EDUC 3 – Introduction to Curriculum Development

Module on
Approaches to Curriculum Development

Introduction

THIS chapter focuses on approaches to curriculum development. The key concepts namely: curriculum
and curriculum development are first of all explained. Different approaches to curriculum development
are presented and discussed. They include the four-step approach, the five-step approach, the seven-
step approach and others, some of which are institutionally determined. The similarities and differences
between the various approaches are also treated.

What is curriculum?

The term curriculum has been differently defined by different people. These definitions are dependent
on their different conceptions of education and the functions of school and the types of products they
expect from educational institutions. The origin of the word curriculum was from the Latin word 'currus',
which means to run a race. This means that once a child starts to learn, he/she begins to run the race.
This race is comprehensive in nature because, in the course of the race, the child or the learner
encounters a lot of experiences, which may be intellectual, social, moral, spiritual or physical. These
experiences are provided to produce the total man. The experiences may be formal and planned or
informal and accidental or unplanned. In the course of the race, the child may also encounter some
obstacles which he/she must surmount either through his/her efforts or by the assistance of someone
else to enable him/her to attain the expectations of the society. The child is the main focus of the
curriculum.

Curriculum can be defined as the document, plan or blue print for instructional guide, which is used for
teaching and learning to bring about positive and desirable learner behaviour change. This definition
refers to the formal curriculum, which is planned ahead of time, bearing in mind the characteristics of
the curriculum recipients, the philosophy and goals of education, the environment, the resources,
methods of teaching, and evaluation procedures. It is the road map to attainment of the goals of
education. The curriculum document can be regarded as the syllabus, the scheme of work or the course
outline. It refers to the planned curriculum.

The definition of curriculum as a structured series of learning experiences intended for the education of
the learners is related to the above definition. It is a course of studies offered in the school for the
education of the learners, and which students pursue in order to get a degree, a certificate, a diploma or
any other forms of academic awards. Learning experiences are embedded in courses taught to the
learners in schools. The learning experiences are learner oriented, goal oriented; and they can be
physical or mental activities, observable or unobservable (Offorma, 2002). Learning experiences are
equated to curriculum content by some authors (Tyler, 1971; Ivowi, 2009). Wheeler (1978) distinguishes
learning experiences from the content. He sees the former as the activities engaged by the learners and
the latter as the knowledge they are exposed to. The learning experiences are the means while the
content is the end. Curriculum content is made up of the subject matter to be taught, body of
knowledge, topics, ideas, concepts, symbols, facts and cognitions, presented to the learners (Offorma,
2002).

Curriculum is a programme. This includes programme of studies, programme of activities and

programme of guidance. One cannot talk about curriculum without referring to the programme .of
studies which is seen in form of subjects, contents, subject matters and bodies of knowledge. The
programme of activities is made up of all the learning experiences presented to the learners. Learners
learn through activities and so the programme of activities facilitates the learning of the programme of
studies. Programme of guidance is the assistance given to the young and inexperienced members of the
society by more experienced /persons to help them solve their educational, career or vocational, , ;B!IId
socio-personal problems.

'Curriculum can be taken to mean the instrument by means of Which schools seek to translate the
hopes of the society in which they function into concrete realities. It is planned and sequenced. k is a
vehicle through which education is attained. The essence of education is the ability to transfer the
knowledge, facts, skills, values and attitudes learnt from one situation to solving ,roblems in another
situation, and this is done through curriculum.

Curriculum Development

Curriculum development deals with the arrangement of [curriculum materials to facilitate

implementation. Ivowi (1994:6) sees curriculum development as curriculum planning, when he
distinguishes the three angles of curriculum: 'planning or development, curriculum implementation and
curriculum evaluation'. Curriculum development precedes curriculum planning. It involves all
stakeholders in the education of the Learners and takes into account everything that will make the
curriculum recipients functional members of their society. That was why Prof Babs Fafunwa championed
the policy introducing indigenous language in the school curriculum. He tried to show .t s workability
through his developmental research on the teaching of primary school children in Yoruba (the He Six
Year Project). He found out that children taught in Yoruba performed better than those taught in
English.

