Concepts, Formulas & Problems

Mathematics - Class 11 (NCERT)

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by
Dr. Dhirendra Singh Yadav
Lead Instructor, 1Math2Bytes (India)

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Document Version: 2025.02.r1
Updated on: February 20, 2025
 Contents

1 Sets 4
1.1 Sets and Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Operations on Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Properties of Complement of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 The Power Set (of a Set) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Demorgan’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Most Importan Properties of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Computing Number of Elements in Union of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Relations and Functions 9

2.1 Ordered Pairs and Cartesian Product of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
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3 Trigonometric Functions 12
3.1 Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1.1 Measurement of Angle in Radian and Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1.2 Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 Domain and Range of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 General Solution of Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.4 Patterns, Tips & Tricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4 Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 17

4.1 Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

5 Linear Inequalities 19
5.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

6 Permutations and Combinations 21

6.1 Concepts and Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

7 Binomial Theorem 23
7.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

8 Sequences and Series 25

8.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

9 Straight Lines 28
9.1 Distance, Area, & Section Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
9.2 Slope(Gradient) and Angle between Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
9.3 Various Forms of the Equation of a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
9.4 Distance of a Point from a Line and Distance between Two Parallel Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2
 CONTENTS 3

10 Conic Sections 32
10.1 Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
10.2 Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
10.3 Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
10.4 Hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
10.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

11 Introduction to Three Dimensional Geometry 37

11.1 Important Concepts & Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
11.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

12 Limits and Derivatives 39

12.1 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
12.2 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
12.2.1 Derivative of a Function (Functional Derivative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
12.2.2 Derivative of a Function at a Point (Point Derivative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
12.2.3 Algebra of Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
12.2.4 Useful Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
12.3 Chain Rule for Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
12.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

13 Statistics 43
13.1 Class 9 & 10 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
13.2 Measurements of Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
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13.2.1 Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
13.2.2 Mean Deviation about Mean and Median . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
13.2.3 Standard Deviation and Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
13.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

14 Probability 46
14.1 Random Experiment, Outcomes, and Sample Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
14.2 Event and Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
14.3 Axiomatic Approach to Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
14.3.1 Axiomatic Definition of Probability (Function) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
14.3.2 Important Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
14.3.3 Important Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
14.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
 Chapter 1 | Sets

1.1 Sets and Subsets

ˆ A set is a well-defined collection of objects.
There are two methods of representing a set: (i) roster or tabular form, and (ii) set-builder form. For
example the set of all positive integers less than or equal to 5 is described in roster form as {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and
in the set-builder form as {x : x ∈ N, x ≤ 5}

ˆ Empty Set - A set which does not contain any element is called the empty set or the null set or the void
set. It is denote by ϕ.

ˆ Useful Sets

– N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} (the set of all natural numbers

– Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } (the set of all integers
n o
– Q = pq : p, q ∈ Z q ̸= 0 (the set of all rational numbers
– T = {x ∈ R : x ∈
/ Q} (the set of all irrational numbers
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– R: the set of real numbers

– Z+ : the set of positive integers
– Q+ : the set of positive rational numbers
– R+ : the set of positive real numbers

ˆ Subset - A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an element of B.

A ⊂ B, if a∈A⇒a∈B ∀a ∈ A

ˆ Intervals as subsets of R : Let a, b ∈ R and a < b. Then:

– {x ∈ R : a < x < b} is an open interval and is denoted by (a, b)

– {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b} is an closed interval and is denoted by [a, b]
– [a, b) = {x : a ≤ x < b} is a semi-closed (or semi-open) interval from a to b (it includes a but excludes
b).
– (a, b] = {x : a < x ≤ b} is a semi-open (or semi-closed) interval from a to b (this interval excludes a but
includes b).

ˆ The Universal Set set is the set of all objects. It is usually denoted by U .
Examples:

1. If our sets are made up of english alphabet letters then

U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z}
2. If our sets are made up of natural numbers, then U = N.

1.2 Operations on Sets

ˆ Union: A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
Properties of Union:

– Commutative law: A ∪ B = B ∪ A
– Associative law: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
– Law of Identity (ϕ is identitiy for union): A ∪ ϕ = A
– Idempotent Law: A ∪ A = A
– A∪U =U

4
 1.3. PROPERTIES OF COMPLEMENT OF SETS 5

ˆ Intersection: A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

Properties of Intersection:

– Commutative law: A ∩ B = B ∩ A
– Associative law: (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
– Idempotent law: A ∩ A = A
– A ∩ ϕ = ϕ and A ∩ U = A
– Distribution law: A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) ( i.e. ∩ distributes over ∪).
This is similar to if a, b, c are real numbers then a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c) i.e. product is distributive
over sum.
– (Distribution Law) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) (i.e. ∪ distributes over ∩

ˆ Difference of Two Sets: A − B = {x : x ∈ A and x ̸∈ B}.

ˆ Complement: The complement of a set A is denote by A′ and is defined as

A′ = {x ∈ U : x ∈
/ A} = U − A

Properties of Complement Sets:

– Complement laws: A ∪ A′ = U and A ∩ A′ = ϕ

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– (A′ )′ = A, ϕ′ = U , U ′ = ϕ

Example: Let universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 2, 4, 5}, B = {2, 5, 7, 8, 9} are subsets of U .
Then

ˆ A ∪ B = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9}

ˆ A ∩ B = {2, 5}

ˆ A − B = {1, 4}

ˆ B − A = {7, 8, 9}

ˆ A′ = {3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

ˆ B ′ = {1, 3, 4, 6, 10}

1.3 Properties of Complement of Sets

1. A ∪ A′ = U , where U is the universal set.

2. A ∩ A′ = ϕ

3. (A′ )′ = A

4. U ′ = ϕ and ϕ′ = U

1.4 The Power Set (of a Set)

The set of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A. It is denoted by P (A).
Note: There are 2n subsets of A where n is the number of elements in A.
Examples:

(a). Let A = {x, y} then P (A) = {∅, {x}, {y}, {x, y}}. Note than n(A) = 2 and so n(P (A)) = 22 = 4.

(b). If A = {1, 2, 3} then P (A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}. Note than n(A) = 3 and so
n(P (A)) = 23 = 8.
 6 CHAPTER 1. SETS

1.5 Demorgan’s Laws

(A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B ′ and (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B ′

Example: Let universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 2, 4, 5}, B = {2, 5, 7, 8, 9} are subsets of U .

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9} ⇒ (A ∪ B)′ = {3, 6, 10} (1.1)

A′ = {3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, B ′ = {1, 3, 4, 6, 10} ⇒ A′ ∩ B ′ = {3, 6, 10} (1.2)

′ ′ ′
From (1.1) and (1.2), we see that (A ∪ B) = A ∩ B . Similary we can verify the second Demorgan’s Law.

1.6 Most Importan Properties of Sets

ˆ If A ⊂ B then A ∩ B = A and A ∪ B = B
ˆ Commutative Laws: A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A
ˆ Associative Laws: A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C and A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

ˆ Left Distributive Laws: A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) and A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) .

Right distributive laws follow from the commutative nature of ∪ and ∩.
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ˆ A − B = A ∩ B ′ (Can be easily verifeid using Venn Diagram or proved using properties of difference and
compliment

ˆ A = (A − B) ∪ (A ∩ B) . Note that A − B and A ∩ B are disjoint sets.

1.7 Computing Number of Elements in Union of Sets

1. If A = ϕ, then n(A) = 0 (trivial).
2. If A ∩ B = ϕ then n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) (trivial).
3. For any two sets A, B, we have

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)

Proof: Since A ∪ B is union of mutually disjoint sets A − B, A ∪ B, and B − A, so we have:

n(A ∪ B) = n(A − B) + n(A ∩ B) + n(B − A) = n(A) − n(A ∩ B) + n(A ∩ B) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)
4. For any three sets A, B, C, we have

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(B ∩ C) − n(C ∩ A) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

1.8 Problems
1. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Find (i) A′ (ii) B ′ (iii)
(A ∪ C)′ (iv) (A ∪ B)′ (v) (A′ )′ (vi) (B − C)′
2. Let U be the set of all triangles in a plane. If A is the set of all triangles with at least one angle different
from 60°, what is A′ ? Ans: A′ is the set of all equilateral triangles
3. Show that A ∪ B = A ∩ B implies A = B. (Hint: Show that A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A
4. List all the subsets of the set {−1, 0, 1}.
5. Verify Demorgan’s laws, if U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {2, 3, 5, 7}.
6. If A = {a, b, c, d}, compute P (A) (the power set of A). How many emlents are there in P (A)?
7. Let A, B, and C be the sets such that A ∪ B = A ∪ C and A ∩ B = A ∩ C. Show that B = C.
 1.8. PROBLEMS 7

8. Show that for any sets A and B, A = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A − B) and A ∪ (B − A) = (A ∪ B)

9. Let A and B be sets. If A ∩ X = B ∩ X = ϕ and A ∪ X = B ∪ X for some set X, show that A = B.

Hint: A = A ∩ (A ∪ X), B = B ∩ (B ∪ X). Use distributive law.

10. Find sets A, B and C such that A ∩ B, B ∩ C and A ∩ C are non-empty sets and A ∩ B ∩ C = ϕ.

11. If Y = {x | x is a positive factor of the number 2p−1 (2p − 1), where 2p − 1 is a prime number}. Write Y in
the roster form. Ans: Y = {1, 2, 22 , 23 , . . . 2p−1 , 2p − 1}

12. For all sets A, B and C, prove that (A − B) ∩ (A − C) = A − (B ∪ C). (Hint: LHS ⊂ RHS & RHS ⊂ LHS

13. For all sets A, B, show that (A − B) ∪ (A ∩ B) = A. (Hint: For a simple proof, use distribution law

14. For all sets A and B, A ∪ (B − A) = A ∪ B.

(Hint: For a simpler proof you may use the fact that B − A = B ∩ A′ and use distributive law

15. For all sets A and B, A − (A − B) = A ∩ B

(Hint: For a simple proof, use A − B = A ∩ B ′ and De-Morgan’s Law

16. For all sets A and B, A − (A ∩ B) = A − B

(Hint: For a simple proof, use A − B = A ∩ B ′ and De-Morgan’s Law

17. For all sets A and B, (A ∪ B) − B = A − B

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(Hint: For a simple proof, use A − B = A ∩ B ′ and De-Morgan’s Law

18. Let A, B and C be sets. Then show that A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). (Hint: This is left distributive
law. ∩ is distributive over ∪

19. Two finite sets have m and n elements. The number of subsets of the first set is 112 more than that of the
second set. Find the values of m and n. Ans: m=7, n = 4

20. Find (2, 5] ∩ [3, 10) and [−1, 1) ∪ (1, 2]. Ans: [3, 5] and [−1, 2] − {1}

21. In a class of 60 students, 25 students play cricket and 20 students play tennis, and 10 students play both the
games. Find the number of students who play neither. Ans: 25. Hint: Use Venn Diagram

22. In a survey of 200 students of a school, it was found that 120 study Mathematics, 90 study Physics and 70
study Chemistry, 40 study Mathematics and Physics, 30 study Physics and Chemistry, 50 study Chemistry
and Mathematics and 20 none of these subjects. Find the number of students who study all the three
subjects. Ans: 20. Hint: Use Venn Diagram

23. In a town of 10,000 families it was found that 4020% families buy newspaper B, 10% families buy newspaper
C, 5% families buy A and B, 3% buy B and C and 4% buy A and C. If 2% families buy all the three
newspapers. Find

(a) The number of families which buy newspaper A only.

(b) The number of families which buy none of A, B and C. Ans: 3300, 400.Hint: Use Venn Diagram

24. In a group of 50 students, the number of students studying French, English, Sanskrit were found to be as
follows:
French = 17, English = 13, Sanskrit = 15 French and English = 09, English and Sanskrit = 4 French and
Sanskrit = 5, English, French and Sanskrit = 3. Find the number of students who study:

(a) French only

(b) English only
(c) Sanskrit only
(d) English and Sanskrit but not French
(e) French and Sanskrit but not English
(f) French and English but not Sanskrit
(g) at least one of the three languages
(h) none of the three languages
 8 CHAPTER 1. SETS

Ans: 6, 3, 9, 1, 2, 6, 30, 20. Hint: Use Venn Diagram

25. Suppose A1 , A2 , ..., A30 are thirty sets each having 5 elements and B1 , B2 , ..., Bn are n sets each with 3
′
elements. Let ∪30 n
i=1 Ai = ∪j=1 Bj = S. Each element of S belongs to eactly 10 of the Ai s and exactly 9 of the
′
Bj s. How many elements are in the set S? Also find n.
30×5 30×5 3×n
Ans: n(S) = 10 = 15, n = 45. (Hint: 10 = 9 )
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 Chapter 2 | Relations and Functions

2.1 Ordered Pairs and Cartesian Product of Sets

ˆ The number of elements in the set A is denoted by n(A)

ˆ An Ordered Pair is a pair of elements grouped together in a particular order.

Note: If two ordered pairs are equal if and only if they have the equal first and second elements i.e.
(a, b) = (c, d) if and only if a = c and b = d.

ˆ Cartesian Product denoted by A × B of two sets A and B is the set of all possible ordered pairs with first
element from A and second element from B.

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}

Important Note: If A and B are finite sets then n(A × B) = n(A) × n(B) .
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {x, y} then A × B = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, x), (2, y), (3, x), (3, y)}. Observe
that n(A × B) = n(A) × n(B) = 3 × 2 = 6

ˆ Properties of Cartesian Product

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– In general, A × B ̸= B × A
– A × ϕ = ϕ and ϕ × A = ϕ
– A2 = A × A = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ A} and A3 = A × A × A = {(a, b, c) : a, b, c ∈ A} (here (a, b, c) is also
called an ordered triplet). Similarly we can define A4 , A5 etc.

2.2 Relations
ˆ A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the cartesian product A × B i.e. R ⊆ A × B.
Remark 1: A relation R from A to A is also sometimes called as a relation on A or a relation in A.
Remark 2: If n(A) = p and n(B) = q then n(A × B) = pq. Therefor A × B will have 2pq subsets and hence
there will be 2pq relations from A to B.

ˆ The image of an element x under a relation R is given by y, where (x, y) ∈ R.

ˆ The domain of R is the set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R.

ˆ The range of R is the set of all second elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R.

