Term 2 Prep III

The City School

Handout Number: Science 2.9.1
Topic: Chemical Reactions
Name: Sec:

Learning Objective(s):
2.9.1 Use word equations and symbol equations to describe reactions

Chemical compounds are formed when elements are joined by chemical bonds. These bonds are so strong that
the compound behaves like a single substance. Compounds have properties that are unique from the elements
they are made of. A compound is a type of molecule with more than one element.
How Compounds are Named

Chemists have a specific way of naming compounds. It is a standard method of naming compounds that is used
by scientists around the world. The name is built from the elements and the construction of the molecule.

Basic Naming Convention

First, let’s see how to name molecules with two elements (binary compounds). The name of a compound with
two elements has two words.

To get the first word we use the name of the first element or the element to the left of the formula. To get the
second word we use the name of the second element and change the suffix to "ide" at the end of the word.

Some examples of adding the "ide":

O = oxygen = oxide
Cl = chlorine = chloride
Br = bromine = bromide
F = fluorine = fluoride

Examples of binary compounds:

NaCl - sodium chloride

MgS - magnesium sulfide
InP = indium phosphide

What if there is more than one atom?

In cases where there is more than one atom (for example there are two oxygen atoms in
CO2) you add a prefix to the start of the element based on the number of atoms. Here is a
list of the prefixes used:
** note: the "mono" prefix is not used on the first element. For example, CO = carbon
monoxide.

Examples:
CO2 = carbon dioxide

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N2O = dinitrogen monoxide

CCL4 = carbon tetrachloride
S3N2 = trisulfur dinitride

How is the order of the elements determined?

When there are two elements in a compound, which element goes first in the name?
If the compound is made of a metal element and a non-metal element, then the metal element is first. If there
are two non-metal elements, then the first name is the element to the left side of the periodic table.

Examples:

• In a compound that contains iron and fluoride, the metal (iron) would go first.
• In a compound that contains carbon and oxygen the element to the left on the periodic table (carbon) would
go first.

Naming Polyatomic Compounds

Polyatomic compounds use a different suffix. Most of them end in "-ate" or "-ite". There are a few exceptions
that end in "-ide" including hydroxide, peroxide, and cyanide.
Examples:
Na2SO4 = sodium sulfate
Na3PO4 = sodium phosphate
Na2SO3 = sodium sulfite
Naming Acids
Hydro acids use the prefix "hydro-" and the suffix "-ic".
HF = hydrofluoric acid
HCl - hydrochloric acid
Oxoacids containing oxygen use the "-ous" or the "-ic" suffix. The "-ic" suffix is used for the acid that has more
oxygen atoms.
H2SO4 = sulfuric acid
HNO2 = nitrous acid
HNO3 = nitric acid
Compounds between Metals and Nonmetals (Cation and Anion)

Compounds made of metal and nonmetal are commonly known as Ionic Compounds, where the compound
name has an ending of –ide. Cations have positive charges while anions have negative charges. The net
charge of any ionic compound must be zero which also means it must be electrically neutral. For example,
one Na+ is paired with one Cl-; one Ca2+ is paired with two Br-. Two rules must be followed through:

• The cation (metal) is always named first with its name unchanged
• The anion (nonmetal) is written after the cation, modified to end in –ide
Note: The information below is for learners to understand why sometimes the compound names are
written in a certain way. Learners do not need to go in-depth or memorize these charges, they just need
to understand the reason behind it.

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Example 1
Na+ + Cl- = NaCl; Ca2+ + 2Br- = CaBr2
Sodium + Chlorine = Sodium Chloride; Calcium + Bromine = Calcium Bromide

The transition metals may form more than one ion; thus, it is needed to be specified which particular ion we are
talking about. This is indicated by assigning a Roman numeral after the metal. The Roman numeral denotes the
charge and the oxidation state of the transition metal ion. For example, iron can form two common ions, Fe 2+
and Fe3+. To distinguish the difference, Fe2+ would be named iron (II) and Fe3+ would be named iron (III).

Example:

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 Term 2 Prep III

The City School

Handout: Science 2.10.5
Topic: Preparing Salts
Name: Sec:

Learning Objective(s):
2.10.4 Describe how to prepare some common salts by the reactions of metals with acids, and metal carbonates with acids, and
purify them, using filtration, evaporation, and crystallisation.

Effects of Concentration, Surface Area, and Temperature on the Rate of Reaction

Chemical reactions involve particles colliding with each other to break bonds and form new ones. The rate of reaction
depends on how often and how energetically particles collide. This handout explains how concentration, surface area, and
temperature affect reaction rates and uses the particle model to clarify these effects.

Effect of Concentration on the Rate of Reaction

Concentration refers to the amount of reactant particles in a given volume. Increasing the concentration means there are
more particles present.

• When the concentration of a reactant increases, there are more particles in the same space.
• This leads to a higher frequency of collisions between reactant particles.
• As a result, the rate of reaction increases.
Explanation:
Imagine a crowded room where people (particles) bump into each other frequently. Increasing the concentration is like
adding more people to the room, increasing the chances of collisions.
When hydrochloric acid reacts with magnesium, increasing the concentration of the acid produces hydrogen gas faster.
Effect of Surface Area on the Rate of Reaction
Surface area refers to the exposed area of a solid reactant. Breaking a solid into smaller pieces increases its surface area.
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• Increasing the surface area exposes more particles of the solid reactant to the reactant in the liquid or gas phase.
• This increases the frequency of collisions between reactant particles.
• The reaction rate becomes faster.
Explanation:
Picture a large block of sugar versus granulated sugar. Crushing the sugar increases the surface area available for interaction
with water, leading to faster dissolving. Similarly, smaller particles provide more opportunities for reactants to collide.
Calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid faster when powdered compared to large chunks, as the powdered form
has a higher surface area.
Effect of Temperature on the Rate of Reaction
Temperature measures the average kinetic energy of particles. Higher temperatures mean particles move faster.

