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‫الفصول ‪20/14/13/11/10/9‬‬

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‫اعداد عباس ميثم‬

 ☠ 𝙲𝙷𝙰𝙿𝚃𝙴𝚁 9 ☠
☂Semantics

Semantics: is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.

Semantics focuses on the study of the meaning of words rather than on
meaning of the individual speaker in a particular occasion. Semantics is
objective and general meaning and it is not subjective or local meaning.

☂Meaning
The study of meaning: is divided into two types of meaning:
conceptual meaning and associative meaning.

Conceptual meaning covers those basic and essential components

of meaning that are conveyed by the literal use of a word. For example,
the word ''needle'' in English might include ''thin'' ''sharp'' ''steel'' and
''instrument''. These components would be part of the conceptual
meaning of ''needle''.

Different people might have different associations or

connotations attached to a word like needle.
They might associate it with ''pain'', ''illness'' or blood.

People who are concerned with associative meaning are: poets song
writers , novelists, literary critics, advertisers and lovers, but in linguistic
semantics we are more concerned with trying to analyze conceptual
meaning.
 ☂Semantic features
Basic elements such as

Human includes (+human) and (_ human) used in the analysis of the

components of a word meaning.

We have features in this theory to analyze other sentences. These

features: (+human, _human),(+animate, _animate),(+female, _female)
(+adult, _adult).

The following examples illustrates the oddness of the sentences below:

1-The horse listens to the radio. This sentence is meaningless because the
subject is(_ human).

2- The table is drinking water. This sentence is meaningless because the subject
is(_ animate).

3- The------------------ is reading a newspaper. In this sentence, we need(+ human)

because reading a newspaper is a feature of
human being. For example: the student , the boy.

☂Semantic Roles
Instead of thinking of words as ''containers'' of meaning, we can look at
the ''roles'' of the words fulfill within the situation
described by a sentence.

Semantic roles are: agent, theme, experiencer, location, goal , source and instrument.
 According to the role of a word In
sentence.

☂Agent and theme.

The boy kicked the ball.
The boy is agent.

The ball is theme. If the verb is a verb of action, we can use the term
(agent) for the subject.

☂Experiencer
If the verb isn't a verb of action ,We can use the term
(experiencer).for the subject
The boy saw the man . The boy : experiencer. The man: theme

☂Instrument, location, source and goal.

She borrowed a magazine from George.
agent theme source
She squashed the bug with the magazine.
Agent theme instrument.

Mary saw a fly on the wall.

Experiencer theme location

She handed the magazine back to George.

agent theme goal

 ☂Lexical relations
Words have meaning through their relations with other words.

For example: synonymy two words with the same meaning.

e.g. large/ big broad/ wide

Antonyms two words with opposite meaning:

e.g. long/short male/ female dead/ alive. Antonyms are divided into

THREE types: gradable antonyms , non gradable antonyms and

Reversives

☕Gradable antonyms have

two features:

1- the comparative construction can be used.

E.g./ long / longer

2- The negative of one doesn't imply the other.

E.g./ My car isn't old. It doesn't imply my car is new.

☕Non- Gradable antonyms have two features:

1- the comparative construction can't be used.

2- The negative of one does imply the other.

E.g. My friend isn't alive. It implies that my friend is dead.

☕Reversives: two word with the opposite meaning by using prefixes
for. E.g.
appear/disappear ,tie/untie
☂Hyponymy
When the meaning of a word is included within another word.

e.g. the meaning of a word (dog) is included in the meaning of (animal).

Flower is included in the meaning of a word (plant).

The relationship is described as hyponymy. Hyponymy means : it is a

kind of. Dog is a hyponym of animal. Flower is a hyponym of plant.

Animal, and plant) are called superordinate(higher-level). (Animal is

superordinate for dog).When two words share the same superordinate
term are called co-hyponyms. Horse and dog are co-hyponyms of animal
and the superordinate term is animal.

☂Prototypes
The concept of a prototype helps explain the meaning of certain
words like bird not in terms of component features but in terms of
resemblance to the clearest example.

For example: sparrow is a prototype of a bird.

Chair is a prototype of furniture.

Carrot is a prototype of vegetable.

☂Homophones and homonyms

When two words have the same sound, but different spelling, they are
described as homophones.
Right/ write to/too

We use the term homonyms when one form(written and spoken)has

two or more unrelated meanings.
 e.g.: bank(of river) bank(financial institution).

☂Polysemy
Polysemy can be defined as one form (written and spoken)having
multiple meanings that are all related by extension.
For example: the word (head) it may be used for the top of the body. Head of
the department. Head of the company.

☂Metonymy
Metonymy is a type of meaning relation based simply on a close
connection in everyday experience.
1-that close connection can be based on a container-contents relation(bottle/water) a
whole- part relation(car/wheels).
2- Representative- symbol relationship (king/crown , the president/ white house)

☂Collocation
Collocation means that some words tend to occur with other words.
Like: hammer and nail/salt and pepper .

☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎☏︎
 ‫✍حلول تمارين الفصل التاسع‬

☘︎ Semantics(9) ☘︎
Q1

The term prototype is used in semantics to refer to the clearest example

on the basis of resemblance. For example: carrot is a prototype
of vegetable.

Q2-
Using semantics features to explain the oddness of these sentences.

a-The television drank my water. (-animate) bHis

dog writes poetry.(- human).

Q3-

Identify the semantic roles of the seven noun phrases in this sentence: With
her new golf club, Ann Marshall whacked the ball from the woods to the grassy
area near the hole and she suddenly felt invincible.