2.3 Functions
ˆ A function f from a set A to a set B is a specific type of relation for which every element x of set A has
unique image y in set B.
We denote this by f : A → B, where f (x) = y. A is called the domain and B is the codomain of f . The
range of the function is the set of images.
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c, d} and f = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, b), (4, d)}. Since f ⊂ A × B so
f is a relation from A to B. Further, in this relation, each element of A is uniquely related to some element
of B, so it is a function from A to B.
Under this relation, f (1) = a, f (2) = a, f (3) = b and f (4) = d. domain(f ) = A and range(f ) = {a, b, d}.

ˆ Algebra of Real Functions - For functions f : X → R and g : X → R, we have

– (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x), x ∈ X

– (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x), x ∈ X
– (f.g)(x) = f (x).g(x), x ∈ X

9
 10 CHAPTER 2. RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
 
f f (x)
– g (x) = g(x) , x ∈ X, provided g(x) ̸= 0
– (kf )(x) = kf (x), x ∈ X, where k is a real number.
Remark: Observe that definitions of f +g, f −g, f.g, fg make sense only for those x which are in the domains
of both f and g. Hence domain(f + g) = domain(f ) ∩ domain(g)
ˆ Some Important Functions
1. Identity Function: is a function f : R → R defined by y = f (x) = x for each x ∈ R.
Domain: R, Range: R
2. Constant Function: f : R → R is defined by y = f (x) = c for each x ∈ R where c is a real constant.
Domain: R, Range: singleton set {c}.
3. Modulus Function: f : R → R is defined by f (x) = |x| for each x ∈ R.
Domain: R, Range: R+ ∪ {0}, where R+ denotes the set of positive real numbers.
4. Signum Function: f : R → R is defined by

1,
 if x > 0
f (x) = 0, if x = 0

−1, if x < 0


Domain: R, Range: {−1, 0, 1}.

5. Greatest Integer Function: The function f : R → R defined by f (x) = [x] assumes the value of
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the greatest integer, less than or equal to x.

Domain: R, Range: Z

2.4 Problems
1. If (x + 1, y − 2) = (3, 1), find the values of x and y. Ans: x = 2 and y = 3
2. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 4}. Write A × B. How many subsets will A × B have? List them. Ans: 16
subsets
3. The Cartesian product A × A has 9 elements among which are found (−1, 0) and (0, 1). Find the set A and
the remaining elements of A × A. (Hint: A = {−1, 0, 1})
4. Determine the domain and range of the relation R defined by R = {(x, x+5) : x ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}}.
Ans: Domain of R = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Range of R = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
 
5. Let f (x) = x and g(x) = 2x + 1 be two real functions.Find (f + g)(x), (f − g)(x), (f g)(x), fg (x).
Ans: (f g)(x) = 2x2 + x etc.
6. Find the domain and range of the following real functions:
(a) f (x) = −|x| Ans: Domain R. Range (−∞, 0]
√
(b) f (x) = 9 − x2 Ans: Domain: [−3, 3], Range: [0, 3]
7. Let f = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (0, −1), (−1, −3)} be a linear function from Z into Z. Find f(x).
(Hint: a linear function looks like f (x) = mx + c)
√
8. Find the domain and the range of the real function f defined by f (x) = x − 1.
Ans: Domain: [1, ∞), Range: [0, ∞)
9. Find the domain and the range of the real function f defined by f (x) = |x − 1|.
Ans: Domain: R, Range: non-negative real numbers)
10. Let f be the subset of Z × Z defined by f = {(ab, a + b) : a, b ∈ Z}. Is f a function from Z to Z? Justify
your answer. Ans: No)
Hint: For ex. f (−2) = f (1 × (−2)) = 1 + (−2) = −1 and f (−2) = f (−1 × 2) = (−1) + 2 = 1 which means -2
is related to two integers 1 and 2. Hence it’s not a function. You may also use intergers -3, -4 etc. to show
that f is not a function.
 2.4. PROBLEMS 11

11. Let A = {9, 10, 11, 12, 13} and let f : A → N be defined by f (n) = the highest prime factor of n. Find the
range of f . Ans: {3, 5, 11, 13}
n o
x2
12. Let f = x, 1+x 2 : x ∈ R be a function from R into R. Determine the range of f . Ans: [0, 1)
x2
Hint: 0 ≤ 1+x2 < 1 for all x ∈ R
13. If A = {x : x ∈ W, x < 2}, B = {x : x ∈ N, 1 < x < 5}, C = {3, 5} find (i) A × (B ∩ C), (ii) A × (B − C),
(iii) A × (B ∪ C) Hint: W = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} (set of whole numbers). Ans: (i) {(0, 3), (1, 3)} etc.
14. If R = {(x, y) : x and y are integers and x2 + y 2 = 64} is a relation. Then find R.
Ans: R = {(0, 8), (0, −8), (8, 0), (−8, 0)}

15. Is g = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 5), (4, 7)} a function? Justify. If this is described by the relation, g(x) = αx + β, then
what values should be assigned to α and β? Ans: Yes. α = 2, β = −1
16. Find the domain of each of the following functions given by:
1
(a) f (x) = √
1−cos x
Ans: R − {2nπ : n ∈ Z}
1
(b) f (x) = √ Ans: R+
x+|x|

(c) f (x) = x|x| Ans: R

3
x −x+3
(d) f (x) = x2 −1 Ans: R − {−1, 1}
3x
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(e) f (x) = 2x−8 Ans: R − {4}

17. Find the range of the following functions given by:
3
(a) f (x) = 2−x 2

Hint: What is the domain of the function? What are possible function values (range) when input x
(domain values) is positive, negative, and 0.
(b) f (x) = 1 − |x − 2| Hint: |x − 2| ≥ 0. Ans: (−∞, 1]
(c) f (x) = |x − 3| Ans: [0, ∞)
(d) f (x) = 1 + 3 cos 2x Ans: [−2, 4]. Hint: −1 ≤ cos 2x ≤ 1
ax−b
18. If f (x) = y = cx−a , then prove that f (y) = x. Hint: Solve for f (y)

19. Find the domain and range of the function f (x) = √1 . Ans: domain: (5, ∞), range: R+
x−5

x−1
20. If f (x) = x+1 , then show that (i) f ( x1 ) = −f (x), and (ii) f (− x1 ) = − f (x)
1
.

21. Redefine the function f (x) = |x − 2| + |2 + x|, −3 ≤ x ≤ 3.

Hint: f is sum of 2 functions. Notice that the first function changes it’s nature at x = 2 and second at
x = −2. So you need to split the domain at −2 and 2. In our case, [−3, 3] = [−3, −2) ∪ [−2, 2) ∪ [2, 3]

−2x,
 if − 3 ≤ x < 2
Ans: f (x) = 4, if − 2 ≤ x < 2

2x, if 2 ≤ x ≤ 3

 Chapter 3 | Trigonometric Functions

3.1 Formulae
3.1.1 Measurement of Angle in Radian and Degree
ˆ Relation between arc, radius, and angle (subtended by arc at the center of the circle)

arc
angle =
radius

ˆ π radian = 180◦ , 1 degree = 60 minute (1◦ = 60′ ), 1 minute = 60 seconds (1′ = 60′′ )
ˆ Angle to Radian Conversion
π
Angle in Radian = × (Angle in Degree) .
180
180
From above, radian to degree conversion formula is: Angle in Degree = π × (Angle in Radian).

3.1.2 Trigonometric Identities

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ˆ sine/cosine functions and the unit circle:

ˆ Most Useful Trigonometric Identities:

1. sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x cosec2 x = 1 + cot2 x

sin(−x) − sin x
2. sin(−x) = − sin(x) cos(−x) = cos(x) tan(−x) = = = − tan x
cos(−x) cos x
3. (cos 0, sin 0) = (cos 2π, sin 2π) = (1, 0)
4. cos π2 , sin π2 = (0, 1)

5. cos 2π 2π


2 , sin 2 = (cos π, sin π) = (−1, 0)

12
 3.1. FORMULAE 13

6. cos 3π 3π


2 , sin 2 = (0, −1)

Remark: Since the value of sin function is zero on x-axis (when θ is a multiple of π) and that of cos function
is 0 on y-axis (θ is an odd multiple of π2 ). Therefore:

sin θ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ,
π
cos θ = 0 ⇒ θ = (2n + 1)
2
where n is some integer.

ˆ Sum and Difference of Angles

cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y

sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

tan x + tan y
tan(x + y) =
1 − tan x tan y

Note: To derive angle difference formulae, replace y by -y in above identities. For example:

cos(x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y

sin(x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y

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Remark: Above identities can also be used to prove: sin( π2 + θ) = cos θ, cos( π2 + θ) = − sin θ, tan( π2 + θ) =
− cot θ etc.

ˆ Splitting 2x into x - If we replace y by x in above formulae, we get:

1 − tan2 x
– cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1 cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin2 x cos 2x =
1 + tan2 x
2 tan x
– sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x sin 2x =
1 + tan2 x
2 tan x
– tan 2x =
1 − tan2 x

Note: Above identities imply that sin θ = 2 sin θ2 cos θ2 etc.

ˆ Splitting 3x into x - No need to memorize below listed identities. These can be proved using the ‘Sum
Formula’. For example: sin 3x = sin(2x + x) etc.

sin 3x = 3 sin x − 4 sin3 x

cos 3x = 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x

3 tan x − tan3 x
tan 3x =
1 − 3 tan2 x

ˆ Splitting product of sin/cos into sum or differece (read from right to left)

cos(x + y) + cos(x − y) = 2 cos x cos y

cos(x + y) − cos(x − y) = −2 sin x sin y

sin(x + y) + sin(x − y) = 2 sin x cos y

sin(x + y) − sin(x − y) = 2 cos x sin y

Note: Above formulae are trivial to prove using sum and difference of angles related identities. No need to
memorize them.
 14 CHAPTER 3. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

ˆ Splitting sum or differece of sine/cos into product

   
A+B A−B
cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos
2 2
   
A+B A−B
cos A − cos B = −2 sin sin
2 2
   
A+B A−B
sin A + sin B = 2 sin cos
2 2
   
A+B A−B
sin A − sin B = 2 cos sin
2 2
Note: To prove above identities, use ’splitting product into sum’ formulae and put x + y = A and x − y = B.

3.2 Domain and Range of Trigonometric Functions

Function Domain Range
sin R [−1, 1]
cosec R − {x : x = nπ, n ∈ Z} R − (−1, 1)
cot R − {x : x = nπ, n ∈ Z} R
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cos R [−1, 1]
sec R − {x : x = (2n + 1) π2 , n ∈ Z} R − (−1, 1)
tan R − {x : x = (2n + 1) π2 , n ∈ Z} R

3.3 General Solution of Trigonometric Equations

Equations involving trigonometric functions of a variables are called trigonometric equations. Equations are
called identities, if they are satisfied by all values of the unknown angle for which the functions are defined. The
solutions of a trigonometric equations for which 0 ≤ θ < 2π are called principal solutions. The expression
involving integer n which gives all solutions of a trigonometric equation is called the general solution.
ˆ If sin θ = sin α then θ = nπ + (−1)n α, where n ∈ Z
Example: sin θ = 21 = sin π6 then θ = π6 is principal solution and θ = nπ + (−1)n π6 is general solution. The
principal solution can also be obtained by putting n = 0 in the general solution.
ˆ If cos θ = cos α then θ = 2nπ ± α, where n ∈ Z is the general solution.
Example: Solve the equation sin θ + sin 3θ + sin 5θ = 0.
Solution: We have (sin θ + sin 5θ) + sin 3θ = 0 ⇒ 2 sin 3θ cos 2θ + sin 3θ = 0 ⇒ sin 3θ(2 cos 2θ + 1) = 0 ⇒
sin 3θ = 0 or cos 2θ = − 21 .
When cos 2θ = − 12 = cos 2π
3 , then 2θ = 2nπ ±
2π
3 or θ = nπ ± π3 , where n ∈ Z is the general solution.
ˆ If tan θ = tan α or cot θ = cot α, then θ = nπ + α, where n ∈ Z gives the general solution for both equations.

3.4 Patterns, Tips & Tricks

p p
ˆ − A2 + B 2 ≤ A cos x + B sin x ≤ A2 + B 2 , where A and B are constants. This together with using
the concepts of linear inequalities is helpful for finding minimum and maximum values of functions like
2 cos x + 3 sin x, − sin x + 5 cos x + 2024 etc.
 x x 2
ˆ Observe that 1 + sin 2x = (sin x + cos x)2 and 1 + sin x = sin + cos etc.
2 2
x x x x  x x  x x
ˆ 1 + cos x = 2 cos2 1 − cos x = 2 sin2 cos x = cos2 − sin2 = cos + sin cos − sin
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

ˆ A.M. ≥ G.M.
ˆ Componendo and Dividendo
 3.5. PROBLEMS 15

3.5 Problems
1. Convert 40◦ 20′ into radian measure.
Solution: 40◦ 20′ = 40degree + 60
20
degree = 121
3 degree = π
180 × 121
3 radian = 121π
540 radian.
2. In a circle of diameter 40 cm, the length of a chord is 20 cm. Find the length of minor arc of the chord.
20π
Ans: 3

3. The minute hand of a watch is 1.5 cm long. How far does its tip move in 40 minutes? (Use π = 3.14).
Ans: 6.28 cm
4. If the arcs of the same lengths in two circles subtend angles 65° and 110° at the centre, find the ratio of their
radii. Ans: 22:13
5
5. If cot x = − 12 , x lies in second quadrant, find the values of other five trigonometric functions.
12
Ans: sin x = 13 etc.
√
◦
6. Find the values of sin 31π
3 and cos(−1710 ). Ans: 23 , 0

7. Prove that sin 3x = 3 sin x − 4 sin3 x. Hint: sin 3x = sin(x + 2x)

8. Show that tan 3x tan 2x tan x = tan 3x − tan 2x − tan x. Hint: tan 3x = tan(x + 2x)
9. Prove that cot x cot 2x − cot 2x cot 3x − cot 3x cot x = 1. Hint: cot 3x = cot(x + 2x)
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10. Prove that cos 4x = 1 − 8 sin2 x cos2 x. Hint: cos 4x = 1 − 2 sin2 (2x)
11. Prove that cos 6x = 32 cos6 x − 48 cos4 x + 18 cos2 x − 1. Hint: cos(3 × (2x))
sin x−sin 3x
12. Prove that sin2 x−cos2 x
= 2 sin x.