In developing a curriculum a number of factors are considered, and these factors are the elements that
can promote or mar curriculum implementation if not taken cognizance of in the beginning. The
elements include the learners, who are the curriculum recipients; the teachers who are the curriculum
implementers; the society (culture) from where the learners come and where they will function after
schooling; the philosophy of education, on which the goals of education hinge; psychology of learning,
which is the embodiment of the principles for effective teaching and learning (methods); the economy
of the society, which determines how robust the curriculum is and its effective implementation;
resources, which are the paraphernalia of effective curriculum implementation and without which
curriculum development becomes worthless; and values of the society, which is the essence of
education.
Approaches to Curriculum Development Curriculum practitioners and implementers may use one or
more approaches in planning, implementing and evaluating a curriculum. In discussing the approaches
to curriculum development, one focuses on the manner curriculum is arranged to facilitate effective
delivery by the implementer. Approaches to curriculum development are the strategies employed in
organizing curriculum content and learning activities that are presented to the learners. They are the
ways of attaining a functional curriculum development. Mbakwem (2009), writes that curriculum
approach and design can be used interchangeably. Approaches to curriculum development can also be
regarded as models of curriculum development.

1. The Four-Step Approach

There are different approaches to curriculum development, which are presented according to ones
focus on the elements of curriculum development and the level of operation of the curriculum. No
matter the approach or design or model, they all cover the same scope needed to develop a functional
curriculum. Giles, McCutchen and Zechiel (1942) developed a four-step model of curriculum
development. The four steps are: selection of objectives, selection of learning experiences, organization
of learning experiences and evaluation. Their understanding of curriculum development approach is that
the developer must first of all select the objectives which they believe propels the other steps, since
every other step has focus on attainment of the objectives.

Tyler's (1975) approach to curriculum development also has four steps, just like Giles et al. The only
difference between the two approaches is that Tyler's approach is liner, showing that one step leads to
another; while Giles et al show the interrelatedness and interdependence of the steps. They believe that
the objectives 'determine what happens at the other steps. Tyler posed four basic questions to explain
the approaches to curriculum development, namely:

a. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

b. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
c. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
d. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

A curriculum developer in answering the questions would develop a good curriculum because he would
have selected the objectives, .earning experiences, organized the learning experiences and embarked on
evaluation. The questions are specific and help the curriculum developer to be on track, always focusing
on the objectives.

Kerr's (1968) approach has also four steps dealing with selection)f objectives, selection of content,
selection of learning experiences and evaluation. Though the steps are interrelated and dependent on
each other, he did not say anything about organization of learning experiences. This is a limitation to this
model, because curriculum implementation cannot be attained without effective organization of the
learning experiences.
 2. The Five-Step Approach

The five-step approach presents a departure from the four-step approach as discussed above. Nicholls
and Nicholls (1978) recommended this type of approach. The additional step is due to their emphasis on
situational analysis. They see this as a very crucial component of curriculum development process.
Situational analysis is the diagnosis of all the factors and issues involved in curriculum planning and
development. These factors are identified and analysed to ensure that the development of the
curriculum will be hitch free and that a worthwhile and functional curriculum is developed. They believe
that embarking on situational analysis would facilitate selection of the objectives that reflect the needs
of the society.

So Nicholls and Nicholls approach include: situational analysis, selection of objectives, selection of
content, methods, and evaluation. The four-step approach proponents did not use content but learning
experiences, to qualify the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values presented in the curriculum for the
learners to imbibe. Nicholls and Nicholls call it content. They also refer to organization of learning
experiences as methods. Methods deal with the arrangement of the curriculum materials to be
presented to the learners, which is the same as organization. It deals with observing the principles of
effective organization, which include sequencing, integration, continuity and scope. Their approach is
cyclic in nature which depicts a flexible process whereby the curriculum worker can start from any point
to develop the curriculum. This presents curriculum development as a continuous and on-going process.

