethyl ether

• Acetone + aniline
• Nitric acid (HNO3) + water
• Acetic acid + pyridine
Page 15
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

Solutions Showing Positive Deviation from Raoult’s Law

Positive deviation occurs when total vapour pressure for any mole fraction is more than what is
expected according to Raoult’s law. This happens when the new interactions are weaker than the
interaction in the pure component (A—B < A—A or B—B interactions).

• ΔH = +ve, ΔV = +ve, ΔS = +ve, (V.P)obs > (V.P)exp.

PA > PA0 · XA, PB > PB0 · XB

PT > PA0 XA + PB0· XB

• It forms minimum boiling azeotrope, for example, C2H5OH + cyclohexane. The H-bonding
present in pure C2H5OH are cut off on adding cyclohexane. For such solution, ΔV and ΔH are
positive.

Examples:

• Acetone + carbon disulphide,

• Acetone + benzene
• Carbon tetrachloride + chloroform or Toluene
• Methyl alcohol + water
• Acetone + C2H5OH
Page 16
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02 SOLUTION
IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

Azeotropes

It is a mixture of two liquids having the same boiling point. Because of same boiling point the two
liquids cannot be separated by simple distillation. These mixtures are therefore called constant
boiling mixtures. These are formed by non-ideal solutions.

Types of azeotropic mixtures

These are of the following two types:

Minimum Boiling Azeotrope

• Azeotropic mixture is the mixture of two liquids in which the boiling

point of the mixture is lesser than either of the two pure components.
• It is formed by the composition of a non-ideal solution which shows
positive deviation to the solution having maximum vapour pressure.
• This mixture consists non-ideal solutions showing positive deviation
Raoult’s law and for which, the vapour pressure is maximum.

Example: C2H5OH (95.5%) + H2O (4.5%) mixture boils at 351.5 K. (B.P. of C2H5OH = 78.1° C,
B.P. of H2O = 100°C)

• Such mixtures on distillation will give first fraction upto point M in pure state. After this the
temperature will rise and the second component will pass over. Hence in such solutions also
complete separation is not possible.
• The figure shows maximum vapour pressure at point M and therefore solution has lowest
boiling point.
Page 17
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

Maximum Boiling Azeotrope

• Azeotropic mixture is the mixture of two liquids in which the boiling point of the mixture is
larger than either of the two pure components.
• It is formed by the composition of a non-ideal solution which shows negative deviation to
the solution having minimum vapour pressure.

Example: Nitric acid (68%) + water (32%) mixture boils at 393.5 K.

An aqueous solution of HCl initially gives pure water when subjected to distillation and later
forms a constant boiling mixture at a temperature of 100°C containing 20.24% acid.

• During distillation when two volatile liquids A and B are mixed, for condition having A is
more volatile and present in excess, the vapour part will be richer in component A and liquid
part will be for component B. Lastly, A point is reached ‘N’ where the boiling point is
maximum, and the vapour pressure is minimum as shown in the figure.
• For this stage from this type of solution, complete separation of components into its pure
state is impossible.
Page 18
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
SOLUBILITY

SOLUBILITY
Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can be dissolved in a specified amount of
solvent at a specified temperature. It depends upon the nature of solute and solvent as well as
temperature and pressure. Let us consider the effect of these factors in solution of a solid or a gas in
a liquid.

Solubility of Solid in Liquid

A solute dissolve in a solvent if the intermolecular interactions are similar in them, i.e., like dissolves
like. Polar solute dissolves in polar solvent and non-polar solute in non-polar solvent. For e.g., sodium
chloride and sugar dissolves readily in water and naphthalene and anthracene dissolves readily in
benzene.

Solute + Solvent ⟶ Solution

Dissolution: When a solid solute is added to the solvent, some solute dissolves and its
concentration increases in solution. This process is called dissolution.

Crystallization: Some solute particles collide with solute particles in solution

and get separated out. This process is called crystallization.