With her new golf : instrument whacked: verb

of action.
Felt: is a verb of non-action

Ann Marshall : agent the ball

: theme

The woods : source The

grassy area :goal The hole

:location she

:experiencer

Q4
-What is the basic lexical relation between each pair of the words listed
below?

1-Damp/moist 2- furniture/table 3- move/run 4-deep/shallow

5married/single 6-peace/piece.

1-synonyms 2-hyponyms 3-synonyms 4-antonyms

5-antonyms 6- homophones

Q5-

Which of the following opposites are gradable, nongradable,

reversive.
1-Absent/present
2-fail/pass
3-fill it/empty it

4-appear/ disappear

5-fair/unfair
6-high/low.

1-non-gradable
2-gradable
3-nongradable
4reversive
5-reversive
6- gradable.

Q6-
a)-metonymy
b)-polysemy C)

metonymy

d)-metonymy

e) polysemy

f)-polysemy
 ☀𝙲𝙷𝙿𝚃𝙴𝚁 10☀

The study of what speakers mean or ''speakers' meaning'' is called

pragmatics.

☘︎Pragmatics is the study of invisible meaning or how we

recognize what is meant even when it is not actually said or written.

For example, speakers or writers must be able to depend on a lot

of shared assumptions and expectations when they try to communicate.

For example, when someone reads the sign '' Heated Attendant
Parking'', by means of the knowledge of the world that is shared
assumption and expectations. He or she will know that is a place where
one can park his or her car and there is an attendant to look after the cars
. another example, when someone sees an advertisement on a shop
written baby and toddler for sail. One will guess that the clothes of the
babies and toddlers are for sail not babies and toddlers themselves even
if the word '' clothes'' is not written, but, from the knowledge of the world
,one can know how is more always being communicated than written.
 Context

In fact, we have two contexts. One type is called linguistic contexts or

cotext. The co-text of a word is a set of other words used in the same
phrase or sentence. The surrounding co-text has the strong effect on what
we think the word probably means. For example , the word ''bank'' we
don’t know which ''bank' 'the writer means (side of the sea)or(financial
institution),unless the cotext of the word''bank''isfound. The second type
of context is the physical context. If we see the word

''bank'' on the wall of a building in a city the physical context will influence
our interpretation. .

☘︎Deixis
There are some common words in our language that can't be
understood at all if we don't know the context, especially the physical
context of the speaker. These are words such as ''here, there this ,that,
now and then, yesterday, today, tomorrow, as well as pronouns such as :
I , you, me, she, him , it , them. For example : ''You will have to bring it
back tomorrow because she isn't here today''. Out of context this
sentence is vague. It contains a large number of expressions (you, it
,tomorrow, she, here, today). The deictic expressions are divided into
three types: person deixis: (him , his ,he ,they, them , those),spatial deixis.
As well as those used to point to a time (now , then, last week) is called
temporal deixis. .
 ☘︎Reference
Reference can be defined as an act by which a speaker or (writer)
uses language to enable listener or (reader) to identify something.

To perform an act of reference , we can use proper nouns such

as(Chomsky , Jennifer , Whiskas) , other nouns in phrases ( a writer , my

friend , the cat) or pronouns( he , she ,it).

☘︎Inference
Inference can be defined as an additional information used by the
listener to create a connection between what is said and what must be
meant. For example, If you are studying linguistics , you might ask
someone. ''can I look at your Chomsky? And get the response sure it is on
the shelf over there. This example makes it clear that we use names
associated with things.
We use the name ''Chomsky'' to refer to things.

☘︎Anaphora
We usually make a distinction between introducing new referents(a book
) and referring back to them (the book ,it). .

FOR EXAMPLE: I Found a book yesterday. The book I found

yesterday was about the English grammar. It was very useful.

In this type of referential relationship, the second(or subsequent) referring

expression is an example of (or anaphora) (referring back). The first mention
is called the antecedent. So in our example, (a book) is an antecedent and ''the
book'' and ''it'' are anaphoric expressions.
☘︎Presupposition
Presupposition: can be defined as what a speaker assumes
is true or known by a listener or (a reader). For example, if someone
tell you '' your brother is waiting outside'', there is a presupposition
that you have a brother. Another example, if you asked
'' why did you arrive late'' there is a presupposition that you did arrive
late.

☘︎Speech acts
Speech acts : can be defined as the actions performed by a speaker
with an utterance.
We use the term speech act to describe the actions such as:
“requesting'', commanding'' ,questioning'', informing''.

For example, If you say I will be there at six, you are not just speaking,
you seem to be performing the speech act of ''promising'' . In using
speech act , we use two types of speech: direct and indirect speech
act.
For example: Can you ride a bicycle? When we ask about the ability
of someone, we produce a direct speech act. Another example of an
indirect speech act, when we say something and we mean another thing.
For example: Can you pass the salt please? In fact , we don’t ask about
someone's ability . In fact , we don’t normally use its structure as
question at all. We normally use it as a request. IN such a case, we
produce an indirect speech act. .

☘︎Politeness
Politeness: can be defined as showing a of awareness and
consideration of another person's face.
 If you say something that represents a threat to another person's self-image. That is
called a face threatening act.
.

For example
: '' give me that paper'' you use a direct speech act . It means that you
have social power than the other person. You Produce a face threatening
act. But if one uses an indirect speech act such as: '' could you pass me the
salt'' one will remove of the social power. In such a case one produce a
face- saving act.

☘︎Negative and positive face

•Negative face :-A person likes to be independent from society.
Ex: I'm sorry to bother you ...; I know
you're busy , but ...