In the same vein, Wheeler's (1980) approach supports that of Nicholls and Nicholls. His model is a five-
step, cyclic approach, made up of: Selection of objectives, selection of content, selection of learning
experiences, organization of content and learning experiences, and evaluation. Wheeler differed from
the others by accommodating both learning experiences and content, which he shows as two different
components. The content is the body of knowledge, the subject matter, the facts, ideas etc. presented
to the learners, while the learning experiences are the activities embarked upon by the learners to help
them learn the content. They can be physical or mental; overt or covert. They are learner-oriented and
goal-oriented. So the learning experiences are the means, while the content is the end. Wheeler also
sees the organization of the two as the methods applied in the implementation of the curriculum.

Wheeler neglects situational analysis which deals with needs analysis. His approach is also cyclic and
flexible in that one can begin curriculum development task from any point. It also shows that curriculum
is an on-going activity because the society is dynamic, and so, curriculum, a vehicle used to produce
functional members of the society should also be dynamic.

3. The Seven-Step Approach

Taba (1962) proposes her model or approach to curriculum development to have seven components.
She strongly believes that the phases should be specified to avoid confusing the curriculum developer.
She has the same point with Nicholls and Nicholls; that curriculum development should begin with
situational analysis. She went further to identify the factors to be studied at the situational analysis
phase, which include: the learner, the teacher, the learning process, the nature of available accumulated
body of knowledge, the nature of the educational system and facilities, the nature of the society, and
environmental influences on the learner. The data collected from this analysis will equip the curriculum
developer with the necessary details to select the curriculum objectives. The process or approach has
the following steps: Situational analysis, selection of objectives, selection of learning experiences,
selection of content, organization of learning experiences, organization of content, and evaluation.
Unlike Wheeler, the learning experiences and content are organized separately.

4. Six Steps Approach / John Hopkins University Approach

An approach to curriculum development which was developed by physician educators at John Hopkins
University for clinical educators was presented by Kern, Thomas, Howa and Bass '1998). This approach
has six steps, which include: problem identification, needs assessment of targeted learners, goals and
objectives, educational strategies, implementation, evaluation and feedback. They see the approach as
logical, systematic, dynamic, and interactive. These six steps are discussed briefly in details.

a. Problem Identification

This is the first step. The main reason for developing a curriculum is to train learners to be useful
members of their society. A functional curriculum focuses on the problems of the society and so in
developing a curriculum these problems form the basis for selecting the knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes to be inculcated in the learners to equip them to solve their problems. In identifying the
problems, the learner characteristics, their current status and what they should be are analysed to
identify the problems. The society is also studied to sift the problems, which will be dealt with in
developing the curriculum.

b. Needs Assessment of Targeted Learners

At this step, a needs assessment of the targeted learners is embarked upon. It involves a process by
which the curriculum developer finds out the differences between what is and what should be; the
actual characteristics of the targeted group of learners, and what obtains in their environment. The first
step in any curriculum development process involves research that reviews recent issues and trends of
the discipline, both within the society and across the nation. This research allows a curriculum
committee to identify key issues and trends that will support the needs assessment that should be
conducted and the philosophy that should be developed. Tyler (1971) describes needs as the gap
between where the learner is and where he/she wants to be or should be. To be able to close this gap,
the required knowledge, skills, attitudes and values must be included in the curriculum.

As a result of this process, committee members are likely to identify many of the following issues and
trends that will need to be addressed as the curriculum development process moves forward: meeting
the needs of all students; learning theory and other cognitive psychology findings on how students
learn; what determines developmental readiness or developmental appropriateness; the current
expectations of the field; the knowledge of and readiness for change on the part of teachers; the.
availability of resources; the role and availability of information and technology resources; scheduling
issues; methods and purposes of assessments; and professional development.

c. Goals and Objectives

This is the third step. Goals are broad statements of intended learning outcomes. They are stated using
broad terms that are not measurable until they are broken down into action verbs. Objectives are
specific statements of intensions of what is expected of the learners at the end of teaching session. They
are stated in action verbs, which are measurable. Once the problems are identified the needs of the
targeted group analysed, the broad goals are formulated and broken down to specific objectives.