13. Prove that cos2 2x − cos2 6x = sin 4x sin 8x

14. Prove that sin 2x + 2 sin 4x + sin 6x = 4 cos2 x sin 4x
√ sin x
15. Find the value of tan π8 . Ans: 2 − 1. Hint: π
4 = 2 × π8 . Second approach: tan x2 = cos
2
x = sin x
1+cos x .
2

16. If tan x = 43 , π < x < 3π

2 , find the value of sin x2 , cos x2 and tan x2 . Ans: tan x2 = −3.
x
Hint: cos x = 2 cos2 2 −1
17. Prove that cos2 x + cos2 (x + π3 ) + cos2 (x − π3 ) = 3
2
x+y
18. Prove that (cos x + cos y)2 + (sin x − sin y)2 = 4 cos2 2 .

19. Prove that sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + sin 7x = 4 cos x cos 2x sin 4x.
cos 4x+cos 3x+cos 2x
20. Show that sin 4x+sin 3x+sin 2x = cot 3x.

21. Prove that (1 + cos π8 )(1 + cos 3π 5π 7π

8 )(1 + cos 8 )(1 + cos 8 ) =
1
8
√ π
22. Find θ if 3 cos θ + sin θ = 2. Ans: θ = 6

23. If sin θ and cos θ are the roots of the equation ax2 − bx + c = 0, then show that a2 − b2 + 2ac = 0.
b
Hint: Given sin θ + cos θ = a and sin θ × cos θ = ac . Now use (sin θ + cos θ)2 = 1 + 2 sin θ cos θ
24. Show that sin x cos x ≤ 12 . Hint: sin 2x ≤ 1
q q
25. If tan x = ab , show that a−ba+b
+ a−b
a+b =
2 cos x
√
cos 2x
Hint: Simplify LHS and use b
a = tan x.

26. If a cos x + b sin x = m and a sin x − b cos x = n, then show that a2 + b2 = m2 + n2 .

Hint: What is our goal?
27. If tan x + sin x = m and tan x − sin x = n, then prove that m2 − n2 = 4 sin x tan x.
Hint: m2 − n2 = (m + n)(m − n)
p+q
28. If tan(A + B) = p, tan(A − B) = q, then show that tan 2A = 1−pq Hint: 2A = (A + B) + (A − B)
 16 CHAPTER 3. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

29. If cos α + cos β = 0 = sin α + sin β, then prove that cos 2α + cos 2β = −2 cos(α + β).
Hint: (cos α + cos β)2 − (sin α + sin β)2 = 0
sin(x+y) a+b tan x
30. If sin(x−y) = a−b , then show that tan y = ab . Hint: Does it look like a classic case of the componendo and
dividendo?
31. If sin(θ + α) = a and sin(θ + β) = b, then prove that cos 2(α − β) − 4ab cos(α − β) = 1 − 2a2 − 2b2 .
Hint: First find cos(α − β) = cos [(θ + α) − (θ − β)] then cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1
1−m
32. If cos(θ + ϕ) = m cos(θ − ϕ), then prove that tan θ = 1+m cot ϕ
Hint: What’s our goal? Is it a classic case of Componendo and Dividendo?
33. If sin θ + cosec θ = 2, then find the value of sin2 θ + cosec2 θ. Ans: 2

34. Prove that cos2 x + sec2 x ≥ 2. Hint: A.M ≥ G.M.

35. If tan θ = 21 , tan ϕ = 13 , then find the value of θ + ϕ. Ans: θ + ϕ = π
4

36. Prove that tan 1◦ tan 2◦ tan 3◦ . . . tan 89◦ = 1. Hint: tan(90 − θ) = cot θ
2 ◦
√
1−tan 15 3
37. Show that 1+tan2 15◦ = 2 . Hint: You don’t need hint for this!
38. Fint the value of cos 1◦ cos 2◦ cos 3◦ ... cos 179◦ . Ans: 0. Hint: Read the question again.
√
39. Find the value of tan 75◦ − cot 75◦ . Ans: 2 3. Hint: What should you do if there is no standard formula?
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m 1 π
40. If tan α = m+1 and tan β = 2m+1 , show that α + β = 4. Hint: What’s the use of tan(x + y) identity?
41. Find the minimum value of 3 cos x + 4 sin x + 8. Ans: 3. Hint: A sin x + B cos x lies between?

42. If tan A = 21 , tan B = 31 , show that tan(2A + B) = 3. Hint: Easy hai. Ho jayega.
π
43. If α + β = 4, show that (1 + tan α)(1 + tan β) = 2. Hint: Apply tan(α + β) and expand LHS.
23
44. If A lies in the second quadrant and 3 tan A + 4 = 0, then find the value of 2 cot A − 5 cos A + sin A. Ans: 10

Misc. Problems

45. Is sin 1◦ < sin 1 correct? Justify your answer.

1
46. Is cos θ = x + x is ever possible for some real number x? Justify your answer. Ans: No. Hint: A.M. ≥ G.M.
2b
47. If a cos 2θ + b sin 2θ = c has α and β as its roots, then prove that tan α + tan β = a+c .
Hint: Use cos 2θ and sin 2θ identities in terms of tan θ. Resulting quadratic equation will have tan α and
tan β as its roots.
nπ
48. If sin θ + cos θ = 1, then find the general value of θ. Ans: θ = 2 , where n ∈ Z. Hint: Where is sin 2θ?

49. Find the values of cos π6 , cos π4 and cos π3 , using the concept of the unit circle and suitable trigonometric
identities. How will find the values of remaining trigonometric functions at these angles?
Hint: Yahan kya dekh rahe ho, concept jaake dekho!
50. How can you compute the values of trigonometric functions for the angles 15◦ , 10◦ , 22.5◦ , 5◦ etc?
Hint: Attempt previous question first.

51. What’s the significance of trigonometric functions of sum and difference of two angles? Why the identity
cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1 is so useful? What’s the true meaning of this identity?
Hint: Have you attempted last 2 questions?
 Chapter 4 | Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations

4.1 Formulae
√
ˆ i = −1. Note: i1 = i, i2 = −1, i3 = −i, i4 = 1. In general, for any integer k, i4k = 1, i4k+1 = i, i4k+2 =
−1, i4k+3 = −i

ˆ A complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form a + ib where a and b are real numbers.
Important Notes:

1. If z = a + ib then a is called the real part of z (denoted by Re(z)) and b is called the imaginary part of
z (denoted by Im(z)).
2. Purely Real Complex Number - If imaginary part is zero. For example 2 = 2 + i.0 is a purely real
complex number.
Purely Imaginary Complex Number - If imaginary part is zero. For example: 3i = 0 + 3i is a purely
imaginary number.

ˆ Algebra of Complex Numbers If z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2 are complex numbers, then
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a. z1 = z2 if and only if a1 = a2 and b1 = b2

b. z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2 ) + i(b1 + b2 )
c. z1 z2 = (a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + i(a1 b2 + b1 a2 )
d. Multiplicative Inverse of z = a + ib is a non-zero complex number then it’s multiplicative inverse is
given by
1 a b
= z −1 = 2 −i 2
z a + b2 a + b2

ˆ Conjugate of z = a + ib is given by z̄ = a − ib.

√
ˆ The modulus of z = a + ib is given by |z| = a2 + b2 .

ˆ Some Properties of Modulus and Conjugate:

i. z z̄ = (a + ib)(a − ib) = a2 + b2 = |z|2 .

z̄
ii. Note that, we can also write the multiplicative inverse of z as z −1 =
|z|2

iii. |z| = |z̄| .

√ √ p √
Ex. If z = 1+2i, then z̄ = 1−2i. ∴ |z| = |1+2i| = 12 + 22 = 5, & |z̄| = |1−2i| = 12 + (−2)2 = 5

iv. |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | i.e. mod of product = product of mods

|z1 |
v. | zz12 | = |z2 | , provided |z2 | =
̸ 0
vi. |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |

vii. (z̄) = z i.e. double conjugate = original

viii. z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 i.e. conjugate of sum = sum of conjugates

ix. z1 − z2 = z1 − z2
 
x. zz21 = zz12

17
 18 CHAPTER 4. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

4.2 Problems
1. Express (5 − 3i)3 in the form a + ib. [Ans: (−10) + i(−198)]
√
5+√2i
√
2. Express 1− 2i
in the a + ib form. Ans: 1 + 2 2i
2 3
3. Find the multiplicative inverse of 2 − 3i. Ans: 13 + 13 i
 m
1+i
4. If 1−i = 1 then find the least positive integral value of m.

β−α
5. If α and β are different complex numbers with |β| = 1 , then find 1−αβ

u v
6. If (x + iy)3 = u + iv, then show that x + y = 4(x2 − y 2 )

7. Find the real numbers x and y if (x − iy)(3 + 5i) is the conjugate of −6 − 24i.
a+ib
8. If x + iy = a−ib , prove that x2 + y 2 = 1.
1 x y
9. If (x + iy) 3 = a + ib, where x, y, a, b ∈ R, show that a − b = −2(a2 + b2 ).
√ √
3 3
10. Solve the equation z 2 = z̄, where z = x + iy. Ans: 0 + i0, 1 + i0, − 21 + i 1
2 , −2 −i 2

1 1 1
11. If z1 , z2 , z3 are complex numbers such that |z1 | = |z2 | = |z3 | = z1 + z2 + z3 = 1, then find the value of
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|z1 + z2 + z3 |.
1 1 1
Ans: 1. Hint: |z1 | = 1 ⇒ z1 z¯1 = 1 etc. so 1 = z1 + z2 + z3 = |z¯1 + z¯2 + z¯3 | = |z1 + z2 + z3 | = |z1 + z2 + z3 |

12. Find the value of k if for the complex numbers z1 and z2 ,

|1 − z1 z2 |2 − |z1 − z2 |2 = k(1 − |z1 |2 )(1 − |z2 |2 )

Ans: k = 1. Hint: On simplifying LHS = (1 − |z1 |2 )(1 − |z2 |2 )

i4n+1 −i4n−1
13. What is the value of 2 ? Ans: i
14. What is the smallest positive integer n, for which (1 + i)2n = (1 − i)2n ? Ans: 2
15. Find the number of solutions of the equation z 2 + |z| = 0.
Ans: Infinitely many. Hint: Take z = x + iy and solve for x and y.
P13 n
16. Evaluate n=1 (i + in+1 ), where n ∈ N. Ans: i − 1
 Chapter 5 | Linear Inequalities

5.1 Concepts
ˆ Definition: Two real numbers or two algebraic expressions related by the symbol <, >, ≤ or ≥ form an
inequality.
ˆ Rules for solving linear inequalities:
1. Equal numbers may be added to (or subtracted from) both sides of an inequality without affecting the
sign of inequality.
Example: Since 3 < 5 so adding equal number 2 on both sides we will have 3 + 2 < 5 + 2.
2. Both sides of an inequality can be multiplied (or divided) by the same positive number without affecting
the sign of inequality.
3. If both sides are multiplied or divided by a negative number, then the sign of inequality is reversed.
Example: Since 3 < 5 so multiply both sides by negative number −2, inequality will change and we
will have 3 × (−2) > 5 × (−2).
4. If ab > 0 then a and b will have same signs (either both positive or both negative).
5. If ab < 0 then a and b will have opposite signs.
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6. If a > 0, then,
– |x| < a ⇔ −a < x < a. Example: |x| < 3 ⇔ −3 < x < 3.
– |x| > a ⇔ x < −a or x > a. Example: |x| > 3 ⇔ x < −3 or x > 3.

5.2 Problems
1. Solve 4x + 3 < 6x + 7.
3x−4 x+1
2. Solve 2 ≥ 4 − 1. Show the graph of the solutions on number line. Ans: x ≥ 1
3. The marks obtained by a student of Class XI in first and second terminal examination are 62 and 48,
respectively. Find the minimum marks he should get in the annual examination to have an average of at
least 60 marks. Ans: minimum 70 marks
4. Find all pairs of consecutive odd natural numbers, both of which are larger than 10, such that their sum is
less than 40.
5. The longest side of a triangle is 3 times the shortest side and the third side is 2 cm shorter than the longest
side. If the perimeter of the triangle is at least 61 cm, find the minimum length of the shortest side.
6. A man wants to cut three lengths from a single piece of board of length 91cm. The second length is to be 3cm
longer than the shortest and the third length is to be twice as long as the shortest. What are the possible
lengths of the shortest board if the third piece is to be at least 5cm longer than the second?
7. Solve the system of inequalities: 3x − 7 < 5 + x and 11 − 5x ≤ 1 and represent the solutions on the numebr
line. Ans: x < 6 and x ≥ 2 or equivalently 2 ≤ x < 6.
(Graph: At 2 (filled circle), At 6 (hollow circle) and a bold line between 2 and 6.)
8. A manufacturer has 600 litres of a 12% solution of acid. How many litres of a 30% acid solution must be
added to it so that acid content in the resulting mixture will be more than 15% but less than 18%?
Ans: 120 < x < 300, where x is the numer of litres of the 30% acid solution.
9. A solution of 8% boric acid is to be diluted by adding a 2% boric acid solution to it. The resulting mixture
is to be more than 4% but less than 6% boric acid. If we have 640 litres of the 8% solution, how many litres
of the 2% solution will have to be added? Ans: More than 320 litres but less than 1280 litres.
10. How many litres of water will have to be added to 1125 litres of the 45% solution of acid so that the resulting
mixture will contain more than 25% but less than 30% acid content?
Ans: More than 562.5 litres but less than 900 litres.