•Positive face:-A person likes to be a member of society.

Ex: Let's do this together ...; you and i have the same problem, so..
 ‫︎♕حلول تمارين الفصل العاش︎ر‬
Q1
What kind of deictic expressions are used in this utterance? I’m busy now
so you can’t stay here, Come back later.
Now, Later :temporal dioxins you, I:Person dioxins here, come back: Special dioxins

Q2
What are the anaphoric expressions in this sentence.
‘’Dr. Foster gave Andy some medicine after he told her about his headaches and she
Advised him to take the palls three times a day until the pan went away.’ ‘
He anaphoric expressions arehe, her , she, him, the palls , the pan)

Q3-
What kind of inference ns involved in interpreting each of these utterances?
A)teacher: you can borrow my Shakespeare. He inference ns (my Shakespeare).

He name Shakespeare ns used to refer to a thing( a book).

B)waiter : the sandwich left without paying. He inference ns (the sandwich).

He word sandwich ns used to refer to a person(people)

C)Nurse:- the hernia in room 5 wants to talk to the doctor.

He inference ns (the hernia in room 5). A thing ns used to refer to people.

D)Dentist : My eleven –thirty canceled so I had an early lunch.

He inference ns (my eleven thirty). A thing ns used to refer to a person.

Q4-
What ns an obvious presupposition of a speaker who says:

a)Your clock isn’t working. It presupposes that he has a clock.

b)Where did he find the money? It presupposes that he found money.
c)We regret buying the car. It presupposes that we have a car.
d)he king of France is bald. It presupposes that there ns a king of France.

Q5
Someone stands between you and the have set you are watching, so you decided

To say one of the following . Identify which would be direct or indirect:

a)move (direct)
b)You are in the way. (indirect)
c)Could you please sent down? (indirect)
d)Please get out of the way. (direct)

Q6
In these examples, ns the speaker appealing to positive or negative face.

a)If you are free, there ns gong to be a party at Yarn’s place on Saturday. (Negative face)

b) Let us go to the party at Yarn’s place on Saturday. Everyone ns invented. (Positive face)

♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎♫︎
 Chapter 11
DICSOURSE ANALYSIS

Discourse Analysis can be defined that the users of Language can

make sense of what they read, and how they can recognize wellstructured
texts as opposed to those that are jumbled or incoherent as well as
Language-users can understand speakers who communicate more than
they say, and how Language-users successfully take part in that complex
activity called conversation, we are undertaking what is known as
discourse analysis.

In such a case, the discourse analysis as it is mentioned in the

definition above. It is used: in Language (writing) (texts) and in spoken
Language(conversation). .

☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀

1-Interpreting discourse(language writing)

We can even cope with texts, written in English, which we
couldn't produce ourselves and which appear to break a lot of rules of the
English language. Yet we can build an interpretation. As in the following
example: My town

My natal was in a small town, very close to Riyadh capital of Saudi

Arabia. The distant between my town and Riyadh 7 miles exactly. The
name of this Almasani that means in English factories. It takes this name
from the peopl's carrer. In my childhood I remember the people live. It was
very simple. Most the people was farmer. In spite of ungrammatical
forms in this text, we can make sense of it. That is, we attempt to arrive at a
reasonable interpretation of what the writer intended to convey.
.
Cohesion
Cohesion can be defined as the ties and connections that exist
within the texts. A number of those cohesive ties can be identified in the
following examples. .

'' my father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving

every penny he could. That car would be worth a fortune nowadays.
However, he sold it to help pay for my college education. Sometimes I
think I'd rather have the convertible.''

There are connections in this text to maintain reference to the same

people and things such as: he , he , my, my, I , Lincoln-it. There are
connections also between phrases like: '' a Lincoln convertible, That car,
the convertible''. There are connections in the meaning by using words
having related meaning such as :'' bought , saving, penny, worth a fortune,
sold, pay'' connections created by time(once, nowadays, sometimes)There
is a connector( However) that marks the relationship of what follows to
what went before. Also the use of verb tenses in first four sentences are in
the past to make a connection. All these cohesive ties used by the writer
to make sense for the text.

Sometimes, the text contains cohesive ties and connections but, the
text is difficult to be interpreted. As in the following example:

''My father bought a Lincoln convertible. The car driven by the police
was red. That color doesn't suit her. She consists of three letters.
However , a letter isn't as fast as a telephone call''.

In this text ,there are many connections (cohesive ties) ,but the text is
difficult to be interpreted. Because this text is not simply based on
connections between the words. There must be some other factors that
leads us to make sense for the text. This factor is usually described as
''coherence''.
 ''My father bought a Lincoln convertible . That car driven by the police
was red. That color doesn't suit her. She consists of three letters.
However, a letter isn’t as fast as a telephone call''.

It becomes clear that connectedness of words isn't simply based on

connections between the words in a text. There must be some other factor
that leads us to distinguish connected texts that make sense from those
that don't. This factor is usually described as Coherence.

☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀

Coherence
The key to the concept of coherence is not something that exists in
words or structures ,but something that exists in people. It is people who
make sense of what the read and hear. They try to arrive at an
interpretation that is in line with their experience of the way the world
is.

One can make a sense of different texts and find a way for their
interpretations. In doing so, one would necessarily be involved in a process
of filling in a lot gaps that exist in the text. You would have to create
meaningful connections that are not actually expressed by words or
sentences. This process is not restricted to trying to understand odd
texts ,but it seems to be involved in our interpretations of all discourse….

We are continually taking part in conversational interactions where a

great deal of what is meant is not actually present in what is said.