Subsequent steps hinge on the specific objectives because they are put in place to facilitate attainment
of the objectives.

In selecting the objectives, the three behaviours: cognitive, affective and psychomotor are borne in
mind. This is to ensure that the curriculum is comprehensive and will produce the total man. The
objectives drive every other activity in curriculum development. This is why it is important to use specific
and clear action verbs to avoid misunderstanding. Goals and objectives are important because they help
direct the choice of curricular content; suggest what learning methods will be most effective; enable
evaluation of learners and the curriculum; suggest what evaluation methods are appropriate; clearly
communicate to others what the curriculum addresses and hopes to achieve.

d. Educational Strategies

Educational strategies are the detailed means of facilitating learning. It involves the manipulations of the
learning environment to motivate learners to learn. A method may accommodate a number of
strategies, which means that strategies are sub-sets of method. In this step, the educational strategies
are developed. The strategies must promote the attainment of the objectives. The strategies involve
both the activities and the contents. The activities are the means while the contents are the ends. This is
why active participation of the learners in curriculum endeavours is encouraged. Today, interactive
strategies such as collaboration, cooperation, learner autonomy, use of songs, small group activities and
drama are encouraged.

e. Implementation

Implementation is putting into action, the planned curriculum. It is the combined efforts of the learner,
the teacher and other stakeholders in ensuring effective execution of the curriculum document. It calls
for teacher-learner, learner-learner and learner-classroom environment interactions. Careful attention
must be paid to issues of implementation. The curriculum developer must ensure that sufficient
resources, political and financial support, and administrative strategies have been developed to
successfully implement the curriculum.

Evaluation and Feedback Most curriculum development models put evaluation as the last step.
Evaluation and feedback closes the loop in the curriculum development cycle. Evaluation deals with the
extent of attainment of the stated objectives. It is the process of identifying the strengths and
weaknesses of the curriculum. It exposes what the learners have learnt and the gaps to be closed. It is
through evaluation that the feedback which is knowledge of result (KR) is obtained. The feedback
informs the curriculum developer about the next action to embark on. This is why Wheeler sees
curriculum development as a cyclic activity which has no end as the feedback is ploughed back to the
entire process for improvement.

Components of Curriculum Development Process

The Bureau of Curriculum Development and Instruction (2006), propounded four major approaches to
curriculum development, namely: Planning, articulating and developing, Implementation and
Evaluation. They called them components of curriculum development process. Each step has a number
of activities that must be carried out by the curriculum developer during the process as shown below.

a. Planning

This section entails: convening a Curriculum Development Committee meeting to identify key issues and
trends in the specific content area, and assess needs and issues. Curriculum development should be
viewed as a process by which meeting student needs leads to improvement of student learning.
Regardless of the theory or model followed, curriculum developers should gather as much information
as possible. This information should include the desired outcomes or expectations of a high quality
curriculum, the role of assessment, the current status of student achievement and actual programme
content. The information should also consider the concerns and attitudes of teachers, administrators,
parents and students.

b. Articulating and Developing

This component deals with articulating the philosophy of the programme; defining the goals and
deriving the objectives from the goals; identifying the required resources for implementation of the
curriculum; and identifyingLho appropriate assessment procedures and instruments to measure the
students' learning outcomes.

c. Implementing

The third component is implementation and this means putting the New Programme into practice. This
is the operational stage of the curriculum whereby the learners are exposed to the curriculum and then
engage in the learning activities as contained in the curriculum.

d. Evaluation

Evaluation deals with determining the success of the curriculum. Through the attainments of the
learners, the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum are identified and the feedback is used to
update the curriculum. Appropriate instruments are developed and used to evaluate the attained
curriculum. The feedback is used to restructure, modify, review or jettison the curriculum.
Other Approaches

Mbakwem (2009) discussed a number of curriculum designs which are extension of the designs
presented by Mkpa (1987) and Offorma (1994).These designs are the subject, the core, the broad fields
and the activity or experience curriculum designs. Mkpa calls the broad fields the integrated curriculum
design, because it is an amalgam of related contents from different knowledge areas. These designs
depict means or ways of developing a curriculum.

