Induction Course for new C&S Engineers

5, 6 & 7 April 2021, Hotel Armada Petaling Jaya

Roads

Ir. Ng Ken Seng

Director
Perunding ZKR Sdn Bhd
 Induction Course for New Civil & Structural Engineers
Lecture Notes on “Roads”
Prepared by Ir. Ng Ken Seng
(Perunding ZKR Sdn. Bhd.)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 ANCIENT ROADS

The great highway systems of our modern civilization have their origin in the period before the dawn of
recorded history. Even before the invention of the wheel, which is supposedly to have occurred some
ten thousand years ago, individual and mass movements of people undoubtedly took place. The
earliest travel was on foot; later, pack animals were utilized, crude sledges were developed, and
simple wheeled vehicles came into being. Many of the migrations of the early historical period involved
large numbers of people and covered relatively great distances. More or less regularly travelled routes
developed, extending to the limits of the then-known world.

As various civilizations reached a higher level, many of the ancient peoples came to a realization of the
importance of improved roads. The streets of the city of Babylon were paved as early as 2000 B.C.
History also records the construction of a magnificent road to aid in the building of the Great Pyramid in
Egypt nearly 3000 years B.C. Traces of early roads have been found on the island of Crete, and it is
known that the early civilizations of the Chinese, Carthaginians, and Incas also led to extensive road
building.

By far the most advanced highway system of the ancient world was that of the Romans. When Roman
civilization was at its peak, a great system of military roads reached to the limits of the empire. Many
of these roads were built of stone and were 3 feet or more in thickness. Traces of this magnificent
system are still in existence on the European continent; in fact, some of these roads still serve as
bases for sections of modern highways.

1.2 MODERN ROADS

Roads can range in character from a dirt road in a rural setting to a multilane expressway in an urban
environment.

We need roads for us to travel from one place to another for purpose of social visits, transportation,
trading and commerce, etc.

Travel from one place to another is facilitated by a highway network that is comprised of various
classes of highways:

Arterials are highways that provide direct service to major population centres.
Collectors provide direct service to towns and link up with arterials.
Local roads connect various regions of a municipality and tie into the system of collectors.

Try imagining a picture of a tree, where the root systems and the foliage representing two cities or
localities. The trunk serves as the expressway and the arterial, the branches and the stems of the
roots serve as the collectors, while the sub-branches and the root hairs, the local streets and minor
roads. Water and minerals travel from the root system to the foliage and food from the foliage back to
the root system just like people and goods travel from one city/locality to another.

-1-
This paper serves as a quick over-view to the design of road system, with particular reference to road
systems in Malaysia. It makes brief introduction to the design standards commonly used in Malaysia.
The readers are advised to read further on the subject and gain experience through actual practise in
order to have a more in-depth understanding of the subject.

2.0 ROADS IN MALAYSIA

2.1 ROADS DEVELOPMENT

In most countries, a well-developed and integrated road network is essential for continued economic
growth. Road transport is the main form of transportation in Malaysia. Studies showed that over 90%
of the movement of people and commercial goods are dependent on roads.

Road development including bridge construction is based on a three-pronged strategy, namely, to

improve interurban linkages, alleviate capacity constraints, and extend the road network to open
up new growth centres and rural areas. The Road Density, Road Development Index, and Road
Service Level are three measurements of road development for Malaysia.

Over the decade from 1985 to 1995, Road Density, which measures road length over total area,
increased from 0.12 to 0.20 km of road per km2, representing 67% increase in road coverage and
accessibility in any given area. The Road Development Index, which measures the level of road
development, taking into account both area and population size of the country, also improved
significantly from 0.54 in 1985 to 0.8 in 1995. And the Road Service Level measures km of road to
1,000 persons, and it was 3.22 in 1995.

2.2 ROAD CLASSIFICATION FOR ADMINISTRATION

For administration purposes, roads in Malaysia are classified into two categories, namely Federal
roads and State roads.