• Raising the temperature increases the energy of particles, causing them to move more quickly.
• This leads to more frequent collisions and increases the likelihood of collisions with sufficient energy to overcome the
activation energy barrier.
• As a result, the rate of reaction increases.
Explanation:
Imagine a group of people walking in a room. When the temperature rises, it's like making them run instead of walk,
increasing their chances of bumping into each other with more force.
The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide happens faster when heated because the particles collide more frequently and
with greater energy.
Summary Table
Factor How It Affects the Rate of Reaction Particle Model Explanation
More particles per unit volume → Crowded room analogy: Higher concentration
Concentration
more collisions increases the chances of collisions.
Larger exposed area → more Smaller pieces expose more particles for interaction,
Surface Area
collisions increasing collisions.
Faster-moving particles → more Particles move faster at higher temperatures,
Temperature
frequent and energetic collisions increasing the frequency and energy of collisions.

Key Terms to Remember

1. Collision Theory: Reactions occur when particles collide with sufficient energy and proper orientation.
2. Activation Energy: The minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.
3. Reaction Rate: The speed at which reactants are converted into products.
 Term 2 Prep III

The City School

Handout: Science 2.8.4
Topic: Species and their Environment
Name: Sec:

Learning Objective(s):
2.8.4 Describe the historical and predicted future impacts of climate change, including sea level change, flooding, drought and
extreme weather events.
Introduction: Climate change refers to significant, long-term changes in temperature, weather patterns, and
other atmospheric conditions on Earth. This phenomenon has been accelerating over the past century,
primarily due to human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes. Climate
change has already had noticeable impacts on the environment and human societies, and its future effects
are expected to be severe, with consequences ranging from rising sea levels to extreme weather events. In
this handout, we will explore the historical and predicted future impacts of climate change, including changes
in sea levels, flooding, drought, and extreme weather events.
Historical Impacts of Climate Change
Over the past few decades, there have been several observable changes in the climate that have already
affected ecosystems, human societies, and economies. Some of the historical impacts include:
• Rising Global Temperatures
Since the late 19th century, the average global temperature has risen significantly. According to climate
scientists, the Earth's temperature has increased by approximately 1°C (1.8°F) since pre-industrial times. This
increase in temperature has contributed to many other changes, such as the melting of glaciers, changes in
rainfall patterns, and shifts in ecosystems.

• Melting Ice Caps and Glaciers

One of the most visible consequences of rising temperatures has been the melting of polar ice caps and
glaciers. In particular, the Arctic has experienced warming at more than twice the global average rate,
causing a dramatic reduction in sea ice. This melting has contributed to rising sea levels, as water that was
previously stored as ice is now flowing into the oceans.

• Increased Frequency of Extreme Weather Events

Over the past few decades, there has been an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather
events, such as hurricanes, heatwaves, floods, and droughts. For example, the devastating hurricane seasons
in the Atlantic, such as Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and Hurricane Maria in 2017, have been linked to higher sea
surface temperatures, which provide more energy for storms. Similarly, prolonged heatwaves in various parts
of the world are a direct consequence of rising global temperatures.

• Changing Precipitation Patterns

In many regions, climate change has altered rainfall patterns, leading to shifts in both wet and dry seasons.
Some areas have experienced more intense rainfall, resulting in flooding, while others have faced severe
drought conditions due to prolonged dry spells. For example, parts of Australia, Southern Africa, and
California have seen significant droughts and water shortages in recent years.

Predicted Future Impacts of Climate Change

As climate change continues, the impacts are expected to become more pronounced and widespread.
Scientists have made predictions based on current climate models that indicate even more severe
consequences for future generations.
Some of these impacts include:
• Sea Level Rise
One of the most alarming predicted impacts of climate change is the continued rise in sea levels. As the Earth
warms, polar ice caps and glaciers will continue to melt, and thermal expansion of ocean water will cause the
oceans to swell. It is predicted that sea levels could rise by up to 1 meter (3.3 feet) by the end of the century,
displacing millions of people living in coastal areas. Low-lying island nations, such as the Maldives, and major
coastal cities, like New York, Mumbai, and Jakarta, could face significant challenges due to rising seas.

• More Extreme Weather Events

Extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, hurricanes, wildfires, and flooding, are predicted to become
more frequent and severe in the coming years. Rising global temperatures will contribute to more intense
and longer-lasting heatwaves. Warmer ocean waters will fuel stronger tropical storms, including hurricanes,
cyclones, and typhoons, which could lead to increased flooding and storm damage. Similarly, drought
conditions are expected to worsen in regions such as the Mediterranean, parts of Africa, and the
southwestern United States.

• Increased Flooding
The combined effects of sea level rise, increased rainfall, and more intense storms are expected to lead to
more frequent and severe flooding. Coastal and low-lying areas will face increased risk of tidal flooding, while
rivers and streams may experience higher water levels during storms and extreme rainfall events. In cities
such as Venice, New York, and Bangkok, the risk of flooding could become an ongoing challenge, affecting
infrastructure, homes, and businesses.

• Drought and Water Scarcity

Climate change is expected to exacerbate drought conditions, particularly in regions that are already prone to
dry spells. Rising temperatures will cause increased evaporation, leading to lower water levels in rivers, lakes,
and reservoirs. Combined with reduced rainfall in some areas, this could lead to more severe droughts,
resulting in water shortages for agriculture, industry, and households. Water scarcity could impact food
production, cause economic instability, and contribute to conflicts over resources.

• Impact on Ecosystems and Biodiversity

Climate change will continue to have significant impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity. Rising
temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and changing sea levels are already putting pressure on
ecosystems around the world. Species that are unable to adapt to changing conditions or move to more
suitable habitats are at risk of extinction. In particular, coral reefs, which are highly sensitive to temperature
changes, are already experiencing mass bleaching events, which could have devastating effects on marine
biodiversity.