That is a telephone.
I am in the bath O.K.

There are certainly no cohesive ties within these fragments of

discourse. How does each of these people manage to make sense of what
the other say? It has been suggested that exchanges of this type are best
understood in terms of the conventional actions performed by the
speakers in such interactions.
 We can characterize the brief conversation in the following way:

She makes a request of him to perform actions.

He states reason why he cannot comply with the request.

She undertakes to perform action.

If this is a reasonable analysis of what took place in the conversation

, then it is clear that language users must have a lot of knowledge of how
conversations work that is not simply a linguistic knowledge

☀ ☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀

Speech events
Speech events can be defined as the relationship between speakers
and hearers whether they are: friends , strangers, men, women , young,
old, of equal or unequal status and many other factors. All these factors
will have an influence on what is said and how it is said.

☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀

CONVERSATIONAL ANALYSIS
Conversational analysis in English and any language means that an
activity in which two or more people take turns at speaking. Typically one
person speaks at a time and there be avoidance of silence between
speaking turns. If more than one participants tries to talk at the same time,
one of them usually stops where A stops until B has finished. As in the
following example: A:
Where is John? B: I
don’t know.

Participants wait until one speaker indicates that he or she has

finished by usually signaling a completion point. Speakers can mark their
turns as complete in a number of ways: by asking a question
or by pausing at the end of a complete syntactic structure like a phrase or
a sentence. Other participants can indicate that they want to take the
speaking turns, also in a number of ways: they can start to make short
sounds usually repeated, while the speaker is talking , and often use body
shifts or facial expressions to signal that that they have something to say.

☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀
Turn Taking
In conversation, we have two aspects (rudeness and shyness).
Rudeness can be defined as one speaker cuts in on another speaker. And
shyness can be defined as one speaker keeps waiting for an opportunity
to take a turn ,and non seems to occur. A speaker can be described as
rude or (holding the floor) that is designed to avoid the completion points.
Other ways to be rude : 1- not to pause at the end of the sentence.2-make
your sentences run by on by using connectors like: and, but , then, so, but.
Sometimes the speaker uses with connectors hesitation markers such as
(er, em , uh, ah) to put no end for the sentence.

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The co-operative principle

Participants are co-operating with each other. This principle,
together with four maxims that we expect our conversational partners to
obey. The co-operative principle is designed by the philosopher Paul
Grice
:

The Quantity maxim: make your contribution as informative as is required,

but not more or less than is required.

The Quality maxim: Don’t say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack
adequate evidence.

The Relation maxim: Be relevant.

The Manner maxim: Be clear, brief and orderly.

Participants should be co-operative with each other. For example, one
woman asks another how she likes the sandwich she is eating and receives
the following answer.

(Oh, a sandwich is a sandwich)

This answer doesn’t seem to be informative at all. It will be informative if she said it
is good or bad.

☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀

Hedges
Hedges can be defined as words or phrases used to indicate that we
are saying is sufficiently correct or complete. We can use the words: (sort
of or kind of )as hedges on the accuracy of our statements, as in the
descriptions such as (His hair was kind of long or the book cover is sort of
yellow rather than it is yellow).

☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀

Implicatures
Implicature can be defined as an additional conveyed meaning
concerning tonight's activity. For example,

Carol: Are you coming to parity tonight?

Lara: I have got an exam tomorrow.

Lara's statement isn’t a direct answer to Carol's question, but it is

relevant. Because anyone who has background knowledge about exam.
He or she knows that exam needs to stay at home to read not to go
partiesChapter eleven
Background knowledge
Background knowledge can be defined that information is not in a
text, but is used from the memory by a reader to understand the text.

For example: ''John was on his way to school last Friday.

He was really worried about the math class''

Most people who read this text, they will understand from their
memory that John is probably a schoolboy. Other inferences, for different
readers, are that John is walking or that he is on the bus to school. These
inferences are derived from our conventional knowledge(background
knowledge).From our background knowledge, no readers or listeners will
suggest that John is swimming or on a boat going to school.

For example: ''Last week he had been unable to control the class.

According is text, most readers decided that John is ,in fact, a teacher and
that he is not happy, since he can't control the class.

☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀

Schemas and Scripts

Schema is a general term for a conventional knowledge structure that
exists in our memory. We have many schema or (schemata) that are used
in the interpretation of what we experience and what hear or read about.
For example, we have (schema classroom) that it means we know what is
inside classroom.

A script is essentially a dynamic schema. That is, instead of the set of

typical fixed features in a schema. A script has a series of conventional
actions that take place. You have a script for (going to dentist) and another
script for (going to movies).
Study questions
Q1- How is the word ''discourse'' usually defined?

Discourse Analysis can be defined that the users of Language can

make sense of what they read, and how they can recognize wellstructured
texts as opposed to those that are jumbled or incoherent.

Q2-What is the difference between coherence and cohesion?

Cohesion is linguistic factors that exist within a linguistic text while
coherence is not a linguistic knowledge .It exists within people.

Q3-By different ways: asking a question, or by pausing at the end of

a completed syntactic structure like a phrase or a sentence.

Q4-What are hedges in discourse?

Hedges can be defined as words or phrases used to indicate that we

are saying is sufficiently correct or complete. We can use the words: (sort
of or kind of )as hedges on the accuracy of our statements, as in the
descriptions such as (His hair was kind of long or the book cover is sort of
yellow rather than it is yellow).

Q5-Which maxim does this speaker seem to particularly carful

about?

'' I may be a mistaken, but I thought I saw a wedding ring on his

finger''. The quality maxim.