19
 20 CHAPTER 5. LINEAR INEQUALITIES

11. Solve 1 ≤ |x − 2| ≤ 3. Ans: x ∈ [−1, 1] ∪ [3, 5].

Hint: Solve |x − 2| ≥ 1 and |x − 2| ≤ 3| separately. Notice that |y| ≤ a ⇒ −a ≤ y ≤ a and |y| ≥ a ⇒ y ≥
−a or y ≥ a
x−2
12. Solve x+5 > 2. Ans: x ∈ (−12, −5)
x+12
Hint: Notice that x+5 < 0 ⇒ x + 12 > 0 and x + 5 < 0 OR x + 12 < 0 and x + 5 > 0

13. Solve 1 ≤ |x − 2| ≤ 3. Ans: x ∈ [−1, 1] ∪ [3, 5]

14. Solve |x + 1| + |x| > 3. (Before attempting this problem make sure you have solid understanding of the
modulus function) Ans: x ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ (1, ∞)
Hint: By equating the expression within the modulus to zero, we get x = −1, 0 as critical points. These
critical points divide the real line in three parts as (−∞, −1), [−1, 0), [0, ∞).
When x ∈ (−∞, −1) i.e. − ∞ < x < 1, |x + 1| + |x| > 3, on simplifying gives x < −2.
When x ∈ [−1, 0), i.e. − 1 ≤ x < 0, |x + 1| + |x| > 3, on simplifying leads to 1 > 3 (not possible).
Finally, when 0 ≤ x < ∞, |x + 1| + |x| > 3, on simplifying gives x > 1.
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 Chapter 6 | Permutations and Combinations

6.1 Concepts and Formulae

ˆ Fundamental Principles of Counting -
1. The Multiplication Principle (Product Rule): If you need to carry out two or more independent
tasks consecutively, then the total number of ways to perform all tasks is found by multiplying the
number of ways to complete each individual task.
Example: If you have 3 options for shirts and 4 options for pants, the total number of different outfits
is 3 x 4=12.
2. The Addition Principle (Sum Rule): If there are multiple tasks, and each task can be completed
in a different number of ways, and you can only need to do one task, then the total number of ways to
perform one of these tasks is the sum of the number of ways to complete each task.
Example: Suppose you can either choose a fruit or a vegetable. If there are 5 types of fruits and 3
types of vegetables, and you can only choose one, the total number of choices is 5 + 3 = 8.
ˆ Factorial Notation - If n is a positive integer, then
n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × 1
Example: 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
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Properties of Factorial Notation:

1. 0! = 1 (by definition)
2. n! = n × (n − 1)!
ˆ Permutations
1. The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time, where repetetion is NOT allowed,
is denoted by nPr and given by

n n!
Pr = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · (n − r + 1) = , where 0≤r≤n
(n − r)!
5!
Examples: 5P0 = (5−0)! = 1, 5P1 = 5, 5P2 = 5 × 4 = 20, 5P3 = 5 × 4 × 3 = 60, 5P4 = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 = 120,
5
P5 = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 = 5!
2. The number of permutations of n different things, taken r at a time, where repeatition is allowed,
is nr .
3. The number of permutations of n objects taken all at a time, where p1 objects are of first kind,
p2 objects are of the second kind, ..., pk objects are of the kth kind and rest, if any, are all different is
n!
p1 ! × p2 ! × · · · × pk !
ˆ Combinations - The number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time, denoted by n Cr is
given by
n n!
Cr = , where 0 ≤ r ≤ n
r! × (n − r)!
5!
Examples: 5 C0 = 0!×(5−0)! = 1, 5 C1 = 5, 5 C2 = 10, 5 C3 = 10, 5 C4 = 5, 5 C5 = 1
Most Important Observations for Solving MCQs:
n n n
1. C0 = 1 , C1 = n , Cn = 1 (for every natural number n)
n
n Pr
2. Cr =
r!
n
3. Cr = n Cn−r
n
4. Cr + n Cr−1 = n+1 Cr
n
5. Cx = n Cy ⇒ x = y or x+y =n

21
 22 CHAPTER 6. PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

6.2 Problems
1 1 x
1. If 6! + 7! = 8! , find x. Ans: 64
2. How many numbers lying between 100 and 1000 can be formed with the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, if the repetition
of the digits is not allowed? Ans: 100

3. In how many of the distinct permutations of the letters in MISSISSIPPI do the four I’s not come together?
Ans: 33810
4. In how many ways can the letters of the word PERMUTATIONS be arranged if the
(a) words start with P and end with S,
(b) vowels are all together,
(c) there are always 4 letters between P and S?
Ans: 1814400, 2419200, 25401600
5. How many chords can be drawn through 21 points on a circle? Ans: 210

6. In how many ways can one select a cricket team of eleven from 17 players in which only 5 players can bowl
if each cricket team of 11 must include exactly 4 bowlers? Ans: 3960
7. A bag contains 5 black and 6 red balls. Determine the number of ways in which 2 black and 3 red balls can
be selected. Ans: 200
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8. How many numbers greater than 1000000 can be formed by using the digits 1, 2, 0, 2, 4, 2, 4? Ans: 360

9. In how many ways can 5 girls and 3 boys be seated in a row so that no two boys are together? Ans: 14400
10. In how many ways can the letters of the word ASSASSINATION be arranged so that all the S’s are together?
Ans: 151200
11. Show that n Cr + n Cr−1 = n+1 Cr and verify the same for n=10 and r=4 (i.e. 10
C4 + 10 C3 = 11 C4 ).

12. Find the total number of ways in which 8 distinct toys can be distributed among 4 children where no child
can have all the toys. Ans: 48 − 4 = 65532
 Chapter 7 | Binomial Theorem

7.1 Concepts
ˆ Binomial Theorem - For any positive integer n

(a + b)n = n C0 an b0 + n C1 an−1 b1 + n C2 an−2 b2 + n C3 an−3 b3 + · · · + n Cn a0 bn

In short,
n
X n
X
(a + b)n = n
Cr an−r br or (a + b)n = Tr+1 , where Tr+1 = n Cr an−r br
r=0 r=0

Remarks:

1. The proof is obtained by applying principle of mathematical induction.

2. The coefficients n Cr occuring in the binomial theorem are known as binomial coefficients.
3. There are (n + 1) terms in the expansion of (a + b)n
4. The sum of the powers of a and b is n in every term of the expansion.
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5. Replacing b by −b, we get:

(a − b)n = n C0 an − n C1 an−1 b1 + n C2 an−2 b2 − n C3 an−3 b3 + · · · + (−1)n n Cn bn

6. Taking a = b = 1 in the above expansion, we get:

2n = n C0 + n C1 + n C2 + · · · + n Cn

7. Taking a = 1 and b = −1

0 = n C0 − n C1 + n C2 − n C3 + · · · + (−1)n n Cn

8. Taking a = 1 and b = x in the above expansion, we get:

(1 + x)n = n C0 + n C1 x + n C2 x2 + n C3 x3 + · · · + n Cn xn

9. Taking a = 1 and b = −x in the binomial expansion, we get:

(1 − x)n = n C0 − n C1 x + n C2 x2 − n C3 x3 + · · · + (−1)n n Cn xn

ˆ General Term: The general term or (r + 1)th term in the expansion of (a + b)n is given by:

Tr+1 = n Cr an−r br , where 0≤r≤n

By putting r = 0 in the above formula, we get the first term T0+1 = T1 = n C0 an b0 . Similarly, r = 1 gives
the second term T2 = T1+1 = n C1 an−1 b1 of expansion of (a + b)n and so on.
Example: To compute the 5th term of the expansion of (a + b)4 , you can put r=4 in the above formula.

ˆ The pth Term from the End: in the expansion of (a + b)n is (n − p + 2)th term from the beginning.

ˆ Middle Term: The middle term depends upon the value of n.

1. If n is even: For example if n=4 (even) there are 5 terms in the expansion of (a + b)4 and so the 3rd
( n2 + 1) term is the middle term.
2. If n is odd: For example if n=5 (odd) there are 6 terms in the expansion of (a + b)5 and so the 3rd
( n+1 n+1
2 ) and 4th ( 2 + 1) terms are the middle terms.

23
 24 CHAPTER 7. BINOMIAL THEOREM

7.2 Problems
1. Which is larger (1.01)1000000 or 10, 000?
2. Find an approximation of (0.99)5 using the first three terms of its expansion.
3. Using binomial theorem, prove that 6n − 5n always leaves remainder 1 when divided by 25.
√ √
4. Find (x + 1)6 + (x − 1)6 . Hence or otherwise evaluate ( 2 + 1)6 + ( 2 − 1)6 . Ans: 198
Pn
5. Prove that r=0 3r n Cr = 4n .
6. Show that 9n+1 − 8n − 9 is divisible by 64, whenever n is a positive integer.
 3 9
7. Find the 4th term from the end in the expansion of x2 − x22 . Ans: 672
x3

12
8. Find the coefficient of x11 in the expansion of x3 − x22 . Ans: -25344

18
9. Determine whether the expansion of x2 − x2 will contain a term containing x10 ? Ans: No
√ √ 10
10. Find the term independent of x in the expansion of √x3 + 2x32 . Ans: T3 = 5
12

b 12 59136a6 b6


11. Find the middle term in the expansion of 2ax − x2 . Ans: T7 = x6
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12. Find the remainder when 2515 is divided by 13. Ans: 12. Hint: 2512 = (26 − 1)15 = 13k + 12 where k ∈ N
13. Find the last two digits of the number 3400 . Ans: 01. Hint: 3400 = 9200 = (10 − 1)200 = 100k + 1
14. In the expansion of (x + a)n , if the sum of odd terms is denoted by O and the sum of even terms by E. Then
prove that

(a) O2 − E 2 = (x2 − a2 )n
(b) 4OE = (x + a)2n − (x − a)2n
Hint: Notice that (x + a)n = O + E, (x − a)n = O − E and 4OE = (O + E)2 − (O − E)2

15. If coefficients of 2nd , 3rd and 4th terms in the expansion of (1+x)2n are in A.P, then show that 2n2 −9n+7 = 0.
2n
Cn
16. Find the ratio of the coefficients of xn in the expansion of (1 + x)2n and (1 + x)2n−1 . Hint: (2n−1) C
n

Misc. Problems

17. Show that 24n+4 − 15n − 16, where n ∈ N is divisible by 225. Hint: 24n+4 = 16n+1
18. Find numerically the greatest term in the expansion of (2 + 3x)9 , where x = 23 .
7×313 Tr+1
Ans: T7 = 2 . Hint: If Tr+1 is greatest, then Tr ≥1

19. Whis of the following is larger? 9950 + 10050 or 10150

Ans: 10150 > 9950 + 10050 . Hint: Compute 10150 − 9950 using binomial theorem.
20. Find the coefficient of x50 after simplifying and collecting the like terms in the expansion of (1 + x)1000 +
x
x(1 + x)999 + x2 (1 + x)998 + · · · + x1000 . Ans: 1001 C50 . Hint: It’s a G.P. with common ratio 1+x
(n+1)(n+2)
21. Find the number of terms in the expansion of (a + b + c)n , where n ∈ N. Ans: 2 .
Hint: (a + b + c)n = [a + (b + c)]n = an + n C1 an−1 (b + c)1 + n C2 an−2 (b + c)2 + · · · + n Cn (b + c) . Total
n

Terms = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n + 1)
 Chapter 8 | Sequences and Series

8.1 Concepts
ˆ Sequence: By a sequence, we mean an arrangement of number in definite order according to some rule. A
sequence containing a finite number of terms is called a finite sequence. A sequence is called infinite, if it
is not a finite sequence.

ˆ Series: Let a1 , a2 , a3 , ... be the sequence, then the sum expressed as a1 + a2 + a3 + ... is called a series. If a
series has finite terms, it’s called a finite series.

ˆ Geometric Progression: A sequence in which the ratio of every term to it’s preceeding term is always a
constant, is called a G.P. The constant ratio is called the common ratio.
A typical G.P. looks like a1 = a, a2 = ar, a3 = ar2 , . . . where a is the first term and r is the common ratio.

– nth term of a G.P. is given by

an = arn−1
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– Sum of n terms: is given by

(rn − 1) (1 − rn )
Sn = a or Sn = a , if r ̸= 1
(r − 1) (1 − r)

a
– Sum of Infinite G.P: If |r| < 1, the sum of infinite G.P. is given By S = (observe that when
1−r
|r| < 1, as n → ∞, rn → 0). If |r| > 1 then the sum is either +∞ or −∞.
√
ˆ Geometric
√ Mean: The geometric mean (G.M.) of two positive √ numbers a and b is√given by ab. The
number ab is called geometric mean of a and b because a ≤ ab ≤ b and numbers a, ab, b form a G.P.

ˆ Relationship Between Arithmetic Mean (A.M.) and Geometric Mean (G.M.) : If A and G are
A.M. and G.M. of two given positive real numbers a and b, respectively. Then

a+b √
A= , and G= ab
2
√ √
a+b √ ( a − b)2
A−G= − ab = ≥0⇒A≥G
2 2

ˆ Componendo and Dividendo Rule: If you have two ratios a

b and dc , then according to the Componendo
and Dividendo rule:
a+b c+d
=
a−b c−d
3 9
Remark: Proof of Componendo and Dividendo is trivial. For example, 2 = 6 so by C&D rule, we must have
3+2 9+6 5 15
3−2 = 9−6 i.e. 1 = 3 (which is true).

ˆ Some Tips:

a
1. If product of 3 terms of a G.P. is given, take the G.P. as r , a, ar.
a a 2
2. If product of 5 terms of a G.P is given, take the G.P. as r 2 , r , a, ar, ar .
a a 3
3. If product of 4 terms of a G.P. is given, take the G.P. as r 3 , r , ar, ar . Note that these 4 terms form a
G.P. with common ratio r2 and first term ra3 .

25
 26 CHAPTER 8. SEQUENCES AND SERIES

8.2 Problems
1. Which term of the G.P., 2,8,32, ... up to n terms is 131072? Ans: 9th

2. A person has 2 parents, 4 grandparents, 8 great grandparents, and so on. Find the number of his ancestors
during the ten generations preceding his own. Ans: 2046
h n
i
3. Find the sum of the sequence 7, 77, 777, 7777, ... to n terms. Ans: Sn = 79 10(109 −1) − n

4. Insert three numbers between 1 and 256 so that the resulting sequence is a G.P. Ans: 4, 16, 64

5. Find a G.P. for which sum of the first two terms is -4 and the fifth term is 4 times the third term.
Hint: There are 2 G.Ps.
13
6. The sum of first three terms of a G.P. is 12 and their product is −1. Find the common ratio and the terms.
Ans: a = −1, r = ± 34 .
Hint: Since product of first 3 terms is given, taken a
r , a, ar as theseterms will greatly
reduce your calculation.

7. If the 4th, 10th and 16th terms of a G.P. are x, y and z, respectively. Prove that x, y, z are in G.P.

8. If A.M. and G.M. of two positive numbers a and b are 10 and 8, respectively, find the numbers.
Ans: 4,16 or 16, 4

9. If the pth , q th and rth terms of a G.P. are a, b and c, respectively. Prove that aq−4 br−p cp−q = 1.
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10. If the first and the nth term of a G.P. are a and b, respectively, and if P is the product of n terms, prove
that P 2 = (ab)n .

11. Show that the ratio of the sum of first n terms of a G.P. to the sum of terms from (n + 1)th to (2n)th term
is r1n .

12. If a, b, c and d are in G.P. show that (a2 + b2 + c2 )(b2 + c2 + d2 ) = (ab + bc + cd)2 .
√
13. The sum
√ of two numbers is 6 times their geometric mean, show that numbers are in the ratio (3 + 2 2) :
(3 − 2 2).