Saturated solution: Such a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the
same temperature and pressure is called a saturated solution.

Unsaturated solution: An unsaturated solution is one in which more solute can be

dissolved at the same temperature.

Supersaturated solution: When more solute can be dissolved at higher temperature in a

saturated solution, then the solution becomes supersaturated.

Factors affecting the Solubility of a solid in Liquid

Temperature

In general, if in a nearly saturated solution, the dissolution process is endothermic, the solubility
should increase with rise in temperature, if it is exothermic, the solubility should decrease with rise
in temperature.

Nature of solute and solvent

Page 19
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
SOLUBILITY

Like disintegrates into like. Sodium chloride and sugar, for example, dissolve quickly in water, but
naphthalene and anthracene do not. Naphthalene and anthracene, on the other hand, dissolve
quickly in benzene, but sodium chloride and sugar do not.

Effect of pressure

Solids and liquids are highly incompressible, so pressure does not have any significant effect on
solubility of solids and liquids.

Henry’s Law

This law was formulated in the early 19th century by the English chemist William Henry. It can be
noted that the Henry’s law constant can be expressed in two different ways. If the constant is defined
in terms of solubility/pressure, it is referred to as the Henry’s law solubility constant (denoted by
‘H’). On the other hand, if the proportionality constant is defined in terms of pressure/solubility, it is
called the Henry’s law volatility constant (denoted by ‘kH’).

An illustration detailing the relationship between the solubility of a gas in a liquid and the partial
pressure of that gas in the atmosphere above the liquid (as dictated by Henry’s law) is provided
above. Note that the greater the partial pressure of the gas, the greater its solubility in the liquid.

Statement

The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas at a fixed
temperature, according to Henry's law.

“The partial pressure of the gas in the vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the
gas (x) in the solution,” according to the most frequent version of Henry's law. This is written as:

The constant KH stands for Henry's law.

Page 20
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
SOLUBILITY

Characteristics of KH

• The type of the gas determines KH.

• The lower the solubility of the gas in the liquid, the higher the value of KH at a given pressure.
• KH values increase as temperature decreases, indicating that gas solubility increases as
temperature decreases.

Applications

• In manufacture of soft drinks and soda water, CO2 is passed

at high pressure to increase its solubility.
• To minimise the painful effects accompanying the decompression of
deep-sea divers. O2 diluted with less soluble. He gas is used as breathing
gas.
• At high altitudes, the partial pressure of O2 is less than that at the ground
level. This leads to low concentrations of O2 in the blood of climbers which
causes ‘anoxia’.

Raoult's Law as a Specific case of Henry's Law

Raoult's law states that

pi = xipi0

One of the components of a gas in a liquid solution is so volatile that it exists as a gas. According to
Henry's law, it is soluble in water.

pi = KHx

As a result, Raoult's law becomes a specific case of Henry's law, in which KH equals pi0.
Page 21
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
The properties of dilute solution which depends only on number of particles of solute (molecules or
ions) present in the solution and not on their nature, are called colligative properties. The important
colligative properties are.

• Relative lowering of vapour pressure

• Elevation in boiling point
• Depression in freezing point
• Osmosis

Relative lowering of vapour pressure

When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, its vapour pressure gets lowered. If this pressure is
divided by pressure of pure solvent, this is called relative lowering of vapour pressure.

According to Raoult’s law,

P° − P
= XA
P°
where, P° = V.P. of pure solvent

P° - P = lowering in vapour pressure

P° − P nA nA
= … [X A = ]
P° nA + nB nA + nB

For dilute solution nA + nA ≈ nA

P° − P nA
=
P° nB

P° − P WA MB
= ×
P0 MA WB

where, WA = weight of solute

WB = weight of solvent

MA = molecular weight of solute

MB = molecular weight of solvent

Page 22
Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

Elevation in boiling point

A liquid boil at the temperature at which its vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
The boiling point of a solution of non-volatile solute is always higher than that of the boiling point of
pure solvent in which the solution is prepared. Similar to lowering of vapour pressure, the elevation
of boiling point also depends on the number of solute particles rather than their nature.