The subject curriculum is the oldest design which organizes the curriculum according to discrete subjects
as we see in the senior secondary school curriculum. The core curriculum design deals with organizing
the curriculum that every member of a group must offer. In the schools, they are regarded as the
compulsory courses or subjects that each member of the group must offer; for example in the
secondary school, English Language and Mathematics are compulsory subjects. The broad fields
curriculum is the organization of the curriculum contents and learning experiences selected from
different but related disciplines, which are put together and presented to the learner as a subject or an
area of knowledge. A good example of this kind of curriculum is the Cultural and Creative Arts and the
Basic Science and Technology in the junior secondary school curriculum. This kind of design does not
make for specialization as is the case with the subject curriculum, but exposes the learner to broad areas
of knowledge. It can be said that it gives the background information required to understand the
subjects that formed the bases of correlation. The activity curriculum is mainly used at the pre-primary
and primary schools. This design is not pre-planned and the focus is the activities dictated by the
learners according to their interest. It is also called experience curriculum, because it is based on the
experiences of the learners.

In addition to the above designs, Mbakwem (2009) included more designs such as Task/Job Analysis
Approach, Occupational Area Approach, Functional Analysis Approach, Competency Approach, Modular
Approach and On-line Curriculum design. The task/job analysis approach focuses on the required
competencies in a job or task. The design maps out the relevant knowledge, skills, attitudes and
activities the learner must possess to be able to perform a particular task or job. The curriculum
contents therefore emphasize the tasks. It is useful in designing a curriculum for technical or trade
school. The major limitation to this design is that the tasks do not take cognizance of future labour
market demands. Again it does not promote transfer of learning, which is the essence of education.

Task/job analysis approach resembles the occupational area approach and the competency approach.
These three designs focus on the required competencies, skills, attitudes, values and knowledge for
effective delivery in the occupation or job area. The design enables the learner to perform the required
up-to-date tasks and duties in their disciplines.

The functional analysis approach is a design that focuses on the demands of the society in organizing
curriculum content. It can be seen as problem-solving design, whereby the imminent problems are the
focus in the design. It takes into consideration the problems of the society and incorporates the needed
knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to solve the problems. This design is put in place as the need
arises. We can use the retraining programmes of the secondary school teachers embarked upon by the
Universal Basic Education Commission to make the teachers functional as a good example of functional
ice3ign. First of all, needs analysis is carried out to identify the problems or setbacks, before embarking
on the selection of the content, activities, strategies, resources and evaluation procedures to be
employed in the training.

The modular approach is the design that arranges the curriculum content into modules. The modules
are presented as topics, and the objectives explained, method of work, needed resources, strategies and
evaluation modes are explained. It is so specified and simplified that the learner may use the modules
without recourse to the teacher. In modular design individualized instruction can be used as each
learner goes according to his/her pace. This design relies heavily on electronic media but at times, the
print media is used. The student is at liberty to spend as much time as he or she needs to learn a
particular skill. The modules are pre-planned and pre-packaged.

The on-line curriculum design enables the curriculum developer and the teacher to organize
instructions, tasks, discussions and even examinations for the learners. This is presented to them
through a system that allows students' input through a networked device. Computer and computer
software are required for its implementation. A topic is introduced and the students are asked to
contribute their ideas. There is active participation of the students and their contributions get back to
the teacher or instructor through the networked electronic device. The students can be evaluated based
on their contributions to the topic discussed. These can be done through the social communications
prevalent today, such as face book and twitter.

This is an innovation and it promotes communication among the learners. It makes learning active and
lively. Cooperation is enhanced as all the members are carried along, in reasoning, analysing, and
evaluation of the activities. It promotes problem solving and tolerance of the learners. The design is
expensive and requires Information and Communication Technology literacy. Availability of power
supply is a determining factor· in its implementation.