14. If A p
and G be A.M. and G.M., respectively between two positive numbers, prove that the numbers are
A ± (A + G)(A − G).

15. What will Rs 500 amounts to in 10 years after its deposit in a bank which pays annual interest rate of 10%
compounded annually? Ans: Rs. 500(1 + 0.1)10

16. If A.M. and G.M. of roots of a quadratic equation are 8 and 5, respectively, then obtain the quadratic
equation. Ans: x2 − 16x + 25 = 0

17. If a, b, c, d and p are different real numbers such that (a2 + b2 + c2 )p2 − 2(ab + bc + cd)p + (b2 + c2 + d2 ) ≤ 0
then show that a, b, c and d are in G.P.

18. If f is a function satisfying f (x + y) = f (x)f (y) for all x, y ∈ N such that f (1) = 3 and Σnx=1 f (x) = 120,
find the value of n. Ans: n = 4. Hint: Expand summation.

19. The first term of a G.P. is 1. The sum of the third term and fifth term is 90. Find the common ratio of G.P.
Ans: ±3

20. The sum of three numbers in G.P. is 56. If we subtract 1, 7, 21 from these numbers in that order, we obtain
an arithmetic progression. Find the numbers. Ans: 8, 16, 32 OR 32, 16, 8

21. A G.P. consists of an even number of terms. If the sum of all the terms is 5 times the sum of terms occupying
odd places, then find its common ratio. Ans: r=4. Hint: Suppose there are 2n terms then, it is given that
a + ar + ar2 + · + ar2n−1 = 5(a + ar2 + ar4 + · · · + ar2n−2 )
a+bx b+cx c+dx
22. If a−bx = b−cx = c−dx , then show that a, b, c and d are in G.P. Hint: Use componendo and dividendo
2 n n
23. Let S be the sum, P the product and R the sum of reciprocals of n terms in a G.P. hProve thati P R =S .
1 n
(1−r n ) n(n−1)
1 1 1 1 1−( )
Hint: S = a (1−r) , P = a.ar. · · · .arn−1 = an r 2 , R = a + ar + · · · + arn−1 = a 1−r1
r
 8.2. PROBLEMS 27

b c
24. If a, b, c, d are in G.P, prove that (an + bn ), (bn + cn ), (cn + dn ) are in G.P. Hint: Given a = b = dc . Show
bn +cn cn +dn
an +bn = bn +cn

25. If a and b are the roots of x2 − 3x + p = 0 and c, d are roots of x2 − 12x + q = 0, where a, b, c, d form a G.P.
Prove that (q + p) : (q − p) = 17 : 15.
Hint: a, b, c, d form a G.P. so b = ar, c = ar2 , d = ar3 . Also given a + b = 3, ab = p and c + d = 12, cd = q.
Try to obtain pq = 161 and apply componendo and dividendo.
√
26. The ratio
√ of the A.M. and G.M. of two positive numbers a and b, is m : n. Show that a : b = (m+ m2 − n2 ) :
(m − m2 − n2 ) Hint: Given that 2a+b√
ab
=m n . Apply componendo and dividendo.

27. Find the sum of the following series .6 + .66 + .666 + · · · up to n terms.
Hint: Sn = 69 [0.9 + 0.99 + 0.999 + · · · ] = 69 [(1 − 0.1) + (1 − 0.01) + (1 − 0.001) + · · · ]
28. Find the 20th term of the series 2 × 4 + 4 × 6 + 6 × 8 + · · · Ans: an = 2n(n + 2), so a20 = 1680
29. A farmer buys a used tractor for Rs 12000. He pays Rs 6000 cash and agrees to pay the balance in annual
instalments of Rs 500 plus 12% interest on the unpaid amount. How much will the tractor cost him?
Ans: 16680 Rs.
Hint: Total Cost = 6000 + (12 annual installments)
= 6000 + (500 + 12% interest on 6000) + (500 + 12% interest on 5500) + · · · + (500 + 12% interest on 500)
| {z } | {z } | {z }
1st Installment 2nd Installment 12th Installment
© 2025 1Math2Bytes

= 6000 + (500 + .12 x 6000) + (500 + .12 x 5500) + · · · + (500 + .12 x 500)
30. A manufacturer reckons that the value of a machine, which costs him Rs. 15625, will depreciate each year
by 20%. Find the estimated value at the end of 5 years. Ans: Rs. 5120
31. 150 workers were engaged to finish a job in a certain number of days. 4 workers dropped out on second day, 4
more workers dropped out on third day and so on. It took 8 more days to finish the work. Find the number
of days in which the work was completed. Ans: 17 + 8 = 25 days
Hint: If one worker does 1 unit of work in a day and the job was planned to be completed by 150 workers
in x days, then total work units needed to finish the job = 150x.
Therefore 150x = (work units completed on day 1) + (work units completed on day 2) + · · · + (work units
on day x) + (work units completed on day x + 1) + · · · + (work completed on day x + 8
x+8
= 150 + 146 + 142 + · · · (x + 8) terms = 2 [2 × 150 + (x + 8 − 1) × (−4)]
 Chapter 9 | Straight Lines

9.1 Distance, Area, & Section Formulae

ˆ Distance between Two Points P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) is given by
p
PQ = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2

ˆ Area of the triangle with vertices (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) and (x3 , y3 )

1
Area = |x1 (y2 − y3 ) + x2 (y3 − y1 ) + x3 (y1 − y2 )|
2

ˆ The coordinates of the point P (x, y) which divides the line segment joining the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )
internally, in the ratio m : n are given by

mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1

x= , y=
m+n m+n
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ˆ In particular, if m = n, the coordinates of mid-point are x1 +x2 y1 +y2

2 , 2

9.2 Slope(Gradient) and Angle between Lines

ˆ If a line makes an angle θ with the positive direction of x-axis, then its slope or gradient is defined as

m = tan θ, θ ̸= 90◦

Note: Slope of x-axis is 0 and slope of y-axis is not defined.

ˆ Slope of a line passing through the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ):

y2 − y1
m= , x1 ̸= x2
x2 − x1

ˆ The acute angle θ between lines L1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2 is given by

m1 − m2
tan θ = , 1 + m1 m2 ̸= 0
1 + m1 m2

Remarks:
1. Lines L1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2 are parallel if m1 = m2 .
2. Lines L1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2 are perpendicular if m1 m2 = −1
3. Three points A, B and C are collinear, if the slope of AB = slope of BC.

9.3 Various Forms of the Equation of a Line

ˆ Point-Slope Form: Equation of the line with slope m and passing through point (x1 , y1 ) is given by

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

ˆ Two-Point form: Equation of the line passing through points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )

y2 − y1
y − y1 = (x − x1 )
x2 − x1

28
 9.4. DISTANCE OF A POINT FROM A LINE AND DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL LINES 29

ˆ Slope-(Y)Intercept Form: With slope m and y-intercept c

y = mx + c

ˆ Intercept-Form (XY-Intercept Form): The equation of the line making intercepts a and b on x − axis
and y − axis, respectively
x y
+ =1
a b
ˆ General Form
Ax + By + C = 0
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(a) Point-Slope Form (b) Two-Point Form

(c) Slope Y-Intercept Form (d) XY-Intercept Form

Figure 9.1: Various Forms of the Equation of a Line

9.4 Distance of a Point from a Line and Distance between Two Par-
allel Lines
ˆ The perpendicular distance of a line Ax + By + C = 0 from a point (x1 , y1 ) is given by

|Ax1 + By1 + C|
d= √
A2 + B 2
Note: If the point (x1 , y1 ) lies on the line then d = 0. (why?)
ˆ Distance between Parallel Lines Ax + By + C1 = 0 and Ax + By + C2 = 0, is given by
|C1 − C2 |
d= √
A2 + B 2
 30 CHAPTER 9. STRAIGHT LINES

(a) Distance of a Point from a Line (b) Distance between Parallel Lines

9.5 Problems
Most Important Problems
π
and slope of one of the lines is 12 , find the slope of the other line.
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1. If the angle between two lines is 4

−1
Ans: 3 or 3

2. The vertices of a triangle ∆P QR are P (2, 1), Q(−2, 3) and R(4, 5). Find the equation of the median through
the vertex R. Ans: 3x - 4y + 8 = 0

3. Find the equation of the line passing through (-3, 5) and perpendicular to the line through the points (2, 5)
and (-3, 6). Ans: 5x - y + 20 = 0

4. Find the equation of a line that cuts off equal intercepts on the coordinate axes and passes through the point
(2, 3). Ans: x + y = 5

5. A line perpendicular to the line segment joining the points (1, 0) and (2, 3) divides it in the ratio 1 : n. Find
the equation of the line. Ans: (1 + n)x + 3(1 + n)y = n + 11

6. Find equation of the line passing through the point (2, 2) and cutting off intercepts on the axes whose sum
is 9. Ans: x + 2y − 6 = 0 or 2x + y − 6 = 0

7. Find the equation of the right bisector of the line segment joining the points (3, 4) and (−1, 2).
Ans: 2x + y = 5

8. Find the coordinates of the foot of perpendicular from the point (−1, 3) to the line 3x − 4y − 16 = 0.
68 49
Ans: 25 , − 25

9. If p and q are the lengths of perpendiculars from the origin to the lines x cos θ − y sin θ = k cos 2θ and
x sec θ + y cosec θ = k, respectively, prove that p2 + 4q 2 = k 2 .

10. If p is the length of perpendicular from the origin to the line whose intercepts on the axes are a and b, then
show that p12 = a12 + b12 .

11. In the triangle ABC with vertices A(2, 3), B(4, −1) and C(1, 2), find the equation and length of altitude from
√
the vertex A. Ans: y − x = 1, 2

12. A ray of light passing through the point (1, 2) reflects on the x-axis at point A and the reflected ray passes
through the point (5, 3). Find the coordinates of A. Ans: (13/5, 0)
√
13. Prove
√ that the product ofx the lengths of the perpendiculars drawn from the points ( a2 − b2 , 0) and
y
(− a − b , 0) to the line a cos θ + b sin θ = 1 is b2 .
2 2

14. The perpendicular from the origin to a line meets it at the point (-2, 9), find the equation of the line. Ans:
2x − 9y + 85 = 0
 9.5. PROBLEMS 31

15. The line through the points (h, 3) and (4, 1) intersects the line 7x − 9y − 19 = 0 at right angle. Find the
value of h. Ans: 22
9

16. The perpendicular from the origin to the line y = mx + c meets it at the point (−1, 2). Find the values of
m and c. Ans: m = 1/2, c = 5/2.

17. Find the image of the point (3, 8) with respect to the line x + 3y = 7 assuming the line to be a plane mirror.
Ans: (-1,4)

Other Problems

18. Point R(h, k) divides a line segment between the axes in the ratio 1 : 2. Find equation of the line.
Ans: 2kx + hy = 3kh
19. Without using distance formula, show that points (-2, -1), (4, 0), (3, 3) and (-3, 2) are the vertices of a
parallelogram.

20. The base of an equilateral triangle with side 2a lies along the y-axis such√ that the mid-point of the √
base is
at the origin. Find vertices of the triangle. Ans: (0, a), (0, −a), (− 3a, 0 or (0, a), (0, −a), ( 3a, 0)
21. Find equation of the line through the point (0, 2) making an angle 2π 3 with the positive x-axis. Also, find
the equation of line parallel to it and crossing the y-axis at a distance of 2 units below the origin.
√ √
Ans: 3x + y − 2 = 0 and 3x + y + 2 = 0
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22. Find the distance of the line 4x − y = 0 from the point P (4, 1) measured along the line making an√angle of
135◦ with the positive x-axis. Ans: 3 2 units
23. A line is such that its segment between the lines 5x − y + 4 = 0 and 3x + 4y − 4 = 0 is bisected at the point
(1, 5). Obtain its equation. Ans: 107x − 3y − 92 = 0

24. Assuming that straight lines work as the plane mirror for a point, find the image of the point (1, 2) in the
line x − 3y + 4 = 0. Ans: ( 65 , 57 )
25. Find equation of the line which is equidistant from parallel lines 9x + 6y − 7 = 0 and 3x + 2y + 6 = 0.
Ans: 18x + 12y + 11 = 0
26. A person standing at the junction (crossing) of two straight paths represented by the equations 2x−3y+4 = 0
and 3x + 4y − 5 = 0 wants to reach the path whose equation is 6x − 7y + 8 = 0 in the least time. Find
equation of the path that he should follow. Ans: 119x + 102y = 125
27. Find the equation of one of the sides of an isosceles right angled triangle whose hypotenuse is given by
3x + 4y = 4 and the opposite vertex of the hypotenuse is (2, 2).

28. If the equation of the base of an equilateral triangle is x + y = 2 and the vertex is (2, −1), then findqthe
2
length of the side of the triangle. Ans: 3.

Hint: Compute length of the altitude and each angle of an equilateral triangle is 60◦ .
29. Prove that if the√vertices of a triangle have integral coordinates, then the triangle can not be equilateral.
Hint: tan 60◦ = 3
30. A straight line moves so that the sum of the reciprocals of its intercepts made on axes is constant. Show
that the line passes through a fixed point.
Hint: If xa + yb = 1, where 1
a + 1
b = 1
k (constant) then k
a + k
b = 1 which shows that the line passes through
the fixed point (k, k)
 Chapter 10 | Conic Sections

10.1 Circle
ˆ The standard equation of a circle with centre (h, k) and the radius r is given by

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 (10.1)

ˆ General Equation of a Circle: The general equation of a circle is given by:

x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (10.2)
p
Note: The center of the circle given by (10.2) is at (h, k) = (−g, −f ) and radius r = g 2 + f 2 − c.
Remark:
On grouping the terms containing variables x and y separately and making perfect squares, the general
equation (10.2) reduces to (x + g)2 + (y + f )2 = g 2 + f 2 − c. On comparision with (10.1), we see that it
p
represents a circle with center (h, k) = (−g, −f ) and radius r = g 2 + f 2 − c .
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Examples:
1. Find the equation of the circle with centre (-3, 2) and radius 4.
Solution: We know that the equationof circle with centre (h, k) and radius r is given by (x − h)2 +
(y − k)2 = r2 . Here h = −3, k = 2 and r = 4. Therefore, the equation of the required circle is
(x + 3)2 + (y − 2)2 = 16.
2. Find the centre and the radius of the circle x2 + y 2 + 8x + 10y − 8 = 0
Solution: On grouping terms containg x and y we get, (x2 + 8x) + (y 2 + 10y) = 8, i.e. (x2 + 8x + 16) +
(y 2 + 10y + 25) = 8 + 16 + 25. This gives us (x + 4)2 + (y + 5)2 = 49, i.e. [x − (−4)]2 + [y − (−5)]2 = 72 .
On comparision with the general equation of circle (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 , we see that it is a circle
with centre (−4, −5) and radius 7.