Q6-In the study of discourse understanding, what are scripts?

A script is essentially a dynamic schema. That is, instead of the set of typical
fixed features in a schema. A script has a series of conventional actions
that take place. You have a script for (going to dentist) and another script
for (going to movies).
 Chapter 13
First Language Acquisition

First language acquisition is remarkable for the speed with which it

takes place. Long before a child starts school, he or she has become an
extremely sophisticated language –user, operating a system for
selfexpression and communication that no other creature ,or computer ,
comes close to matching. In addition, the speed of acquisition , the fact
that it generally occurs , without overt instruction, for all children,
regardless of great differences in their circumstances provides that there
is an innate predisposition in the human infant to acquire language. We
can think of this as a special capacity for language with which each
newborn child is endowed. By itself ,however, this inborn capacity is not
enough.

☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀

Acquisition
The process of language acquisition has some basic requirements.
During the first two or three years of development , a child requires
interaction with other language –users in order to bring the general
language capacity into contact with a particular language such as English,
for example. It means that a child who doesn't be allowed to contact with
other language –users or he or she can't hear a language. As a result, the
child speaks no language at all.

The child must be capable of sending and receiving sound signals in

a language. All infants make '' cooing'' and ''babbling'' noises during their
first year, but congenitally deaf infants stop after about six months. So , in
order to speak a language a child must be able to hear that language being
used. By itself, however, hearing language sounds is not enough. For
example, a child who hears sounds from machines like T.V or radio
programs, he or she will produce no language. A crucial requirement
appears to be the opportunity to interact with others via language.

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Input
Under normal circumstances, human infants are certainly helped in their language

acquisition by the typical behavior of older children and adults in the home
environment who provide language samples or input for the child.

Mom ,dad , older children spend a lot of time to interacting with a child as if
they involved in a normal adult –to –adult conversation. The characteristically
simplified speech style adopted by someone who spends a lot of time interacting
with a young child is called ''caregiver speech''. Sometimes it is called ''
motherese'' or

''child- directed speech''

This type of speech is characterized by : frequent use of question , often using

exaggerated intonation , extra loudness and a slower tempo with longer pauses. In
this time of a child conversation , we also have type of speech called
''babytalk' '

These are earlier, simplified words(tummy, nana)repeated simple sounds and

syllables (choo-choo, poo-poo). Caregiver speech is also characterized by simple
sentences structures and a lot of repetition. .
The acquisition schedule
All normal children develop language at roughly the same time, a
long much the same schedule.

Since we could say the same thing for sitting up or sanding ,walking and
using hands. It would seem that the language acquisition schedule has
the same basis. This biological schedule is tied very much to the
maturation of the infant's brain.

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The acquisition schedule Cooing and babbling

The first step in the acquisition schedule is cooing and babbling . During the first
few months of life the child becomes to produce sequences of vowel-like sounds
particularly high vowels such as:(i) (u). By four months the child can bring the back

of his tongue into a regular contact with the back of the palate to produce velar
consonants (k) and (g) these types of sounds production is described
as cooing.

Between six and eight months , the child is sitting up and producing a number of
different vowels and consonants ,as well as combinations such as ba,ba,ba and
ga,ga,ga. This type of sound production is called babbling. In the second stage of
babbling , the child around nine to tenth months , produces vowel combinations and
consonants like: ba, da da da . Nasal sounds also become more common and
certain syllable sequence such as: ma ba da.

The last stage in babbling is the stage in which the child produces vocalization to express
emotion and emphasis. This late babbling stage is characterized by more complex
syllable combinations (ma da ga) and a lot of sound –play and attempted
imitations.

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The one word stage
During the acquisition schedule, between twelve and eighteen months,
children begin to produce a variety of recognizable single unit –
utterance. This period called the one –word stage is characterized by
speech in which single terms are uttered for every objects such as (milk,
cat , cup).It is sometimes is called holophrastic to describe an utterance
that could be analyzed as a word, a phrase, or a sentence.

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The two word stage
The child is around eighteen to twenty months . A child begins to produce a variety of
combinations like (baby chair, mommy eat, cat bad) The adult's interpretation is tied
to the context of child's utterance. For example:( baby chair) it means: (this is baby
chair) or a request (put a baby in the chair) or a statement (baby is in the chair).

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The telegraphic speech

During the acquisition schedule , between two and a half years old, the child begins to
produce a large number of utterances that could be classified as
multiple –word speech.

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The acquisition process

One factor that is important in the child's acquisition process is the actual use of
sound and word combinations, either in interaction with others or in word play
alone.
Developing Morphology
The first step in the acquisition process is developing morphology. When the child
is about two years old . He or she can acquire some inflectional morphology like
(ing)

Forms such as: mommy reading, cat sitting.

Second inflectional morphology is (s) plural : like (cats) (books). This second inflectional
morphology is often accompanied with overgeneralization. It means that the child
overgeneralize the rules of adding (s) plural for all nouns even
irregular nouns such as: man/ mans foot/ foots

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Developing Syntax
The second step in the acquisition process is developing syntax. The
child's syntax begins with forming question.

1-The first step in forming question is that the child simply add( a wh
question(who-where) to the begging of the expression.

Where Kitty

2-The second step, the child uses more (wh-questions like what, why, when
)

What book name.

3_The third step, the child uses the inverted auxiliary verb with the wh
question: I can help you. Can I help you? What did you do?

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Forming Negative
The second syntactic process is forming syntax. We have three stages
according to age of the child. 1- first stage, the child puts the (no or not)
at the beginning such as: no mitten/ no food
 2- Second stage, the child puts negative forms (don’t/can't) such as: I
don’t want it/ You can't go.