• Agriculture and Food Security

Changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events will have a direct impact on
agriculture and food production. In some regions, longer growing seasons and warmer temperatures could
increase yields, but in others, droughts, flooding, and heatwaves will reduce crop production. Areas that are
heavily dependent on specific crops or have limited water resources may face food shortages and higher
prices for basic commodities.

Conclusion
Climate change is already impacting the world in significant ways, and its future effects are predicted to be
even more severe. Rising sea levels, extreme weather events, drought, flooding, and changes in ecosystems
will have profound consequences for both the natural world and human societies. While some of these
impacts are inevitable due to the historical accumulation of greenhouse gases, mitigating future damage will
require global efforts to reduce emissions, increase resilience to climate change, and adapt to the changing
environment. Understanding these impacts is critical for preparing for the future and protecting vulnerable
populations and ecosystems.
 Term 2 Prep III

The City School

Handout: Science 2.9.5
Topic: Species and their Environment

Learning Objective(s):
2.9.5 Describe the consequences of asteroid collision with the Earth, including climate change and mass extinctions.

Introduction: Asteroids are rocky bodies that orbit the Sun, and they are remnants from the early solar system.
While most asteroids remain in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, some can travel on paths that
intersect with Earth’s orbit. When an asteroid collides with Earth, it can have catastrophic consequences,
including widespread climate change and mass extinctions. In this handout, we will explore the potential
consequences of asteroid impacts on Earth and the environment, focusing on the associated climate change
and the history of mass extinctions caused by these collisions.
The Impact of an Asteroid Collision
When an asteroid strikes the Earth, it releases an enormous amount of energy. The force of the impact
depends on several factors, such as the size, speed, and composition of the asteroid. Even a relatively small
asteroid, just a few kilometers in diameter, can release the energy equivalent to millions of nuclear bombs. The
immediate effects of a major asteroid collision are dramatic and include:
• Shockwaves and Explosions:
The collision creates shockwaves that can travel through the atmosphere and cause violent earthquakes and
tsunamis. The explosion would also release intense heat, which could start fires over large areas. The
immediate area around the impact would be devastated, and the effects would spread over large distances.

• Crater Formation:
The impact would create a massive crater in the Earth's surface. A large asteroid impact can create a crater
hundreds of kilometers in diameter. For example, the impact that is believed to have contributed to the
extinction of the dinosaurs around 66 million years ago created the Chicxulub crater in Mexico, which is about
180 kilometers wide.

Climate Change After the Collision

In addition to the immediate devastation caused by the impact, an asteroid collision can also lead to significant
long-term changes in Earth’s climate. The massive release of energy and debris into the atmosphere can have
several profound effects:
• Atmospheric Dust and Particulates:
The impact would eject vast amounts of dust, soot, and debris into the atmosphere. This debris could block
sunlight, reducing the amount of solar energy reaching Earth’s surface. This phenomenon, known as a "nuclear
winter" effect, would lead to a sharp cooling of the planet’s surface, similar to the effects of a large volcanic
eruption but much more severe. This cooling could last for months or even years, disrupting global
temperatures and potentially causing an "impact winter."

• Global Cooling and Darkened Skies:

With sunlight blocked by the debris, global temperatures could drop drastically. In some cases, the Earth’s
surface could cool by several degrees Celsius, causing dramatic shifts in weather patterns. This cooling would
be particularly harmful to agriculture, potentially leading to crop failures and food shortages. The darkened
skies would also reduce the amount of photosynthesis, disrupting plant life and leading to a collapse in food
chains.
• Acid Rain:
The collision would likely release large amounts of sulfur compounds and other gases into the atmosphere.
These gases would combine with water vapor, leading to the formation of acid rain. Acid rain can be harmful to
both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, further exacerbating the environmental damage. Acid rain can erode
buildings, poison water sources, and harm plant and animal life.

Mass Extinctions and Biodiversity Loss

Asteroid collisions have been linked to several mass extinction events throughout Earth’s history. The most
famous of these is the extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous period, about 66 million years ago, which
wiped out the non-avian dinosaurs. The consequences of asteroid impacts on biodiversity are both immediate
and long-lasting:
• Immediate Extinctions:
The immediate aftermath of an asteroid impact would cause widespread fires, shockwaves, and tsunamis that
could wipe out entire ecosystems. Larger animals, including many species of dinosaurs, would be especially
vulnerable to the heat and force of the impact. Marine life would also suffer due to the shockwaves traveling
through the oceans, and coastal areas would be flooded by tsunamis.

• Long-term Extinctions Due to Climate Change:

The long-term effects of climate change caused by the asteroid’s impact could result in a dramatic reduction in
biodiversity. The cooling effect, coupled with reduced sunlight and disrupted photosynthesis, would lead to the
collapse of many ecosystems. Plants and herbivores would be among the first to be affected, followed by the
animals that depend on them for food. Many species would not survive in the altered environment, leading to
a massive extinction event.

• Shifts in Ecosystem Dynamics:

The aftermath of an asteroid collision would likely result in shifts in the types of organisms that dominate Earth.
For example, after the mass extinction of the dinosaurs, mammals began to thrive and evolve into new species.
Such shifts have occurred in the past and would likely occur again after a major asteroid impact. However, the
recovery of ecosystems after a mass extinction event can take millions of years.

Historical Examples of Asteroid Impacts and Extinctions

• The Cretaceous–Paleogene (K-Pg) Extinction Event:
Around 66 million years ago, an asteroid roughly 10 kilometers in diameter struck Earth near what is now the
Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. The impact created the Chicxulub crater and is widely believed to have caused the
mass extinction of approximately 75% of Earth's species, including all non-avian dinosaurs. This event is one of
the most well-known examples of how asteroid impacts can lead to mass extinctions and dramatic climate
change.

• The Tunguska Event (1908):

On June 30, 1908, a much smaller asteroid, about 50-60 meters in diameter, exploded over the Tunguska
region of Siberia. While it did not cause a mass extinction, the explosion flattened over 2,000 square kilometers
of forest, showing that even smaller asteroids can have significant localized effects. This event demonstrated
the potential destructive power of asteroid impacts, even those much smaller than the one that caused the K-
Pg extinction.