10.2 Parabola
A parabola is the set of all points that are equidistant from a fixed line (called directrix) and a fixed point
(called focus).

Some Definitions:
ˆ Axis: The axis of a parabola is a line through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix.
ˆ Vertex: The point of intersection of parabola with the axis is called the vertex of the parabola
ˆ Chord of a Parabola: is any line segment whose end points lie on the parabola.
ˆ Focal Chord: A chord that passes through the focus of the parabola.
ˆ Latus Rectum: A line segment passing through focus, perpendicular to the axis and end points lie on the
parabola. (Note: Latus rectum is the shortest focal chord)

Standard Equations of Parabola:

Parabola Focus Directrix Length of Latus Rectum
y 2 = 4ax (a, 0) x = −a 4a
y 2 = −4ax (−a, 0) x = +a 4a
x2 = 4ay (0, a) y = −a 4a
x2 = −4ay (0, −a) y = +a 4a

Note: The vertex of these parabolas is at (0, 0). The axis of the parabola is the line joining vertex and focus.

32
 10.3. ELLIPSE 33

10.3 Ellipse
An ellipse is the set of all points P (x, y) in the plane such that sum of distances of point P from two fixed points
F1 and F2 (called foci) is always a constant.

Standard Forms
2 2 2 2
There are 2 standard forms of ellipse: xa2 + yb2 = 1 and xb2 + ay2 = 1. In both forms, the distance between foci is 2c
and points on the ellipse satisfy the condition P F1 + P F2 = 2a. Notice that, in both standard forms of the ellipse
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a > c and a2 = b2 + c2

Ellipse Foci Vertices Directrices

2
x2
a2 + yb2 = 1 (±c, 0) (±a, 0) x = ± ae
y2 2

a2 + xb2 = 1 (0, ±c) (0, ±a) y = ± ae

What’s common in both types of Ellipses?

2b2
ˆ Length of latus rectum = a

ˆ Lenght of major axis = 2a

ˆ Length of minor axis = 2b
ˆ Eccentricity e = c
a

ˆ Centre = (0, 0)

10.4 Hyperbola
A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose distances from two fixed points (foci) in the
plane is a constant.
 34 CHAPTER 10. CONIC SECTIONS

Standard Forms of Hyperbola

2 2 2 2
There are two standard forms of hyperbola: xa2 − yb2 = 1 and ay2 − xb2 = 1. In both standard forms, the distance
between foci is 2c (same as that of ellipse) and points on the hyperbola satisfy the condition |P F1 − P F2 | = 2a.
Notice that, for hyperbola, we must have c > 1 and so c2 = a2 + b2

Standard Form Foci Vertices Transverse Axis Conjugate Axis

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x2 y2
a2 − b2 =1 (±c, 0) (±a, 0) y = 0 (x-axis) x = 0 (y-axis)
y2 x2
a2 − b2 =1 (0, ±c) (0, ±a) x = 0 (y-axis) y = 0 (x-axis)

What’s Common in Both Stndard Formss?

ˆ c2 = a2 + b2
ˆ Length of transverse axis = 2a
ˆ Length of conjugate axis = 2b
2b2
ˆ Length of latus rectum = a

ˆ Eccentricity e = c
a

ˆ Centre = (0, 0)

10.5 Problems
Circle

1. Find the centre and the radius of the circle x2 + y 2 + 8x + 10y − 8 = 0 Ans: (−4, −5) and 7
2. Find the equation of the circle passing through the points (2, 3) and (−1, 1) and whose centre is on the line
x − 3y − 11 = 0. Ans: x2 + y 2 − 7x + 5y − 14 = 0
3. Find the equation of the circle with radius 5 whose centre lies on x-axis and passes through the point (2,3).
Ans: x2 + y 2 + 4x − 21 = 0
4. Find the equation of the circle passing through (0, 0) and making intercepts a and b on the coordinate axes.
Ans: x2 + y 2 − ax − by = 0
5. Find the equation of a circle with centre (2,2) and passes through the point (4,5).
Ans: x2 + y 2 − 4x − 4y − 5 = 0
6. Find any 3 points such that first lies inside, 2nd outside and the 3rd on the boundary of the circle −x2 −
y 2 + 6x + 4y = 0 Hint: Carefully answer this question
7. Find the equation of the circle which touches the both axes in first quadrant and whose radius is a.
Ans: x2 + y 2 − 2ax − 2ay + a2 = 0
 10.5. PROBLEMS 35

2at a(1−t2 )
8. Show that the point (x, y) given by x = 1+t 2 and y = 1+t2 lies on a circle for all real values of t such that
−1 ≤ t ≤ 1 where a is any given real number. Ans: x2 + y 2 = a2 is a circle
9. If a circle passes through the points (0, 0), (a, 0), (0, b) then find the coordinates of its centre. Ans: ( a2 , 2b )
10. Find the equation of a circle which touches both the axes and the line 3x − 4y + 8 = 0 and lies in the third
quadrant. Ans: x2 + y 2 + 4x + 4y + 4 = 0
11. If one end of a diameter of the circle x2 + y 2 − 4x − 6y + 11 = 0 is (3, 4), then find the coordinate of the
other end of the diameter. Ans: (1, 2)
√
12. If the line y = 3x + k touches the circle x2 + y 2 = 16, then find the value of k. Ans: k = ±8
13. Find the equation of a circle concentric with the circle x2 + y 2 − 6x + 12y + 15 = 0 and has double of its
area. Ans: x2 + y 2 − 6x + 12y − 15 = 0
14. If the lines 2x − 3y = 5 and 3x − 4y = 7 are the diameters of a circle of area 154 square units, then obtain
the equation of the circle. Ans: x2 + y 2 − 2x + 2y = 47
15. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (2, 3) and (4, 5) and the centre lies on the
straight line y − 4x + 3 = 0. Ans: x2 + y 2 − 4x − 10y + 25 = 0
16. Find the equation of a circle whose centre is (3, −1) and which cuts off a chord of length 6 units on the line
2x − 5y + 18 = 0. Ans: x2 + y 2 − 6x + 2y − 28 = 0
17. Find the equation of a circle of radius 5 which is touching another circle x2 + y 2 − 2x − 4y − 20 = 0 at (5, 5).
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Ans: x2 + y 2 − 18x − 16y + 120 = 0

18. Find the equation of a circle passing through the point (7, 3) having radius 3 units and whose centre lies on
the line y = x − 1. Ans: x2 + y 2 − 8x − 6y + 16 = 0

Parabola

19. Find the equation of the parabola with vertex (0, 0) passing through (5,2) and symmetric with respect to
y-axis. Ans: 2x2 = 25y
20. If a parabolic reflector is 20 cm in diameter and 5 cm deep, find the focus. Ans: mid-point of the diameter
21. An arch is in the form of a parabola with its axis vertical. The arch is 10 m high and 5 m wide at the base.
√
How wide is it 2 m from the vertex of the parabola? Ans: 5m
22. The cable of a uniformly loaded suspension bridge hangs in the form of a parabola. The roadway which is
horizontal and 100 m long is supported by vertical wires attached to the cable, the longest wire being 30 m
and the shortest being 6 m. Find the length of a supporting wire attached to the roadway 18 m from the
middle. Ans: 9.11 m (approx.)
23. Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines joining the vertex of the parabola x2 = 12y to the ends of
its latus rectum. Ans: 18 square units
24. An equilateral triangle is inscribed in the parabola y 2 = 4ax, where one vertex is at the vertex of the parabola.
√
Find the length of the side of the triangle. Ans: 8 3a
25. A beam is supported at its ends by supports which are 12 metres apart. Since the load is concentrated at
its centre, there is a deflection of 3 cm at the centre and the deflected beam is in the shape of a√parabola.
How far from the centre is the deflection 1 cm? Ans: 2 6 meters
26. Find the coordinates of a point on the parabola y 2 = 8x whose focal distance is 4. Ans: (2, 4), (2, −4)
27. Find the length of the line-segment joining the vertex of the parabola y 2 = 4ax and a point on the parabola
where the line-segment makes an angle θ to the x-axis. Ans: 4a cosec θ cot θ
28. If the points (0, 4) and (0, 2) are respectively the vertex and focus of a parabola, then find the equation of
the parabola. Ans: x2 + 8y = 32
29. If the line y = mx + 1 is tangent to the parabola y 2 = 4x then find the value of m. Ans: m = 1

Ellipse
 36 CHAPTER 10. CONIC SECTIONS

30. Find the equation of the ellipse, with major axis along the x-axis and passing through the points (4, 3) and
(−1, 4). Ans: 7x2 + 15y 2 = 247
31. An arch is in the form of a semi-ellipse. It is 8 m wide and 2 m high at the centre. Find the height of the
arch at a point 1.5 m from one end. Ans: 1.56 m approx.

32. A rod of length 12 cm moves with its ends always touching the coordinate axes. Determine the equation of
the locus of a point P on the rod, which is 3 cm from the end in contact with the x-axis.
x2 y2
Ans: 81 + 9 =1

33. A man running a racecourse notes that the sum of the distances from the two flag posts from him is always
10 m and the distance between the flag posts is 8 m. Find the equation of the posts traced by the man.
x2 y2
Ans: 25 + 9 =1
36 x2 y2
34. Find the equation of the ellipse with foci at (±5, 0) and x = 5 as one of the directrices. Ans: 36 + 11 =1

35. If the latus rectum of an ellipse with axis along x-axis and centre at origin is 10, distance between foci =
length of minor axis, then find the equation of the ellipse. Ans: x2 + 2y 2 = 100
√
3
36. If the latus rectum of an ellipse is equal to half of minor axis, then find its eccentricity. Ans: e = 2

x2 y2
37. Find the distance between the directrices of the ellipse 36 + 20 =1 Ans: 18

Hyperbola
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38. Find the equation of the hyperbola where foci are (0, ±12) and the length of the latus rectum is 36.
Ans: 3y 2 − x2 = 108
√
11
39. Find the equation of the hyperbola with foci (0, ±3) and vertices (0, ± 2 ) Ans: 100y 2 − 44x2 = 275
 Chapter 11 | Introduction to Three Dimensional Geometry

11.1 Important Concepts & Formulas

ˆ The three planes deteremined by the pair of coordinate axes are XY-plane, YZ-plane, and ZX-plane.
They divide the space into eight parts known as octants.
ˆ Coordinates of a point P in 3D space are usually denoted by P (x, y, z) where x, y, and z are distances of
point P from YZ-plane, ZX-plane and XY-plane respectively.
ˆ Any point on x-axis is of the form (x, 0, 0). A point on y-axis or z-axis is of the form (0, y, 0) or (0, 0, z)
respectively.
ˆ Distance Formula: The distance between two points P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) is given by
p
PQ = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2

ˆ Section Formula:
1. Internal Division: The corordinates of the point R which divides the line seqment joining two points
P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) internally are given by:
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mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 mz2 + nz1
, ,
m+n m+n m+n

Note: Internal division means point R lies between P and Q on the line segment P Q.
2. External Division: The corordinates of the point R which divides the line seqment joining two points
P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) externally are given by:
 
mx2 − nx1 my2 − ny1 mz2 − nz1
, ,
m−n m−n m−n

Note: External division means point R lies between P and Q on the line segment P Q.
3. Coordinates of the Mid-point: The coordinates of the mid-point of two pooints A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
B(y2 , y2 , z2 ) are  
x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2
, ,
2 2 2
Note: The mid-point of two points divide it internally in the ratio 1 : 1.
4. Coordinates of the Centroid: If A(x1 , y1 , z1 ), B(x2 , y2 , z2 ), C(x3 , y3 , z3 ) are vertices of a triangle,
then coordinates of its centroid are
 
x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3 z1 + z2 + z3
, ,
3 3 3

Note: The centroid of a triangle divide its medians internally in the ratio 2 : 1.

11.2 Problems
1. Show that the points A(1, 2, 3), B(-1, -2, -1), C (2, 3, 2) and D(4, 7, 6) are the vertices of a parallelogram
ABCD, but it is not a rectangle.
2. The centroid of a triangle ABC is at the point (1, 1, 1). If the coordinates of A and B are (3, -5, 7) and (-1,
7, - 6), respectively, find the coordinates of the point C. Ans: (1,1,2)
3. If the origin is the centroid of the triangle PQR with vertices P (2a, 2, 6), Q(-4, 3b, -10) and R(8, 14, 2c),
then find the values of a, b and c. Ans: a = −2, b = − 163 ,c = 2

4. Three vertices of a parallelogram ABCD are A(3, −1, 2), B(1, 2, −4) and C(−1, 1, 2). Find the coordinates of
the vertex D. Ans: (1, −2, 8) Hint: Diagonals of a parallelogram have the same mid-point.

37
 38 CHAPTER 11. INTRODUCTION TO THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

5. The mid-points of the sides of a trianlge are (5, 7, 11), (0, 8, 5) and (2, 3, -1). Find its vertices.
Ans: (−3, 4, 7), (7, 2, 5), (3, 12, 17)

Misc. Problems

6. Let L, M, N be the feet of the perpendiculars drawn from a point P (3, 4, 5) on the x, y and z-axes respectively.
Find the coordinates of L, M and N. Ans: L(3, 0, 0), M (0, 4, 0), N (0, 0, 5)
7. Let L, M, N be the feet of the perpendicular segments drawn from a point P (3, 4, 5) on the xy, yz and
zx-planes, respectively. What are the coordinates of L, M and N? Ans: L(3, 4, 0), M (0, 4, 5), N (3, 0, 5)

8. Find the coordinates of a point equidistant from the four points O(0, 0, 0), A(l, 0, 0), B(0, m, 0) and C(0, 0, n).
Ans: 2l , m n


2, 2

9. Find the point on x-axis which is equidistant from the point A(3, 2, 2) and B(5, 5, 4). Ans: ( 49
4 , 0, 0)

10. Show that the points A(5, −1, 1), B(7, −4, 7), C(1 − 6, 10) and D(−1, −3, 4) are the vertices of a rhombus.
Hint: Rhombus is a quadrilateral whose all 4 sides are equal.
p
11. Show that if x2 + y 2 = 1, then the point (x, y, 1 − x2 − y 2 ) is at a distance 1 unit from the origin.
12. Find the third vertex of triangle whose centroid is origin and two vertices are (2, 4, 6) and (0, −2, −5).
Ans: (−2, −2, −1)
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13. Find the centroid of a triangle, the mid-point of whose sides are D(1, 2, −3), E(3, 0, 1) and F (−1, 1, −4).
Ans: (1,1,-2)
14. Find the coordinate of the points which trisect the line segment joining the points A(2, 1, −3) and B(5, −8, 3).
Ans: (3, −2, −1) and (4, −5, 1)

15. Let A(2, 2, −3), B(5, 6, 9) and C(2, 7, 9) be the vertices of a triangle. The internal bisector of the angle A
meets BC at the point D. Find the coordinates of D.
Ans; ( 27 , 13
2 , 9). Hint: AB = AC so D will be the mid-point of AB.