Let T° be the boiling point of pure solvent and T be the boiling point of solution. The increase in
boiling point ΔTb = T – T° is known as elevation in boiling point.

For dilute solutions, the ΔTb is directly proportional to the molal concentration of the solute in a
solution. Thus

ΔTb ∝ m

ΔTb = Kbm

Kb is molal elevation constant (Ebullioscopic constant). The unit of Kb is K kg mol–1.

Substituting the value of molality in above equation, we get

K b × 1000 × w2
ΔTb =
M2 × w1

K b × 1000 × w2
M2 =
ΔTb × w1

Where, w1 = mass of solvent, w2 = mass of solute and M2 = molar mass of solute

Depression in freezing point

Freezing point is the temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid phase becomes same as that of
solid phase. The decrease in freezing point of a solvent on the addition of a non-volatile solute is
known as depression in freezing point.

Let T° be the freezing point of pure solvent and T be the freezing point of solution. The decrease in
freezing point ΔTf = T° -T is known as depression in freezing point.

For dilute solutions, the ΔTf is directly proportional to the molal concentration of the solute in a
solution. Thus
Page 23
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02 SOLUTION
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

ΔTf ∝ m

ΔTf = Kf ⋅ m

Here Kf is molal depression constant or cryoscopy constant.

Substituting the value of molality in above equation, we get

K × w2 × 1000
ΔTf =
M2 × w1

K × w2 × 1000
M2 =
ΔTf × w1

Osmosis

When a semipermeable membrane separates a pure solvent from a solution, the solvent particles
move from the solvent side to the solution side. This phenomenon is known as "osmosis."

Only small molecules can pass through the semi-permeable membrane, while larger solute
molecules are blocked.

Process of Osmosis

Osmotic Pressure

The osmotic pressure of a solution is the excess pressure that must be applied to a solution to
prevent osmosis, or the flow of solvent molecules through a semipermeable barrier into the solution.

The osmotic pressure must be equal to or greater than the excess pressure. A coating should be
applied to the solution to prevent osmosis.
Page 24
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02 SOLUTION
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

Expression

At a given temperature T, osmotic pressure is directly related to the molarity, C, of a dilute solution.

Thus: π=CRT

Here, osmotic pressure is π, while the gas constant is R.

Calculation of Molar Mass

n2
π = ( ) RT
V
w2 RT
M2 =
πV

Isotonic Solutions

Isotonic solutions are two liquids that have the same osmotic pressure at the
same temperature.

In comparison to a more concentrated solution, a solution with a lower

concentration or lower osmotic pressure is referred to as "Hypotonic."

In comparison to a dilute solution, a solution with a higher concentration or higher osmotic pressure
is referred to as "hypertonic."

Berkley Hartley method

Berkeley-Hartley method It is used to measure the osmotic pressure of two solutions of different
concentrations separated by a semi-permeable membrane.

Reverse Osmosis

The solvent will flow from the solution into the pure solvent through the semi-permeable membrane
if a pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution side.

The process is known as reverse osmosis.

Application

Desalination of seawater: Pure water is squeezed out of the seawater through the membrane when
pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is applied.
Page 25
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02 SOLUTION
ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS

ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS

The molecular mass of a substance is said to have aberrant molar mass when it is determined by
investigating any of the colligative qualities and differs from the theoretically
expected value.

Abnormal Molar Masses are Observed:

• When the solute in the solution forms a connection.

• When the solute in the solution undergoes dissociation.

Van’t Hoff Factor

Van't Hoff proposed a factor i known as the van't Hoff Factor, to determine the level of association
or dissociation.