Conclusion
Asteroid collisions with Earth, though rare, can have catastrophic consequences for the planet's climate and
life. These impacts can cause mass extinctions, change weather patterns, and drastically alter ecosystems. The
possibility of future asteroid collisions is an ongoing area of research, and efforts are being made to detect and
track near-Earth objects to mitigate potential risks. Understanding the history of asteroid impacts and their
consequences helps us appreciate the importance of planetary defense and the need for ongoing monitoring of
the skies.
 Term 2 Prep III

The City School

Handout: Science 2.4.1
Topic: Evidence of Tectonic Plates
Name: Sec:

Learning Objective(s):
2.4.1 Explain why the jigsaw appearance of continental coasts, location of volcanoes and earthquakes, fossil record and alignment of
magnetic materials in the Earth's crust are all evidence for tectonic plates.

The theory of tectonic plates explains how the Earth's lithosphere is divided into large plates that float and move on the
semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath them. These movements shape the Earth's surface and lead to the formation of
continents, mountains, volcanoes, earthquakes, and ocean basins. Several lines of evidence strongly support the theory,
providing insight into the processes that have shaped the Earth over millions of years.

1. Jigsaw Appearance of Continental Coasts

One of the earliest observations that hinted at the movement of continents was the way their coastlines seemed to fit
together like pieces of a puzzle. This is most notable with South America and Africa, whose shapes align almost perfectly
along the Atlantic Ocean. This observation was first highlighted by Alfred Wegener in 1912 when he proposed the theory of
continental drift.
Wegener suggested that millions of years ago, the continents were joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea. Over
time, tectonic forces caused the landmasses to break apart and drift to their current positions. This jigsaw-like fit provides a
visual clue that the continents were once connected, supporting the idea that the Earth's surface is dynamic.

2. Location of Volcanoes and Earthquakes

Volcanoes and earthquakes are not randomly distributed across the Earth; instead, they occur in narrow, well-defined
zones along the boundaries of tectonic plates. For example, the Ring of Fire around the Pacific Ocean is one of the most
seismically and volcanically active regions in the world.
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At divergent boundaries, where plates move apart, magma rises to form new crust, resulting in volcanic activity, as seen
at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At convergent boundaries, where plates collide, one plate is forced beneath the other,
creating powerful earthquakes and explosive volcanoes, such as those in the Andes Mountains. At transform
boundaries, where plates slide past each other, friction causes earthquakes, like those along the San Andreas Fault in
California.
These patterns of activity align with tectonic plate boundaries, providing evidence of plate movement and interactions.

3. Fossil Record
Fossils of identical plants and animals have been found on continents now separated by oceans, providing compelling
evidence for tectonic plate movement. For instance, fossils of the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus have been discovered
in both South America and Africa. These creatures could not have crossed the vast Atlantic Ocean that separates the two
continents today.
Similarly, fossils of the plant Glossopteris have been found in South America, Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia. The
widespread distribution of these fossils indicates that these continents were once connected, allowing the organisms to
inhabit a shared landmass. This supports the idea of continental drift and the existence of Pangaea.
 Term 2 Prep III

4. Alignment of Magnetic Materials in the Earth's Crust

Rocks on the ocean floor provide evidence of tectonic plate movement through the alignment of magnetic minerals.
These rocks show patterns of magnetic alignment that are symmetrical on either side of mid-ocean ridges.
When magma emerges at mid-ocean ridges and solidifies, its magnetic minerals align with the Earth's magnetic field.
Over time, as the Earth's magnetic field reverses, the alignment of these minerals changes. This creates alternating
patterns of normal and reversed polarity, forming "magnetic stripes" on the seafloor. These stripes mirror each other on
both sides of the ridge, providing evidence of seafloor spreading and plate movement.

Conclusion
The evidence for tectonic plates is overwhelming and comes from diverse sources. The jigsaw-like fit of continental
coastlines demonstrates that continents were once joined together. The distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes
highlights the locations where plates interact. Fossil records provide proof of connected landmasses, while magnetic
alignment on the seafloor reveals the process of seafloor spreading. Together, these observations confirm that the
Earth's lithosphere is divided into moving plates, shaping the planet's surface over geological time.
 Term 2 Prep III

The City School

Handout: Science 2.5.2
Topic: Convection Current
Name: Sec:

Learning Objective(s):
2.5.2 Explain the movement of tectonic plates in terms of convection currents

The movement of tectonic plates is one of the key processes shaping the Earth's surface. These massive slabs of the Earth’s
crust float on the semi-fluid mantle and are constantly in motion. The driving force behind this movement lies in convection
currents within the mantle, which transfer heat from the Earth's interior to its surface. This handout explains how convection
currents work and their role in moving tectonic plates.

Structure of the Earth

The Earth is composed of several layers, each playing a critical role in plate tectonics. The outermost layer, the crust, is thin
and rigid, forming the surface on which we live. Beneath the crust lies the mantle, a much thicker layer made of semi-solid
rock. Although solid, the mantle flows slowly over millions of years due to the intense heat and pressure it experiences.
Below the mantle are the liquid outer core and the solid inner core, which provide the heat energy driving convection
currents.

What Are Convection Currents?

Convection currents are circular movements of material caused by temperature and density differences within the
mantle. The Earth's core generates intense heat, which warms the lower mantle. As the mantle material heats up, it
becomes less dense and rises toward the crust. Upon reaching the upper mantle, it cools, becomes denser, and sinks
back toward the core. This process creates a continuous cycle of rising and sinking material. These convection currents
act like conveyor belts, moving the tectonic plates above them.