16. Show that the three points A(2, 3, 4), B(−1, 2, −3) and C(−4, 1, −10) are collinear and find the ratio in which
C divides AB. Ans: AC=AB+BC, CA:CB=2:1
17. Find the length of foot of perpendicular drawn from the point P (3, 4, 5) on y-axis.
√
Ans: 34 units. Hint: foot of perpendicular from P on y-axis is (0, 4, 0)
18. In which octant the point (−2, −3, −4) lies? Ans: Octant 7

19. Find the length of the longest piece of a string that can be stretched straight in a rectangular room
√ whose
dimensions are 10, 13 and 8 units. Ans: 333 units
 Chapter 12 | Limits and Derivatives

12.1 Limits
ˆ Left Hand Limit (L.H.L) of f at a point a is the expected value of f near to the left of a. This value,
if exists, is called the left hand limit of f at a and is denoted by limx→a− f (x).

L.H.L. of ‘f’ at a = lim− f (x) = lim f (a − h)

x→a h→0

ˆ Right Hand Limit (R.H.L) of f at a point a is the expected value of f near to the right of a. This
value, if exists, is called the right hand limit of f at a and is denoted by limx→a+ f (x).

R.H.L. of ‘f’ at a = lim+ f (x) = lim f (a + h)

x→a h→0

ˆ Limit of f at a : If both L.H.L. and R.H.L. of f at a exist and are equal, then the common value is called
the limit of f at a and is denoted by limx→a f (x). Thus

lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = lim f (x)

x→a− x→a x→a
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ˆ Algebra of Limits

1. Limit of the sum is equal to the sum of the limits i.e.

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

2. Limit of the difference is equal to the difference of the limits i.e.

lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim f (x) − lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

3. Limit of the product is equal to the product of the limits i.e.

lim [f (x).g(x)] = lim f (x). lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

4. Limit of the quotient is equal to the quotient of the limits i.e.

 
f (x) limx→a f (x)
lim = , if lim g(x) ̸= 0 .
x→a g(x) limx→a g(x) x→a

In partincular,
 
1 1
lim =
x→a g(x) limx→a g(x)

5. Limit of constant times a function is equal to the constant times the limit i.e.

lim [(λf )(x)] = λ lim f (x) (λ is a constant)

x→a x→a

ˆ Theorem. If f (x) ≤ g(x), ∀x, then limx→a f (x) ≤ limx→a g(x) for any a (if both limits exist)
ˆ (Sandwich Theorem) Let f , g and h be real functions such that f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in the
common domain. For some real number a, if limx→a f (x) = l = limx→a h(x), then limx→a g(x) = l
ˆ Some Useful Limits

xn − an sin x 1 − cos x tan x

lim = nan−1 lim =1 lim =0 lim =1
x→a x − a x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x

39
 40 CHAPTER 12. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

12.2 Derivatives
12.2.1 Derivative of a Function (Functional Derivative)
If f is a real-valued function, then the function defined by

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
wherever the limit exists is called the derivative of f .
Notes:
ˆ f ′ (x) is also denoted by d
dx (f (x)).

ˆ If y = f (x), then the derivative is usually written as denoted as dx

dy
.
 
ˆ The value of derivative of f at x = a is by dx df
.
x=a
 
ˆ If y = f (x), then dxdy
denotes the value of derivativeat x = a.
x=a

12.2.2 Derivative of a Function at a Point (Point Derivative)

If f is a real-valued function and c is a point in the domain of f , then the the deriative of f at c denoted by f ′ (c)
is defined as
f (x) − f (c)
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f ′ (c) = lim
x→c x−c
L.H.L and R.H.L limits in above expression are respectively called the left hand derivative and right hand derivative
denoted by Lf ′ (c) and Rf ′ (c).
Therefore the left hand derivative of f at c is given by,

f (x) − f (c) f (c − h) − f (c) f (c − h) − f (c)

Lf ′ (c) = lim− = lim i.e. Lf ′ (c) = lim
x→c x−c h→0 (c − h) − h h→0 −h

and the right hand derivative of f at c is

f (x) − f (c) f (c + h) − f (c) f (c + h) − f (c)

Rf ′ (c) = lim+ = lim i.e. Rf ′ (c) = lim
x→c x−c h→0 h h→0 h

12.2.3 Algebra of Derivatives

If u = f (x) and v = g(x), then
a). Sum Rule
d d d ′
[f (x) + g(x)] = f (x) + g(x) in short (u + v) = u′ + v ′
dx dx dx
b). Difference Rule
d d d
[f (x) − g(x)] = f (x) − g(x) in short (u − v)′ = u′ − v ′
dx dx dx
c). Product Rule
   
d d d
[f (x).g(x)] = f (x) .g(x) + f (x). g(x) in short (uv)′ = u′ v + uv ′
dx dx dx

d). Quotient/Devision Rule

d d



. g(x) − f (x) . u′ v − uv ′
 
dx f (x) dx g(x)
d f (x)  u ′
= in short =
dx g(x) (g(x))2 v v2

e). By product rule, it is easy to see that if k is some constant, then

d d
(kf (x)) = k f (x)
dx dx
 12.3. CHAIN RULE FOR DERIVATIVES 41

12.2.4 Useful Derivatives

1. The derivative of constant function is always zero.
d d d d
If f (x) = c, where c is a constant, then dx f (x) = dx c = 0. In particular dx 1 = 0, dx π = 0 etc.

d n
x = nxn−1 , d d 2 d 3 d 1 d −1
= − x12 etc.


2. if n ̸= 0 . In particular, dx x = 1, dx x = 2x, dx x = 3x2 , dx x = dx x
dx
d
3. (Derivative of Polynomial Function) If f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, then dx f (x) = 2ax + b. If f (x) =
d
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, then dx f (x) = 3ax2 + 2bx + c.
d
In general, if f (x) = an xn +an−1 xn−1 +· · ·+a1 x+a0 , then dx f (x) = nan xn−1 +(n−1)an−1 xn−2 +· · ·+a1 x+a0 .
4. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

d d d
ˆ sin x = cos x cos x = − sin x tan x = sec2 x
dx dx dx
d d d
ˆ cot x = −cosec2 x sec x = sec x tan x cosec x = −cosec x cot x
dx dx dx

Some Useful Tips:

ˆ Derivatives of trigonometric functions starting with the letter c

(cos x, cot x, cosec) have negative sign.
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The derivatives of remaining 3 trigonometric functions have positive sign.

ˆ Trigonometric identities sec2 (x) = 1 + tan2 (x) (sec x and tan x are related) and cosec2 (x) = 1 + cot2 (x)
(cosec x and cot x are related) are helpful in recalling the derivatives of sec x, tan x, cosec x, cot x.

12.3 Chain Rule for Derivatives

dy dy dt
If y = f (t) and t = g(x), then = .
dx dt dx
Examples:
ˆ To compute the derivative of y = sin(2x), suppose y = sin(t), where, t = 2x. Therefore by chain rule,
dy dy dt
dx = dt . dx = cos(t) . 2 = 2 cos(t) = 2 cos(2x).

ˆ If y = sinn (x), we can write y = tn , t = sin(x), so that dy

dt = ntn−1 and dt
dx = cos(x)
dy dy dt n−1 n−1
Now, dx = dt . dx = nt . cos(x) = n sin (x). cos(x).

12.4 Problems
sin(ax)+bx
1. Evaluate limx→0 ax+sin(bx) , a, b, a + b ̸= 0. Ans: 1
sin(ax) a
2. Compute limx→0 sin(bx) , where a, b ̸= 0. Ans: b

cos 2x−1
3. Compute limx→0 cos x−1 Ans: 4
tan 2x
4. Compute limx→ π2 x− π Ans: 2
2

a + bx, if x < 1

5. Suppose f (x) = 4, if x = 1 , and if limx→1 f (x) = f (1) what are possible values of a and b?

b − ax, if x > 1


Ans: a=0, b=4

6. Find the derivative of f (x) = x1 , using the first principle. Ans: − x12
7. Find the derivatives of sin x, cos x, and tan x from first principle.
8. Compute the derivatives of sec x, cosec x, and cot x.
 42 CHAPTER 12. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

9. Find the derivative of x sin x using both the first principle and product rule. Ans: x cos x + sin x
10. Compute the derivative of f (x) = sin 2x. Ans: 2 cos 2x
x sin x−nx cos x
11. Find the derivative of sinn x . Ans: sinn+1 x

Misc. Problems
√ √
12. Evaluate: limh→0 x+h−
h
x
. Ans: 1
√
2 x
5 5
(2+x) 2 −(a+2) 2 5 3
13. Evaluate limx→a x−a . Ans: 2 (a + 2) 2
4 √
x√− x
14. Evaluate: limx→1 x−1 . Ans: 7
x2 −4
15. Evaluate: limx→2 √ √
3x−2− x+2
. Ans: 8
xn −2n
16. Find n, if limx→2 x−2 = 80, n ∈ N. Ans: n = 5
sin2 2x 1
17. Evaluate limx→0 sin2 4x
. Ans: 4
2 sin x−sin 2x
18. Evaluate limx→0 x3 . Ans: 1
1−cos mx m2
19. Find limx→0 1−cos nx . Ans: n2
sin x−cos x
20. Find limx→ π4 x− π . Ans: 1
4
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√
3 sin x−cos x
21. Evaluate limx→ π6 x− π . Ans: 2
6

sin 2x+3x
22. Show that limx→0 2x+tan 3x = 1.
sin √
23. Show that limx→a √x−sin
√ a = 2 a cos a.
x− a

x4 −1 x3 −k3 8
24. If limx→1 x−1 = limx→k x2 −k2 , then find the value of k. Ans: k = 3
tan x−sin x
25. Show that limx→0 sin3 x
= 12 .
2 sin2 x+sin x−1
26. Evaluate limx→ π6 2 sin2 x−3 sin x+1
. Ans: -3
27. Find whether the following function is differentiable at x=1 and x = 2 or not.

x,
 x<1
f (x) = 2 − x, 1≤x≤2

−2 + 3x − x2 , x>2


Hint: f ′ (1− ) = 1, f ′ (1+ ) = −1, f ′ (2− ) = −1, f ′ (2+ ) = −1

(x+y) sec(x+y)−x sec x
28. Find limy→0 y Ans: sec x(x tan x + 1)
(sin(α+β)x+sin(α−β)x+sin 2αx) 2α
29. Find limx→0 cos 2βx−cos 2αx ·x Ans: α2 −β 2

tan3 x−tan x
30. Find limx→ π4 cos(x+ π Ans: -4
4)

1−sin x
31. Evaluate limx→π x x
2
x . Ans: √1
cos 2 (cos 4 −sin 4 ) 2
(
k cos x π
π−2x , x ̸=
32. Let f (x) = 2
π
and if limx→ π2 f (x) = f ( π2 ), then find the value of k. Ans: k = 6
3, x= 2

High Order Thinking Problems

33. Show that function f (x) = |x − 1| + |x + 1|, ∀ x ∈ R is not differentiable at x = −1 and x = 1.


−2x, x < −1

Hint: f (x) = 2, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1

2x, x>2


34. Give examples of some functions which are continuous but not differentiable at a point.
 Chapter 13 | Statistics

13.1 Class 9 & 10 Concepts

ˆ Types of Data

– Ungrouped Data. Ex. 3, 9, 5, 3, 12, 10, 18, 4, 7, 19, 21

– Grouped Data (data with frequecy distribution) is of 2 types:
1. Grouped Data with Discrete Frequency Distribution
xi 2 5 6 8 10 12
Ex.
fi 2 8 10 7 8 5
2. Grouped Data with Continuous Frequency Distribution

Marks obtained 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

Ex.
Number of students 2 3 8 14 8 3 2

ˆ Mean of the Data

P
xi
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– The mean of ungrouped data x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is given by x̄ =

n
– Grouped Data:
P P
fi xi fi di xi − a
Direct Method: x̄ = P Step Deviation Method: x̄ = a + h P , where di =
fi fi h

ˆ The cumulative frequency of a class is the frequency obtained by adding the requencies of all the classes
preceding the given class.

ˆ Median of Grouped Data: Locate the median class (the class whose cumulative frequency is just greater
than N2 ) and use the following forumula:

( N2 − cf )
Median = l + h ×
f

where,
P l = lower limit of median class,
N = fi , total number of observations,
cf = cumulative frequency of class preceding the median class,
f = frequency of median class,
h = class size (assuming class size to be equal).

ˆ Some Useful Formulae:

n(n + 1)
1. Sum of first n natural numbers is given by 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n = (an A.P. with a = 1, d = 1).
2
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2. Sum of squares of first n natural numbers is given by 12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + n2 = .
6

13.2 Measurements of Dispersion

Range, Mean Deviation, Variance and Standard Deviation are the measurements of dispersion.

13.2.1 Range
Range = Maximum Value - Minimum Value

43
 44 CHAPTER 13. STATISTICS

13.2.2 Mean Deviation about Mean and Median

Mean Deviation about mean and median are denoted by M.D.(x̄) and M.D.(M ) respectively.