Normal molar mass

i =
Abnormal molar mass
Observed colligative property
i =
Calculated colligative property

Total no. of moles of particles after association(dissociation)

=
No. of moles of particles before association(dissociation)

Association

The number of particles will always decrease because of connection, i1

NA → An

Let initial particles (ni) = 1

1−α+α
Final number (nf) =
n
nf 1−α+α
van’t Hoff Factor i = =
ni n

Dissociation
Due to dissociation, the number of particles will always rise, hence i1
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Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS

An → nA

Initial particle = 1

Final particles = 1 – α + nα

i = 1 - α + nα

Modified Expressions

Relatively lower solvent vapour pressure

p10 − p1 n2
0 = i.
p1 n1

Elevation of boiling point ΔTb = iKbm

Depression of Freezing point ΔTf = iKfm

RT
Osmotic pressure of solution, π = i n2
V

Vapour Pressure

When the temperature of a liquid is raised, the molecules' desire to escape increases, and the vapour
pressure rises.

In a liquid, the distribution of molecule kinetic energy.

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Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS

Claussius - Clapeyron Equation

p2 ΔHVAP 1 1
=( )( − )
p1 R T1 T2

Where ΔHVAP represents the liquid's vaporisation enthalpy.

Thermodynamics of Dissolution

The process is exothermic if the contacts increase stronger during solution formation, and it is
endothermic if they become weaker. In the dissolving process, ΔS is often positive. ΔG must be
negative if the mixing process is spontaneous/natural.

Boiling Point Elevation

ΔGVAP = 0

ΔHVAP
Tb =
ΔSVAP

The non-volatile solute improves the unpredictability of the solution phase while maintaining the
same entropy of the vapours. As a result, ΔSVAP lowers, causing the boiling point to rise.

The difference in their entropies of vaporization, ΔSVAP, causes a solution's boiling point to be greater
than that of a pure solvent.

Freezing Point Depression

ΔGFUS = 0

ΔHFUS
Tf =
ΔSFUS

Due to the increase in the entropy of the solution, the entropy

difference will increase in this scenario. According to the above
relationship, an increase in entropy causes a drop in the freezing point.

A difference in their entropies of fusion, ΔSFUSION, causes a solution to

have a lower freezing point than a pure solvent.
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02 SOLUTION
ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS

Ostwald Walker Method

This is a common method for determining a solution's relative decrease in vapour pressure. Dry air
is carried through three systems in order: solution, pure solvent, and finally a drying agent.

The decrease in weight of the vessels is represented by w1 and w2, whereas the rise in weight of the
third vessel is represented by w3.

w1 ∝ PSOLUTION w2 ∝ PSOLVENT - PSOLUTION

(since the air was already saturated)

w3 ∝ PSOLVENT

The relative decrease in vapour pressure can be computed using the

relationships.

A denotes the solvent and B represents the solute in the formulas below.

MA = Molar mass of solvent

MB = Molar mass of solute

WA = Mass of solvent

VB = volume of solute

V = volume of solution

d = density of solution

Some Important Formulas related to this chapter

WB
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 (𝐰\𝐰) = × 100
WA + WB

VB
Volume percentage(v\v) = × 100
VA + VB

w WB × 100
Mass by volume percentage [ ] =
v V(mL)
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02 SOLUTION
ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS

WB
Parts per million (ppm) = × 106
WA + WB
nA
𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐞 𝐅𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐀, xA =
nA + nB

nB
Mole fraction of B, xB =
nA + nB

xA + xB

Molarity (M)

Moles of solute
Molarity(M) =
Volume of solution in litre
nB
=
V(L)

WB
=
MB × V(L)

Molality (M)

Moles of solute
Molality(M) =
Volume of solvent in kg
nB
= × 1000
WA

WB × 1000
=
MB × WA

Normality(N)

Gram Equivalents of solute

Normality(N) =
Volume of solution in litre
WB
=
Gem of solute × VL

GEM = Gram Equivalent Mass

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Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
MIND MAPS - I
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Class 12th Chemistry

02 SOLUTION
MIND MAPS - II