How Convection Currents Move Tectonic Plates

The movement of tectonic plates is directly influenced by the flow of convection currents beneath them. At divergent
boundaries, convection currents rise, pushing plates apart and creating new crust. This process is evident at mid-ocean
ridges like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At convergent boundaries, where convection currents sink, they pull plates together,
resulting in subduction zones or mountain formation.
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Examples include the Andes, where an oceanic plate subducts beneath a continental plate, and the Himalayas, where
two continental plates collide. Transform boundaries, where plates slide past each other, occur when mantle currents
cause lateral plate movement. The San Andreas Fault in California is a well-known example of this.

The Role of Heat in Convection Currents

The heat driving convection currents originates from two main sources. First, residual heat from the Earth's formation
still radiates outward after billions of years. Second, radioactive decay within the mantle generates additional heat.
Together, these heat sources ensure that convection currents remain active, continuously reshaping the Earth's surface.
This heat energy creates the mantle’s flow, which in turn drives the slow but powerful movement of tectonic plates.
The study of convection currents and plate tectonics explains the dynamic processes that shape the Earth's surface. It
helps us understand natural phenomena like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mountain formation. By learning how
heat from the Earth's interior drives these processes, we gain a deeper appreciation of the forces that have shaped and
continue to shape our planet.
 Term 2 Prep III

The City School

Handout: Science 2.6.3
Topic: Collision Theory and formation of Moon
Name: Sec:

Learning Objective(s):
2.6.3 Describe the evidence for the collision theory for the formation of the Moon.

The collision theory, also known as the giant impact hypothesis, is the most widely accepted explanation for the Moon's
formation. It proposes that a Mars-sized body, referred to as Theia, collided with the early Earth approximately 4.5 billion
years ago. The debris ejected from this massive impact eventually coalesced to form the Moon. This handout details the key
evidence supporting the collision theory.

Similarity in Composition Between Earth and the Moon

One of the strongest pieces of evidence for the collision theory is the similarity in the isotopic composition of rocks on
Earth and the Moon. Scientists have analysed lunar samples brought back by the Apollo missions and found that the
isotopes of oxygen, silicon, and titanium are nearly identical to those found on Earth. This suggests that the Moon
formed from material that originated on Earth, as would be expected if debris from an impact coalesced into the Moon.
 Term 2 Prep III

Lack of Volatile Compounds on the Moon

The Moon has a significantly lower concentration of volatile compounds, such as water and certain gases, compared to
Earth. These compounds would have been vaporised and lost to space during the high-energy impact that created the
Moon. This scarcity of volatiles aligns well with the collision theory, as it predicts that the extreme heat from the impact
would drive off these materials.
High Angular Momentum of the Earth-Moon System
The Earth-Moon system has an unusually high angular momentum, meaning the total rotational and orbital energy is
greater than what could be explained by other formation theories, such as the Moon forming alongside Earth or being
captured by Earth's gravity. The collision theory accounts for this by suggesting that the impact imparted significant
rotational energy to both Earth and the forming Moon, resulting in the system we observe today.
The Moon's Lack of a Large Iron Core
Unlike Earth, the Moon has a relatively small iron core. This difference can be explained by the collision theory, as it
suggests that Theia's iron core merged with Earth's during the impact. The debris that formed the Moon was primarily
composed of lighter materials from the Earth's mantle and Theia’s outer layers, which would explain the Moon’s lower
density and smaller iron core.
Evidence from Computer Simulations
Modern computer simulations of giant impacts support the feasibility of the collision theory. These simulations show
that an impact between a Mars-sized body and the early Earth could eject enough material into orbit to form the Moon.
The simulations also replicate key features of the Earth-Moon system, including their size, orbital characteristics, and
angular momentum.
Lunar Surface Features and History
The Moon's surface provides additional evidence for the collision theory. The lunar highlands, composed of anorthosite,
are thought to have formed from a magma ocean that solidified over time. This supports the idea of a molten Moon,
which would have been a natural consequence of the intense heat generated by the impact.
Fossil Record of Tidal Locking
Studies of ancient tidal patterns preserved in Earth’s geological record suggest that the Moon has been gradually moving
away from Earth over billions of years. This movement aligns with the collision theory, which explains the Moon’s initial
proximity to Earth and its current position through gravitational interactions over time.

Key Terms to Remember

• Theia: The Mars-sized body that collided with Earth.

• Isotopic composition: The specific ratio of isotopes in a material, used to compare Earth and Moon rocks.

• Volatile compounds: Easily evaporated substances, such as water, that were lost during the impact.

• Angular momentum: The measure of rotational energy in the Earth-Moon system.

• Lunar highlands: Regions of the Moon’s surface formed from ancient magma.
 Term 2 Prep III

The City School

Handout: Science 2.6.4
Topic: Formation of stars
Name: Sec:

Learning Objective(s):
2.6.4 Know that nebulae are clouds of dust and gas and can act as stellar nurseries

Nebulae are one of the most fascinating structures in the universe, acting as the birthplaces of stars. These vast clouds of
dust and gas are fundamental to the life cycle of stars, providing the raw materials needed for their formation. This handout
explores the nature of nebulae, their composition, and how they function as stellar nurseries.
What Are Nebulae?
A nebula (plural: nebulae) is a massive cloud of gas, dust, and other elements spread across vast regions of space. Nebulae
are often located within galaxies and play a crucial role in star formation. They can be visually stunning, with their vibrant
colours and intricate shapes, which are often captured in images by powerful telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope.
Composition of Nebulae
Nebulae are primarily made of:
1. Gas: Mostly hydrogen, the simplest and most abundant element in the universe. Helium is also present, along with trace
amounts of heavier elements like oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen.

2. Dust: Tiny solid particles made of elements such as carbon, silicon, and iron.

The combination of these components provides the essential ingredients for the formation of stars.
Types of Nebulae
There are several types of nebulae, but the most relevant to stellar formation are:
1. Emission Nebulae: These nebulae glow brightly because they are ionised by the intense radiation from nearby hot stars.
The most famous example is the Orion Nebula.