3- the third stage, the child puts more negative forms are used by the
child such as: (isn't / will not / didn't): for example: She won't let go.

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Developing Semantics
The third step in the acquisition process is developing semantics. The
child is three years old. The children use their limited vocabulary to refer
to a large number of unrelated objects. For example, the child uses the
word (ball) to refer to all round objects like: (tomato, apple, orange).This
semantic process is called overextension . Overextension is the child to
overextend the meaning of words on the basis of similarities and shape.
STUDY QUESTIONS
Q1-Can you describe caregiver speech?:
simplified style, repeated simple sounds, simple words.
Q2-What is (cooing)?
The infants produces sounds similar to the velar consonants/k/ ,/g/
Q3-Which stage does the child produce syllables like/mama, dada/?-
(second stage of babbling)

Q4-Which age the child produces(ma, ga, da)?

- Between six and eight months first stage of babbling.
Q5-Which child is older than the other in the following sentences?
1-A-( I not hurt her) B(no the sun shining); the child (A) because the
child puts not after the subject not at the beginning of a
sentence.

Q6-What is called the term when the child use the word (ball)to refer
to an apple, an egg or a grape?
Overextention.
 Chapter 14
Second language acquisition

Second language acquisition: is used more generally to describe the situation

in which a student or a person is trying to learn another language. So, a person
who speaks two languages is called a bilingual person.
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Acquisition and Learning
The term acquisition is used to refer to the gradual development of ability
in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations with others
who know the language.
While the term learning applies to a more conscious process of
accumulating knowledge of the features, such as vocabulary and grammar of
a language typically in an institutional setting(Mathematics, for example, is
learned not acquired).
Activities associated with learning have traditionally been used in language
teaching in schools and have a tendency to result in more knowledge about
the language than fluency in actually using the language.
Activities associated with acquisition are those experienced by young children
who spent a lot of time interacting with native speakers.
 Those whose second language is a result of learning tend not to develop the
same proficiency as those who had more of an acquisition type of
experience.
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Acquisition Barriers
For most people, the experience with an L2 is fundamentally different from
their L1 experience.
They usually encounter the L2 during their teenage or adult years, in a few
hours each week of school time(rather than via constant interaction
experienced as a child) with a lot of other things going on(young children
have little else to do) and with already known language available for most of
their daily communicative requirements.
In spite of these difficulties, some individuals who seem to overcome these
difficulties.
However , even in ideal acquisition situations very few adults seem to
reach native-like proficiency in using an L2. For example, is Joseph Conrad
who wrote novels in English literature, but whose English speech retained the
strong Polish accent. This might suggest that some features of an L2 such as
vocabulary and grammar are easier than others like pronunciation.
This type of evidence is an indication that after the critical period has
passed, so it is difficult to acquire the language fully.
Against this view, is that students in their teenage are quicker in
classroom to acquire language than those in seven years old. So, the optimum
age to acquire second language is between ten to sixteen when the flexibility
of language has not passed completely.
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Affective factors
Teenagers are more self-conscious than younger children. If there is a sense
of unwillingness or embarrassment to produce the different sounds of other
languages, so it may override whatever physical and cognitive ability.
 This type of emotional reaction or ‘’ affect’’ may be caused by other
factors like: dull textbooks, unpleasant classroom, and exhausting schedule of
study or work. All these negative feelings are affective factors. Other factors , if
they are stressed , uncomfortable , selfconscious and unmotivated.
Children seem to be less constrained by affective factors. Descriptions of an
L2 acquisition show that children are quicker to overcome their inhibitions as
they try to use new words and phrases.
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Focus on the Method
Despite all these barriers, the need for instructions in other languages has
led to a variety of educational approaches and methods aimed at fostering L2
learning.7
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The Grammar Translation Method
The most traditional approach is to treat L2 learning in the same way as any
academic subject. Vocabulary lists and a set of grammatical rules are used to
define the target of learning. Memorization is encouraged and written
language rather than spoken language. This method has its roots in the
traditional teaching of Latin and described as ‘’the grammar –translation
method’’. The defect of this method is to leave students ignorant about how
to use language in everyday conversation, since it depends completely on
teaching vocabulary and rules of grammar.
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The audio-lingual method
A very different approach, emphasizing the spoken language became popular
in the middle of the twentieth century. It involved systematic presentation of
the structure of the L 2, moving from simple to complex in the form of drills
that the students had to repeat. This type of approach was strongly
influenced that the fluent use of language is essentially a set of habits that
could be developed by practice. The critics of this approach pointed out that
the defect is the isolated practice bears no resemblance to the interactional
nature of actual spoken Language use. Moreover, It can be incredibly boring.
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Communicative approaches
More recent revisions of the L2 learning experience can best be described
as communicative approaches. They are typically a reaction against the
artificiality of ‘’ pattern practice’’ and also against the belief that conscious
learning of the grammar rules will lead to acquire the second language. In this
approach the function of language is more important than the form of
language such as phonological structure or grammatical rules. These
approaches are used to know how language is used for. So , the students in
the classroom are likely to be organized around concepts such as ‘’asking for
things’’ in different social settings rather than the forms of grammatical rules
or phonological structure. These changes lead to provide more material for
L2 learning.
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Focus on the learner
One radical feature of the most communicative approaches is the toleration
of ‘’errors’’ produced by the students. Traditionally errors were regarded
negatively and had to be avoided or eradicated. For example, a Spanish
student who says ‘’there are three womens’’ as a simply failure to learn
correct English, but it is a natural L2 acquisition process. Just as children
acquiring their L1 produce certain types of ungrammatical forms at times.
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Transfer
Transfer means some ‘’errors’’ may be due to the L1. It is also called ‘’cross
linguistic influence’’ Transfer means using sounds , expressions or structure
from L1 when performing in L2. For example, a Spanish L1 who produces ‘’
take it from the side inferior may be trying to use the Spanish adjective and
place it after the noun as is typical Spanish structure. If the L1 and L2 have
 the similar structure (e.g. marking plural on the ends of nouns) it is called
positive transfer. But if L1 is different from L2 (e.g. putting the adjective after
the noun) it is called negative transfer.
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Interlanguage
One close inspection, the language produced by L2 learners contains a
large number of ‘’errors’’ that seem to have no connection to the form of
either the L1 or L2. For example, Spanish L1 who says : ‘’she name is Maria’’ is
producing a structure that is not found in the English language and even in
Spanish structure. This means that there is some in-between system used in
the acquisition process that certainly contains aspects of L1 and L2 , but which
is an inherently variable system with rules of its own. This system is called
interlanguage. If some learners develop a fairly fixed repertoire of L2
expressions, containing many forms that don’t match the target language and
seem not to be progressing any further , their interlanguage is said to be
fossilized. The process of fossilization in L2 pronunciation seems to be the
most likely basis of what is perceived as a foreign accent.
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Motivation
There are several factors that combine in a profile of a successful L2
learners . Many learners have an instrumental motivation, such as completing
schools or graduation requirements or being able to read scientific
publications, but not really for any social purpose. In contrast those who want
to use language in order to be a useful member in a society.
It is worth mentioning that those who develop L2 depending on the
communicative situation are the more motivated than those who depend in
correcting errors.
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Input and output
Input can be made comprehensible by being simpler in structure and
vocabulary, as in the variety of speech called foreigner talk. Native speakers of
English may try to ask an international student ‘’ How are you getting on in
your studies’’ but if it isn’t understood may switch to English class, you like it.
As the learner’s interlanguage develops , there is a need for more
interaction and the kind of ‘’negotiated input’’ that arises in conversation.
‘’Negotiated input’’ is L2 material that the learner can acquire in interaction
through requests for clarification while active attention is being focused on
what is said. As in the following example in page 193
The opportunity to produce comprehensible output in meaningful interaction
seems to be another important element in the learner’s development of L2
ability.