1. Mean Deviation (Ungrouped Data) - If the given data is x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , then the Mean Deviation
about Mean M.D.(x̄) and the Mean Deviation about Median M.D.(M ) are given by:

1X 1X
M.D.(x̄) = |xi − x̄| and M.D.(M ) = |xi − M |
n n

Ex. Find the mean deviation about the median for the following data: 3, 9, 5, 3, 12, 10, 18, 4, 7, 19, 21.
Ans: 5.27

2. Mean Deviation (Grouped Data with Discrete Frequency Distribution) - If the given P data consist
of n distinct values x1 , x2 , ..., xn occurring with frequencies f1 , f2 , ..., fn respectively and N = fi = f1 +
f2 + · · · + fn . Then

1 X 1 X
M.D.(x̄) = fi |xi − x̄| and M.D.(M ) = fi |xi − M |
N N

Ex. Find mean deviation about the mean for the following data:

xi 2 5 6 8 10 12
Ans: 2.3
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fi 2 8 10 7 8 5

3. Mean Deviation (Grouped Data with Continuous Frequency Distribution) - Use the class mid-
points as data points in ‘Discrete Frequency Distribution’ formula.
Ex. Find the mean deviation about the mean for the following data:

Marks obtained 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

Ans: 10
Number of students 2 3 8 14 8 3 2

13.2.3 Standard Deviation and Variance

The standard deviation is denoted by greek letter σ (sigma) and variance is simple square of the standard deviation
and hence denoted by σ 2 .

1. Ungrouped Data:
If there are n data points x1 , x2 , ..., xn with mean x̄, then
r r
1X 1X 2
ˆ Standard Deviation: σ = (xi − x̄)2 or σ = xi − x̄2
n n
ˆ Variance σ 2 is the square of standard deviation.

Ex. Find the variance of the following data: 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24 Ans: 5.74

2. Grouped Data with Discrete Frequency Distribution

ˆ Standard Deviation
r r s P 2
1 X 1 X 1 X fi xi
σ= fi (xi − x̄)2 i.e. σ= fi x2i − x̄2 i.e. σ= fi x2i −
N N N N2
P
fi xi
∵ x̄ = N
ˆ Variance σ is the square of standard deviation.
2

3. Grouped Data with Continuous Frequency Distribution - Use the class mid-points as x′i s in the
Discrete Frequency Distribution formula.
 13.3. PROBLEMS 45

4. Shortcut Method for Computing Standard Deviation σ: Given data x is x1 , xP2 , . . . , xn with frequen-
fi ui
cies f1 , f2 , . . . , fn . Define new data u by ui = xih−a . Notice that N = fi and ū = N
P
. If σx and σu are
standard deviations of x and u respectively, then

r s P 2 P
1 X 1 X fi ui fi ui
σx = hσu i.e. σx = h fi u2i − ū2 i.e. σx = h fi u2i − ∵ ū =
N N N2 N

Tip: In above formula a is usually taken as the middle value of xi ’s and h is chosen as the largest number
dividing all xi − a values. This will greatly simplify the calculation.
5. Mean and Standard Deviation of Derived Data: If given data x is x1 , x2 , . . . , xn and derived data u
is u1 , u2 , . . . , un where ui = axi + b (here a, b are real constants) then we can easily check that ū = ax̄ + b
and σu = a · σx . Notiice that σu does not depend on constant b.

13.3 Problems
1. Find the mean deviation about both mean and median for the following data:

xi 2 5 6 8 10 12
Ans: M.D.(x̄)=2.3, M.D.(M)= ?
fi 2 8 10 7 8 5
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2. Calculate the mean deviation about median for the following data :

Class 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60

Ans: 10.16
Frequency 6 7 15 16 4 2

3. Find the mean and variance of first n natural numbers.

4. The variance of 20 observations is 5. If each observation is multiplied by 2, find the new variance of the
resulting observations. Ans: 20
5. If each of the observation x1 , x2 , ..., xn is increased by a, where a is a negative or positive number, show that
the variance remains unchanged.
6. The mean and variance of 7 observations are 8 and 16, respectively. If five of the observations are 2, 4, 10,
12, 14. Find the remaining two observations.

7. Given that x̄ is the mean and σ 2 is the variance of n observations x1 , x2 , ..., xn . Prove that the mean and
variance of the observations ax1 , ax2 , ax3 , ...., axn are ax̄ and a2 σ 2 , respectively, (a ̸= 0).
8. The mean and standard deviation of a group of 100 observations were found to be 20 and 3, respectively.
Later on it was found that three observations were incorrect, which were recorded as 21, 21 and 18. Find
the mean and standard deviation if the incorrect observations are omitted. Ans: 20, 3.036
9. The diameters of circles (in mm) drawn in a design are given below:

Diameters 33-36 37-40 41-44 45-48 49-52

No. of circles 15 17 21 22 25

Calculate the standard deviation and mean diameter of the circles.

Hint: First make the data continuous by making the classes as 32.5-36.5, 36.5-40.5, 40.5-44.5, 44.5 - 48.5,
48.5 - 52.5 and then proceed. Ans: 5.55, 43.5
10. Determine mean and standard deviation of first n temrs of an A.P. whose first term is a and common
q
difference is d. Ans: Mean=a + (n−1)2 d, σ = d n2 −1
12
 Chapter 14 | Probability

14.1 Random Experiment, Outcomes, and Sample Space

A random experiment, outcomes and sample space are related concepts. A sample space has no meaning unless it
is related to a random experiment.

ˆ Random Experiment: A random experiment is an experiment that has more than one possible outcomes.
In a random experiment, it is impossibile to predict with certainty the outcome of a random experiment.
ˆ Outcome: A possible result of a random experiment is called an outcome.
ˆ Sample Space: The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called its sample space.
ˆ Some Examples:
– Random Experiment: Flipping a coin | Possible Outcomes: Head or Tail | Sample Space = {H, T }
– Random Experiment: Rolling a die | Possible Outcomes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 | Sample Space = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
– Random Experiment: Flipping 2 coins | Possible Outcomes: HH, HT, T H, T T |
Sample Space = {HH, HT, T H, T T }
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14.2 Event and Types

ˆ Event: An event is a subset of the sample space S.
The number of elements in event E is denoted by n(E).
ˆ Impossible and Sure Events: Since both empty set ϕ and sample space S are subsets of S, so both are
events. ϕ is called an impossible event and the sample space S is called a sure event.
ˆ Simple (or Elementary) Event: If an event E has only one sample point of a sample space, i.e., a single
outcome of an experiment, it is called a simple or elementary event.
ˆ Compound Event: If n(E) > 1, it is a compound event.

ˆ Mutually Exclusive Events: Events E1 , E2 , ..., En are called mutually exclusive if Ei ∩ Ej = ϕ, if i ̸= j

ˆ Exhaustive Events: Events E1 , E2 , ..., En are called mutually exhaustive if E1 ∪ E2 ∪ ... ∪ En = S

ˆ Algebra of Events:
1. Event ‘Not A’ or Complementary Event: A′ (the complement of set A) is called the comple-
mentary event of event A.
2. Event ‘A or B’ is the event A ∪ B.
3. Event ‘A and B’ is the event A ∩ B
4. Event ‘A but not B’ is the event A − B. Note that A − B is the same as A ∩ B ′

14.3 Axiomatic Approach to Probability

14.3.1 Axiomatic Definition of Probability (Function)
Let S be the sample space of a random experiment. The probability P is a real valued funtion with domain
consisting of all events (i.e. subsets of S) and range is the interval [0, 1] satisfying the following 3 axioms:

1. P (E) ≥ 0 for all events E.

2. P (S) = 1

3. Whenever E ∩ F = ϕ (i.e. E and F are mutually exclusive), we have P (E ∪ F ) = P (E) + P (F )

46
 14.3. AXIOMATIC APPROACH TO PROBABILITY 47

Remarks:

1. Axiom 3 is called Additivity of Probability and it can be extended to more than 2 events. For example if
E1 , E2 , E3 are mutually exclusive events, then P (E1 ∪ E2 ∪ E3 ) = P (E1 ∪ (E2 ∪ E3 )) = P (E1 ) + P (E2 ∪ E3 ) =
P (E1 ) + (P (E2 ) + P (E3 )) = P (E1 ) + P (E2 ) + P (E3 ).

2. For convenience, we often do not use curly braces for denoting the probability of elementary (simple) events.
For example if sample sapce S = {1, 2, 3}, then we will use notaion P (1) instead of P ({1}) for denoting the
probability of elementary event {1}.

14.3.2 Important Properties

Let S be a sample space consisting of outcomes ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn i.e. S = {ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn } and P is a probability
function. Then.

1. P (ϕ) = 0 (Proof: Note that S = ϕ ∪ S. Use Axiom 3)

2. P (E) ≤ 1 for all events E.

Proof: Observe that E ∪ E ′ = S so P (E ∪ E ′ ) = P (S) ⇒ P (E) + P (E ′ ) = 1 ⇒ P (E) = 1 − P (E ′ ) ≤ 1 since
P (E ′ ) ≥ 0.

3. P (ω1 ) + P (ω2 ) + . . . + P (ωn ) = 1 i.e. sum of probabilities of all elementary events is equal to 1.
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X
4. For every event E, P (E) = P (ω) .
ω∈E

For example if E = {ω1 , ω2 , ω3 } then P (E) = P (ω1 ) + P (ω2 ) + P (ω3 )

14.3.3 Important Formulas

ˆ Probability of the event ‘Not A’ i.e. P (A′ )

P (A′ ) = 1 − P (A)

Proof: Since S = A ∪ A′ and A and A′ are mutually exclusive events so P (S) = P (A) + P (A′ ) i.e.
1 = P (A) + P (A′ ). Hence P (A′ ) = 1 − P (A).

ˆ Probability of the Event A ∩ B ′

P (A ∩ B ′ ) = P (A) − P (A ∩ B)

Proof: Observe that A = (A ∩ B ′ ) ∪ (A ∩ B) where A ∩ B ′ and A ∩ B are mutually disjoint. By 3rd axiom,
P (A) = P (A ∩ B ′ ) + P (A ∩ B) i.e. P (A ∩ B ′ ) = P (A) − P (A ∩ B).

ˆ Probability of the event ‘A or B’ i.e. P (A ∪ B)

P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B)

Proof: Observe that A ∪ B = (A ∩ B ′ ) ∪ (A ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ A′ ) where 3 sets on the write are pairwise

disjoint. So by Axiom 3 and previous formula gives, P (A ∪ B) = P (A ∩ B ′ ) + P (A ∩ B) + P (B ∩ A′ ) =
P (A) − P (A ∩ B) + P (A ∩ B) + P (B) − P (B ∩ A) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B).

ˆ Probability using Demorgan’s Laws: Recall that Demorgans’ laws for sets are (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B ′ and
(A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B ′ . Therefore:

1. P (A′ ∩ B ′ ) = 1 − P (A ∪ B) Proof: P (A′ ∩ B ′ ) = P ((A ∪ B)′ ) = 1 − P (A ∪ B).

2. P (A′ ∪ B ′ ) = 1 − P (A ∩ B) Proof: P (A′ ∪ B ′ ) = P ((A ∩ B)′ ) = 1 − P (A ∩ B) i.e.

 48 CHAPTER 14. PROBABILITY

ˆ Probability of Equally Likely Outcomes - Let S be the sample space of a random experiment and E
be an event. If all outcomes are equally likely, then

n(E) Number of Elements in E

P (E) = =
n(S) Number of Elements in S

Proof: If S = {ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωN }, where N = n(S). If all outcomes ωi′ s are equally likely then P (ωi ) =
p (say) , ∀ i = 1, 2, . . . . , N .
Since P (S) = 1 (by Axiom 1) and S = {ω1 } ∪ {ω2 } ∪ . . . ∪ {ωN }. By Axiom 3, we get P (S) = P ({ω1 }) +
P ({ω2 }) + . . . + P ({ωN }), i.e., 1 = p + p + . . . + p = N · p. Hence p = N1 .
Now for any E ⊂ S, we have P (E) = ω∈E P (ω) = N1 + N1 + . . . + N1 = n(E) N1 = n(E)
P
n(S)

Remarks:

1. Equally likely outcomes mean, all outcomes have equal probability.

14.4 Problems
1. A coin is tossed three times, consider the following events.

A: ‘No head appears’,

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B: ‘Exactly one head appears’, and

C: ‘Atleast two heads appear’

Do they form a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive events? Ans: Yes

2. A bag contains 9 discs of which 4 are red, 3 are blue and 2 are yellow. The discs are similar in shape and
size. A disc is drawn at random from the bag. Calculate the probability that it will be (i) red, (ii) yellow,
(iii) blue, (iv) not blue, (v) either red or blue. Ans: 4/9, 2/9, 1/3, 2/3, 7/9

3. Two students Anil and Ashima appeared in an examination. The probability that Anil will qualify the
examination is 0.05 and that Ashima will qualify the examination is 0.10. The probability that both will
qualify the examination is 0.02. Find the probability that

(a) Both Anil and Ashima will not qualify the examination.
(b) Atleast one of them will not qualify the examination and
(c) Only one of them will qualify the examination. Ans: 0.87, 0.98, 0.11

4. A committee of two persons is selected from two men and two women. What is the probability that the
committee will have (a) no man? (b) one man? (c) two men? Ans: 1/6, 2/3, 1/6

5. There are four men and six women on the city council. If one council member is selected for a committee at
random, how likely is it that it is a woman? Ans: 3/5

6. A letter is chosen at random from the word ‘ASSASSINATION’. Find the probability that letter is (i) a
vowel (ii) a consonant Ans: 6/13, 7/13

7. In a lottery, a person choses six different natural numbers at random from 1 to 20, and if these six numbers
match with the six numbers already fixed by the lottery committee, he wins the prize. What is the probability
of winning the prize in the game? Ans: 1/38760, Hint: order of the numbers is not important.

8. In Class XI of a school 40% of the students study Mathematics and 30% study Biology. 10% of the class
study both Mathematics and Biology. If a student is selected at random from the class, find the probability
that he will be studying Mathematics or Biology. Ans: 0.6

9. The probability that a student will pass the final examination in both English and Hindi is 0.5 and the
probability of passing neither is 0.1. If the probability of passing the English examination is 0.75, what is
the probability of passing the Hindi examination? Ans: 0.65

10. Find the probability that when a hand of 7 cards is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards, it contains
(i) all Kings (ii) 3 Kings (iii) atleast 3 Kings. Ans: 1/7735, 9/1547, 46/7735
 14.4. PROBLEMS 49

11. The number lock of a suitcase has 4 wheels, each labelled with ten digits i.e., from 0 to 9. The lock opens
with a sequence of four digits with no repeats. What is the probability of a person getting the right sequence
to open the suitcase? Ans: 1/5040
12. A and B are two events such that P (A) = 0.54, P (B) = 0.69 and P (A ∩ B) = 0.35.
Find (i) P (A ∪ B), (ii) P (A′ ∩ B ′ ), (iii) P (A ∩ B ′ ), (iv) P (B ∩ A′ ) Ans: 0.88, 0.12, 0.19, 0.34
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