2. Dark Nebulae: Dense clouds of dust and gas that block light from stars behind them, appearing as dark patches against
the brighter background. An example is the Horsehead Nebula.

3. Reflection Nebulae: These nebulae do not emit light but reflect the light of nearby stars. An example is the Pleiades
Nebula.

How Nebulae Act as Stellar Nurseries

Nebulae are often referred to as stellar nurseries because they are the regions where stars are born. The process of star
formation involves several key stages:
1. Gravitational Collapse: Within a nebula, regions of higher density, called clumps or cores, begin to collapse under their
own gravity. These clumps attract more gas and dust, increasing their mass and density.

2. Protostar Formation: As the clump collapses, the temperature and pressure in the centre rise, forming a protostar. This
is an early stage of a star's life.

3. Nuclear Fusion: When the core temperature reaches about 10 million Kelvin, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium,
releasing immense energy. At this point, the protostar becomes a main-sequence star.

4. Clearing the Nebula: The radiation and stellar winds from newly formed stars push away surrounding gas and dust,
shaping the nebula and sometimes creating spectacular structures.

Famous Nebulae as Stellar Nurseries

1. Orion Nebula (M42): Located in the Milky Way, it is one of the closest and most studied stellar nurseries. This bright
nebula contains hundreds of young stars and protostars in various stages of formation.
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2. Eagle Nebula (M16): Known for the "Pillars of Creation," this nebula is an iconic site of active star formation.

Why Are Nebulae Important?

• Source of New Stars: Nebulae provide the raw materials for star formation, driving the evolution of galaxies.

• Recycling of Matter: After stars die, they return their material to the nebulae, enriching them with heavier elements for
the next generation of stars.

• Understanding Stellar Life Cycles: Studying nebulae allows scientists to observe the early stages of star development
and understand the life cycles of stars and galaxies.

Conclusion
Nebulae are essential components of the universe, serving as the birthplaces of stars and shaping the galaxies we observe
today. By studying nebulae, astronomers gain valuable insights into the origins of stars, planets, and even life itself. These
cosmic nurseries highlight the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe.
 Term 2 Prep III

The City School

Handout: Science 2.1.1
Topic: Light waves and material waves
Name: Sec:

Learning Objective(s):
2.1.1 Compare and contrast light waves with waves in matter

Introduction
Waves are a mechanism for transferring energy from one point to another without transporting matter. While all
waves share common characteristics such as wavelength, frequency, and amplitude, they can be broadly
classified into two types: light waves (electromagnetic waves) and waves in matter (mechanical waves).
Understanding the differences between these two categories helps us appreciate the unique ways energy moves
through the universe. This handout will discuss the key similarities and distinctions between light waves and
waves in matter, supported by examples, diagrams, and real-world applications.

Light Waves (Electromagnetic Waves)

Light waves are a form of electromagnetic radiation, which means they do not require a medium to
travel. This unique property allows them to propagate through a vacuum, such as outer space. For example,
sunlight reaches Earth after traveling approximately 150 million kilometres through the vacuum of space. Light
waves are always transverse waves, meaning their oscillations are perpendicular to the direction in which the
wave propagates.
Another defining feature of light waves is their incredible speed. In a vacuum, light travels at approximately
300,000 kilometres per second (3 x 10⁸ m/s), making it the fastest-known phenomenon in the universe. Common
examples of light waves include visible light, radio waves, microwaves, and X-rays.

Waves in Matter (Mechanical Waves)

Waves in matter, also known as mechanical waves, differ from light waves because they require a medium—such
as a solid, liquid, or gas—to travel. These waves cannot propagate in a vacuum. For instance, sound waves need
air or another material to transfer vibrations from one place to another.
Mechanical waves can be either transverse or longitudinal. In transverse waves, such as water waves, the
particles of the medium move perpendicular to the wave’s direction. In longitudinal waves, such as sound waves,
the particles of the medium oscillate parallel to the direction of the wave, creating regions of compression and
rarefaction. Unlike light waves, mechanical waves travel much slower. For example, sound waves move at around
343 m/s in air, depending on temperature and pressure.

Key Similarities
Despite their differences, light waves and waves in matter share several similarities:
1. Energy Transfer: Both types of waves transfer energy from one location to another without the physical
movement of matter.
2. Wave Properties: Both have measurable characteristics such as wavelength, frequency, amplitude, and speed.
Both wave types can also exhibit behaviours such as reflection (bouncing off surfaces), refraction (bending when
passing through different mediums), and diffraction (spreading out around obstacles).
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Key Differences

Property Light Waves (Electromagnetic) Waves in Matter (Mechanical)

Medium No medium needed; can travel in a Require a medium (solid, liquid,
Requirement vacuum. or gas).
Can be transverse or
Wave Type Always transverse.
longitudinal.
Slower (e.g., ~343 m/s for sound
Speed Much faster (e.g., 3 x 10⁸ m/s).
in air).
Sound, water waves, seismic
Examples Light, radio waves, X-rays.
waves.

Real-World Examples
1. Light Waves:
o Space Exploration: Light from distant stars and galaxies reaches us through the vacuum of space, enabling
astronomers to study celestial bodies.
o Technology: Radio waves (a type of light wave) are used for wireless communication, such as mobile
phones and Wi-Fi.
2. Waves in Matter:
o Sound Waves: When you clap your hands, vibrations travel through the air, allowing others to hear the
sound.
o Water Waves: Ripples in a pond demonstrate how energy moves through a liquid medium.