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Communicative Competence
Communicative competence can defined as the general ability to use
language accurately, and flexibly and appropriately. The first competence is
the grammatical competence ,which involves the accurate use of words and
structure, but grammatical competence doesn’t enable the learner to speak
language appropriately.
The ability to use language appropriately is called sociolinguistic competence.
It enables the learner to know when to say can I have some water ? versus
Give me some water, according to the social context.
The third competence is called strategic competence. This is the ability to
organize a message effectively and to compensate, via strategies for any
difficulties . In L2 use learners inevitably experience moments when there is a
gap between communicative intent and their ability to express that intent.
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Applied Linguistics
In order to know the complexity of the nature of L2 , we need to know
something about other fields of language such as : communication studies,
education, psychology and sociology. This large scale endeavor is called as
applied linguistics , because it represents an attempt to deal with a large range
of practical issues involving language.
 Study Questions

1- what do you think ‘’the Joseph Conrad phenomenon’’ refers to?

It refers that a person who acquires language during adult year cant
acquire the language fully. It also refers that aspects of language such as
grammar and vocabulary are easier to learned than pronunciation.
Q2- Why do we say that ‘’mathematics’’ is learned not acquired?
Because, it is an academic subject that can be learned just in schools.
Q3-What are four typical barriers to acquiring an L2 as an adult compared
to L1 acquisition as a child?
1- Adults acquire the second language after the critical period has passed.
2-A few hours in schools are not enough to acquire the second language.(in
comparison with children who sped all the time to acquire L1)
3-Adults have many problems in their life to weaken their willingness to
acquire the second language while children have nothing like these problems.
4-The effect of the mother tongue that is used in every day communication
weakens the ability to acquire the second language.
Q4-What is the difference between negative and positive transfer?
If the structures of L1 and L2 are similar, it will be positive transfer and if
they are different , they will be negative transfer.
Q5- What happens when an interlanguage fossilizes?
It means that it can’t be changed any more. So it is fossilized.
Q6- What are three components of communicative competence?
1-Grammatical competence
2- sociolinguistic competence 3-
3- strategic competence.
 Chapter (20)
Language and Culture

Culture
We can define the word ''culture'' to refer to all the ideas and
assumptions about the nature of things and people that we learn when
we become members of social groups .

It can be defined as '' socially acquired knowledge’’. This is the kind of

knowledge that, like our first language , we initially acquire without
conscious awareness. We develop awareness of our knowledge , and
hence our culture, only after having developed language.

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Categories
A category is a group with certain features in common and we can
think of the vocabulary we learn as an inherited set of category labels.
Some languages have two words for types of ''rain'' and other languages
have only word. Different types of words are used for colures according to
different languages.

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Kinships terms
Some of the clearest example of lexicalized categories are words used
to refer to people who are the members of the same family, or kinship
terms (e.g. brother , mother , father) but , not in all languages the same
categories are used. For example, the word '' uncle'' in English is used
for '' female parent's brother'' and '' male parent's brother'' while in the
Arabic language ,for example we use )‫ )خال‬for '' female parent's brother''
and (‫ (عم‬for '' male parent's brother''. So, the words are lexicalized, it
means they are used in the dictionary , for example in the Arabic
dictionary we find the words( ‫م‬ ‫ ع‬,‫ ) خال‬while in the English dictionary
,we find just the word(uncle).