Learning Activity and Reflection

Answer the following.

1. Study the different approaches. Show their comparison in a matrix. Determine the aspects for
comparison.

2. Identify some of the key trends in education which should be taken into account when
developing curricula?
 3. Compare your own undergraduate training with a current programme that you observed or
enrolled. How would these be defined according to the different models described above?
What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of each? Can you think of how ideas
from these models could be used to improve a course in which you are involved?

4. Find some examples of learning outcomes or objectives from the Curriculum Guide of your
specialization (any grade . level). Do you think these are good examples or could they be
improved?

5. Choose a topic from the Curriculum Guide and the learning outcomes. Try to determine how
these will relate to teaching and learning methods and to assessment using the matrix.

Subject Area: ___________________________ Grade Level: _________________

Topic: ________________________

Learning Objective / Teaching and Learning Assessment

Outcomes Activities

Note:

Have your answers in separate sheets (Letter size) computerized or handwritten.

Conclusion

The development of an effective curriculum guide is a multi-step, on-going and cyclical process. There
are many approaches to curriculum development as presented in this chapter. No matter the choice of
approach, the curriculum developer must be guided by the following principles. The curriculum
developer must establish a clear philosophy and set overarching goals that guide the entire curriculum
and the decisions that affect each aspect of the curriculum. He should establish sequences both within
and between levels and assure a coherent and articulated progression from one level to another. A basic
framework must be outlined for what to do, how to do it, when to do it and how to know if it has been
achieved. He must allow for flexibility and encourage experimentation and innovation within an overall
structure. The curriculum must promote interdisciplinary approaches and the integration when
appropriate. Methods of assessing the achievement of the curriculum goals and objectives must be
suggested and a means for revision and improvement provided. The direction for procurement of
human, material and fiscal resources to implement the curriculum should also be provided.

There is no perfect approach. However, to be effective, an approach must attract acceptance of the
teachers and other stakeholders in the education of the learners. This acceptance will be far easier to
attain when the curriculum approach reflects child growth and development, the philosophy of the
society, principles of teaching and learning, needs and varying abilities of the learners, ease of
implementation; and cooperatively developed by a broad-based committee of teachers and relevant
experts. The approaches presented here resemble each other. The difference, one can rightly claim is in
the semantics (terminology), because they emphasize the same process.

References

Bureau of Curriculum and Instruction (2006).Guide to curriculum development: purposes, practices and
procedures. Hartford: Connecticut State Department of Education.

Chinyere, Nzewi, U.M. & Offorma, G.C. (eds), Curriculum diversification in Nigeria. Nigeria: Curriculum
Organization of Nigeria (CON).

Giles, H.H.; McCutchen, S.P. &Zechiel, A.N. (1942).Exploring the curriculum. New York: Harper & Row
Publishers Inc.

Ivowi, U.M.O. (1994), Concept of curriculum implementation. In Offorma (ed), Curriculum

Implementation and Instruction. Onitsha: Uni World Educational Publishers.

Ivowi, U.M.O. (2009). Definition or meaning of curriculum (an operational) definition suited for Nigeria.
In Ivowi, U.M.O., Nwufo, Kate, Nwagbara.

Kern, D., Thomas, D., Howa D., & Bass, E. (1998).Curriculum development for medical education: a
six-step approach. Baltimore & London: The John Hopkins University Press. London: George
Allen and Unwin.

Mbakwem, J.U.(2009). Diversification through the use of multiple curriculum designs and approaches.
In Ivowi, U.M.O. Nwufo Kate, Nwagbara C, Nzewi, U.M. & Offorma, G.C. (eds) Curriculum
Diversification in Nigeria. Nigeria: Curriculum Organization of Nigeria (CON).

Mkpa, A.M. (1987). Curriculum development and implementation. Owerri: Totan Publishers Ltd.
Nicholls, A. & Nicholls H. (1978). Developing a curriculum: a practical guide.