Light Waves (Electromagnetic Waves):

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Sound Waves:

Summary
Light waves and waves in matter are fundamental to understanding energy transfer. Light waves, being
electromagnetic, can travel through the vacuum of space and are always transverse. Waves in matter, or
mechanical waves, require a medium and can be either transverse or longitudinal. By understanding these
differences, we gain insights into phenomena ranging from the transmission of sunlight to the propagation of
sound and seismic activity.
 Term 2 Prep III

The City School

Handout: Science 2.1.2
Topic: Speed of Light
Name: Sec:

Learning Objective(s):
2.1.2 State that light waves can travel through a vacuum and identify the speed of light in a vacuum

Introduction
Light waves are a type of electromagnetic wave, which makes them unique compared to mechanical waves like sound or
water waves. One of the most fascinating properties of light is its ability to travel through a vacuum, a region devoid of
matter. This characteristic sets it apart from other waves that require a medium to propagate. Additionally, light waves travel
at an extraordinary speed, making them the fastest-known phenomenon in the universe. This handout will explore how light
waves behave in a vacuum and explain their speed.

Light Waves in a Vacuum

Unlike mechanical waves, light waves do not need a medium to transfer energy. They can travel through the empty space of
a vacuum because they are made up of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. These fields generate and sustain each other,
allowing the wave to propagate without any material to move through.
For example, sunlight reaches Earth after traveling 150 million kilometres through the vacuum of space, demonstrating
light's independence from matter. If light required a medium, space exploration and stargazing would be impossible
because outer space lacks sufficient particles to act as a medium.

The Speed of Light

The speed of light in a vacuum is one of the fundamental constants of nature and is represented by the symbol
c. Its value is:
c = 300,000 kilometres per second (or 3 x 10⁸ m/s).

To put this speed into perspective:

• Light from the Sun takes just over 8 minutes to reach Earth.
• Light from the Moon takes 1.28 seconds to reach Earth.
• The light from stars in our galaxy takes thousands or even millions of years to reach us, depending on the distance.
Light slows down slightly when it enters a medium like air, water, or glass, but in a vacuum, it travels at its maximum speed.
Planets and the sunlight:

Planet Distance from Sun (in million km) Time for Light to Reach (in minutes)
Mercury 57.91 3.24
Venus 108.2 6.04
Earth 149.6 8.33
Mars 227.9 12.74
Jupiter 778.3 43.35
Saturn 1,429.5 79.83
Uranus 2,870.9 159.67
Neptune 4,498.3 249.91
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Explanation:
• The light travels at approximately 300,000 km per second.
• To calculate the time for light to reach each planet, divide the distance from the Sun by the speed of light (300,000
km/s) and convert the result from seconds to minutes.
For example, for Earth:
Time=Distance × Speed of Light

= 149,600,000 km × 300,000 km/s = ≈8.33 minutes

Key Characteristics of Light Waves in a Vacuum

Property Details
Medium Requirement None; light travels without a medium.
Speed 300,000 km/s in a vacuum; slows down in air, water, or glass.
Nature Transverse electromagnetic wave, consisting of electric and magnetic fields.

Real-World Applications
Astronomy:
o Light from distant stars and galaxies travels through the vacuum of space, allowing astronomers to study the
universe.
o Observing light from celestial objects helps scientists determine their distance and composition.
Communication:
o Satellites transmit light waves (e.g., radio or microwaves) through space, enabling technologies like GPS and
satellite television.

Conclusion
The ability of light waves to travel through a vacuum is a defining characteristic that differentiates them from
mechanical waves. This property, along with their incredible speed, has profound implications for science, technology,
and our understanding of the universe. From enabling space exploration to supporting modern communication, light's
behaviour in a vacuum continues to inspire innovation and discovery.
 Term 2 Prep III

The City School

Handout: Science 2.2.3
Topic: Transmission of light
Name: Sec:

Learning Objective(s):
2.2.3 Describe how light is transmitted through different materials

Introduction
Light interacts with materials in various ways. When light encounters a material, it can be reflected, absorbed, or
transmitted through the material. The way light is transmitted depends on the properties of the material and the
nature of the light itself. Three key phenomena that describe how light interacts with materials are absorption,
diffuse scattering, and specular reflection. This handout will explain each of these processes and provide examples
to help you understand how light behaves when passing through different materials.

Absorption of Light
Absorption occurs when light is absorbed by a material, transferring its energy to the material. This can cause the
material to heat up, as the energy from the light is converted into thermal energy.
When light hits an object, the energy of the light is taken in by the atoms or molecules of the material. For instance,
dark-colored objects absorb more light energy than light-colored objects, which reflects more light.

Examples:
o A black surface absorbs almost all visible light and converts it into heat, which is why it feels warmer
in the sunlight.
o Glass can absorb ultraviolet (UV) light, which is why UV-protective glasses can prevent damage from
sunlight.
Absorption is most noticeable with opaque materials. It contributes to the warming of materials exposed to
sunlight or other light sources.

Irregular Reflection
Diffuse scattering occurs when light hits a rough or uneven surface and scatters in many different directions.
This is because the surface irregularities cause the light to bounce off in various angles.
Light strikes a rough surface, and instead of reflecting in a single direction (as in specular reflection), it scatters
in multiple directions. This scattering occurs at different angles based on the roughness of the surface.
 Term 2 Prep III

Examples:
o Paper or wood has a rough surface and scatters light in many directions, making them appear matte
and not shiny.
o Frosted glass scatters light and diffuses it, allowing light to pass through but blurring the objects on
the other side.
Diffuse scattering is commonly seen in materials with rough, uneven surfaces. It produces softer, less intense
light compared to direct reflection.

Regular Reflection
Specular reflection occurs when light reflects off a smooth, shiny surface at a specific angle. Unlike diffuse
scattering, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence (the angle at which the light hits the
surface).
When light strikes a smooth surface, such as a mirror or calm water, it reflects off the surface at the same
angle it arrived at. This type of reflection forms clear, sharp images.