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Time Concepts
In some languages the terms are used for times , in English for
example , we use ''seven days'' or ''week'' and ''weekend'' . In other
languages like, the Hopi language, for example, there are no terms like
these.

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Linguistic Relativity

In these examples, the different terms for different objects

according to the culture of language is called linguistic relativity. It means
the structure of language has a strong effect on our mind. For example ,
in the English language , they use '' Uncle'' to refer to both ''female
parent's brother'' and '' male parent's brother'' while in Arabic we use
)‫(خال و عم‬

Another term for linguistic relativity is linguistic determinism. That

means language determines our thoughts. For example, the word snow
in English means one thing while in Eskimo the word snow means more
than one things, since it relates to their daily life.

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The Sapir –whorf hypothesis

The Sapir –whorf hypothesis was during the middle of the
twentieth century. This hypothesis shows the difference between
languages the view the world. For example, the Hopi language is
different from English in terms of times. It is also different to classify
the objects in the world in terms of(animate and an inanimate). For
example in the grammar of Hopi the words (clouds and doors) are
inmate, living things while these word in English are inanimate. So, the
speakers of Hopi see the world differently.
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Snow
In cold places, we should first replace ''Eskimo'' with more accurate
terms for the people. For example, they use the term ''quaik'' to mean
(snow in the air) and ''aput'' (snow in the ground). English uses words to
refer to ''snow'' like (sleet, slush, and snowflake), but they are not
lexicalized, since snow doesn't represent the word for English like Eskimo.

In Hawai'i , the traditional language had a very large number of

expressions for different kinds of (rain). Contemporary English seems to
have a lot of expressions having to do with money. Our language reflects
our concern.

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Cognitive Categories
As a way of analyzing cognition, how people think, we can look at
language structure for clues, not for cause. In Hopi language, speakers
inherit that language system that ''clouds'' are inmate, because this is
their culture.

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Classifiers
It means the type or (class) of words by using grammatical
markers, called classifiers. For example, different prefixes are used in the
language of Swahili(spoken in East Africa) to distinguish different classes
of words , such as (wa) for non- humans, (mi) for plants.

In English, the use of indefinite articles are classifiers for nouns

that are countable. For example, we say (a book) , (a car) and (an apple),
but these indefinite articles are not used for uncountable nouns, for
example,* a clothing or *an information *two furnitures. To avoid
theseungrammatical forms in English, speakers use ''items''. For example,
'' a bit of information, an item of clothing and two pieces of furniture.

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Social categories
It means that social organization used to classify words in language. For
example, The English uses '' Uncle'' to refer to '' male brother's parents''
and '' female brother's parents'' , while in the Arabic language ,for
example we use )‫ )خال‬for '' female parent's brother'' and (‫ (عم‬for '' male
parent's brother'' .

Address terms
When a man asks another man , for example, he may use the word
(brother) as an address term or (sister) for a woman. In order to create
solidarity among people.

When there is an interaction based on unequal relationship will feature

address terms using a title(Doctor) or title plus last name(professor
Buckingham).
 Traditionally, in many languages there was a choice between
pronouns used for addressees who are socially (close) versus (distant).
This is known as the T/V distinction as in the French pronouns (tu) for
close and (vous) for distant. In German(du/sie) and Spanish(tu/ usted)

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Gender
We have biological gender, in English, that is the difference between
(male and female). Grammatical gender the distinction in the use of
articles for (masculine and feminine) in Spanish ,they use (el) for
masculine (la) for feminine. A third use a social gender which is the
distinction between (man) and (woman) to classify individuals in terms in
their social roles.

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Gender words
Gender words simply illustrate that there can be differences between
the words used by men and women in a variety of languages which seem
to imply that the words of men are normal while words of women are with
‘’special additions’’.

Gendered speech
In general, men have longer vocal tracts larger larynxes and thicker
vocal folds than women. The pitch ranges of men and women, there is a
tendency to exaggerate the differences in many contexts to sound (like a
man)or more(like a woman). Concerning women,1- the use of raising
intonation at the end of a sentence, 2-the use of hedges(sort of) and3-
tag question.(Tag questions are questions consisting of an auxiliary and
pronouns adding at the end of a sentence. For example, a woman who
says(I hate it when it rains all the day, don’t you?).

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Gender interaction

In same gender conversation women produce more back channels

as indicators of listening and paying attention. The term back channels
describes the use of words (yeah, really) or sounds (hmm,oh) by listeners
while someone is speaking. Men not only produce back channels fewer
back channels , but appear to treat them , when produced by others as
indications of agreement.

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Study Questions
Q1/What is the common definition of culture in language? Culture is
‘’a socially acquired Knowledge’’.

Q2/What are Kinship terms?

They are terms used for relatives in language such as: father mother
uncle etc.
Q3/What is meant by linguistic determinism?

It means that language determine our thoughts.

Q4/What are classifiers?

They are grammatical markers used to classify nouns in language in a case

they are countable nouns or uncountable.

Q5/She gave me a good advice.

It is ungrammatical , because ‘’advice’’ is uncountable noun. Therefore, it doesn’t
need indefinite article like (a).

Q6/I s the following sentence more likely to be spoken by a woman

or a man and why?

( I think that golf on television is kind of boring don’t you?) It is likely to

be spoken by a woman because, it contains ‘’ hedges expression’’ like
: (kind of ).