Examples:
o A mirror or a still pond reflects light in a clear, predictable way, creating an image.
o Polished metals like aluminum or silver also exhibit specular reflection, reflecting light in a precise
direction.
Specular reflection happens on smooth, shiny surfaces and is responsible for clear images and bright
reflections.
Phenomenon Description Surface Type Example
Light energy is absorbed Opaque, dark- Black clothing
Absorption by the material and colored on a sunny
converted to heat materials day
Light is scattered in many
Diffuse Rough, uneven Paper, frosted
directions due to a rough
Scattering surfaces glass
surface
Light is reflected in a
Specular Smooth, shiny Mirrors, calm
single direction, forming
Reflection surfaces water
clear reflections

Key Comparison of the Three Phenomena

Applications of Each Phenomenon

Absorption:
o Solar panels absorb sunlight to convert it into electricity.
o Dark-colored clothes absorb more sunlight, making them feel warmer.
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Diffuse Scattering:
o Frosted glass is used in windows for privacy, as it scatters light while allowing it to pass through.
o Matte paints are designed to diffuse light, reducing glare and reflection.
Specular Reflection:
o Mirrors use specular reflection to form accurate images.
o Optical instruments like telescopes and microscopes depend on specular reflection to focus light.

Conclusion
Light can interact with materials in several ways, including absorption, diffuse scattering, and specular
reflection. Each of these interactions has practical applications in everyday life, from how we see objects to
how technologies like solar panels and mirrors work. Understanding how light is transmitted through
materials helps us explain many natural phenomena and is essential in fields such as optics, design, and
engineering.
 Term 2 Prep III

The City School

Handout: Science 2.2.6
Topic: Light Transferring Energy
Name: Sec:

Learning Objective(s):
2.2.6 Explain how light transfers energy from a source to an absorber, leading to chemical and electrical effects, such as in photo-
sensitive materials in the retina and cameras.

Introduction
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation, and its energy can be transferred from its source to an absorber. When light
interacts with materials, it can cause various chemical and electrical effects. These effects are important in many
everyday phenomena, such as vision, photography, and even the function of solar cells. This handout explains how light
transfers energy, leading to chemical and electrical effects, with examples from the retina in our eyes and photosensitive
materials in cameras.

Energy Transfer by Light

Light is made up of particles called photons, which carry energy. When light strikes an object, the photons transfer their
energy to the atoms or molecules in the material. This process is known as energy absorption. The way this energy is
absorbed and what happens to it depends on the properties of the material.
When light strikes a surface, the energy of the photons is absorbed by the electrons in the material. These electrons
become "excited" and may jump to a higher energy state or release energy in another form, such as heat.
If the material is photosensitive, it may undergo a chemical change as a result of this energy transfer.
Example: In photosensitive materials, such as those found in the human eye and cameras, this energy causes electrons
to move or react chemically, leading to an effect such as vision or an image being recorded.

Light and the Human Retina (Chemical Effect)

The retina in the human eye is a photosensitive tissue that is responsible for converting light into signals that are sent to
the brain. This process is how we "see" light.
Light enters the eye and strikes the photoreceptor cells in the retina. These cells contain light-sensitive molecules called
photopigments.

When these photopigments absorb light, the energy from the light triggers a chemical change. This change causes the
photoreceptor cell to send an electrical signal to the brain, which is then interpreted as an image.
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Photoreceptors:
Rods: These are sensitive to low light levels and help us see in dim conditions but do not detect color.
Cones: These work in bright light and are responsible for color vision. They detect specific wavelengths of light
corresponding to different colors.
The light energy absorbed by the retina leads to a chemical reaction that converts the light signal into an electrical signal
that our brain interprets as vision.

Light and Cameras (Electrical Effect)

Cameras use photosensitive materials, like the ones in the retina, to record images. When light hits these materials, it
leads to the generation of electrical signals, which are then used to create an image.

Digital Cameras: Digital cameras have sensors made of millions of photo-detectors (such as CCD or CMOS sensors).
These sensors are coated with photosensitive materials that convert light into electrical signals.

When light strikes the camera sensor, it excites the electrons in the photosensitive material, causing them to move and
create an electrical charge. This charge is then recorded as an image by the camera's processing system.
▪ Light enters the camera through the lens.
▪ It strikes the photosensitive sensor, which absorbs the light energy.
▪ The energy causes the material to release electrons and create an electrical charge.
▪ The charge is read by the camera’s sensor, and the image is processed and stored.
In cameras, light energy is converted into electrical signals that create a digital image, much like how the retina converts
light into signals the brain can understand.

Solar Cells (Electrical Effect)

Solar cells, or photovoltaic cells, are another example of how light’s energy can be converted into electrical energy.
Solar cells are made of semiconductor materials like silicon. When sunlight hits the surface of a solar cell, the energy
from the light causes electrons in the semiconductor material to become excited.
The excited electrons are then pushed out of their positions, creating a flow of electricity.
This electrical energy is captured and can be used to power devices or stored for later use.
Solar cells convert light energy directly into electrical energy, which is used to power homes, devices, and other
electrical systems.
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Photosensitive Materials in Other Technologies

Photosensitive materials are used in many other technologies that rely on light for chemical or electrical effects.
Photocopiers: In photocopiers, light scans a document and strikes a photoreceptor drum. The light causes a charge to
accumulate on the drum in areas where light has been absorbed, and toner is attracted to these areas to form a copy of
the document.
Photodiodes: Photodiodes are used in many electronic devices to detect light and convert it into an electrical signal,
such as in remote controls or optical sensors.

Key Concepts Summary

Effect Material Energy Conversion Example
Vision in humans,
Chemical Light energy triggers a chemical reaction that
Retina (eye) detection of light in the
Effect sends electrical signals to the brain
eye
Light energy excites electrons, creating
Electrical Camera sensor, solar Digital photography, solar
electrical charges that form an image or
Effect cells energy production
produce electricity
Electrical Photocopy machines, Light energy is converted to electrical signals or Photocopiers, optical
Effect photodiodes used to change material properties sensors

Conclusion
Light is more than just something we see; it is a powerful form of energy that can lead to chemical and electrical effects
in various materials. Whether it’s enabling us to see through the retina, capturing images with cameras, or generating
electricity with solar cells, light’s energy transfer plays a crucial role in everyday technology. Understanding how light
interacts with materials helps us to use it effectively in different fields, from healthcare to renewable energy.