Federal roads are roads declared under the Federal Roads Ordinance (1959). Some of these roads
are national expressway and highways under the jurisdiction of the Malaysian Highway Authority
(MHA), the national highway linking the Federal capitals and State Capitals under Public Works
Department (PWD) (JKR), roads leading to and exit from the country, and roads under the Regional
Development Schemes. Roads within the Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur and Labuan are
Federal Roads by virtue of the Federal Territory Acts.

State roads generally comprise of primary roads within the states, urban collector roads, municipality
roads, and roads under the district office jurisdiction.

-2-
The administration and maintenance of roads may be summarized as in the Table 2.1 below:

TABLE 2.1

ROAD CATEGORY GENERAL DESCRIPTION RESPONSIBLE AGENCY

FEDERAL ROAD

Toll Expressway & Toll Highway Inter-urban expressways and LLM (MHA).
highways where tolls are collected.

National Highways Inter-urban highway linking Federal Federal JKR (usually through State
Capital, State Capitals and points of JKRs).
entry to/exit from the country.

Road within Federal Territories Designated roads within Federal Federal JKR (through City Hall of
Territories, i.e. at present within Kuala Lumpur and Municipal
Kuala Lumpur and Labuan. Council of Labuan).

Regional Development Scheme Roads forming the network within a Federal JKR Regional Development
Roads Regional Development Area. Units.

Minor Roads (access to Federal Roads leading to and within Federal Federal JKR and State JKRs.
Government Institutions) Institutions.

Roads within Federal Territories Roads other than the designated City Hall of Kuala Lumpur and
Federal roads. Municipal Council of Labuan.

Designated Federal Roads. Federal JKR.

STATE ROADS

Primary Roads Major roads forming the basic State JKRs.

network within a State, linking State
capitals and major towns.

Secondary Roads Road forming the network within a State JKRs.

District.

Minor Roads Minor roads within a village or rural District Offices.

inhabited area.

Urban Collector Roads Roads serving as collectors of traffic Respective Local Authorities (with
within a Local Authority area. assistance from state JKRs in most
cases)

Local Streets Basic road network within an urban Respective Local Authorities.
neighbourhood, serving primarily to
offer direct access to abutting land.

-3-
2.3 DESIGN GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS

The technical guidelines or ARAHAN TEKNIKs developed by JKR in various volumes are used in the
design of roads in Malaysia. These documents contain considerations/parameters which the
designers are required to comply with, where relevant, in the design process. Other design guidelines
and standards, such as the British Standards and the AASHTO are often used.

Design standards and guidelines for road design commonly used in Malaysia are:

(1) A Guide on Geometric Design of Roads, Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86 (Pindaan 2015), JKR
(2) A Guide to the Design of At-Grade Intersections, Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 11/87, JKR
(3) A Guide to the Design of Interchanges, Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 12/87, JKR
(4) Manual on Traffic Control Devices – Standard Traffic Signs, Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 2A/85,
JKR
(5) Manual on Traffic Control Devices – Traffic Sign Application, Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 2B/85,
JKR
(6) Manual on Traffic Control Devices – Temporary Signs and Work Zones Control , Arahan
Teknik (Jalan) 2C/85, JKR
(7) Manual on Traffic Control Devices – Road Marking and Delineation, Arahan Teknik (Jalan)
2D/85, JKR
(8) Guide Signs Design and Application, Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 2E/87 (Pindaan 2011), JKR
(9) Flexible Pavement Design Manual, Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85 (Pindaan 2013), JKR
(10) Garis Panduan Untuk Penyediaan Pelan Pengambilan Balik Tanah Bagi Projek Jalan
Persekutuan, Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 7/85
(11) Guidelines For Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (LLM/GP/T5-08)
(12) Expressway Signing System (T1) – Guidelines and Design Manual and Subsequent
amendments
(13) Expressway Maintenance System (M1) – Civil Works, Guidelines and Manual
(14) A Handbook of Environmental Impact, Jabatan Alam Sekitar Assessment Guidelines
1987,
(15) A Guide to the Landscape Development for Highway by LLM and to the requirements of
Jabatan Lanskap Negara
(16) A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 1994 (and Latest Revisions 2004 &
2011.)

2.4 ROAD CLASSIFICATION / HIERARCHY

The most basic function of a road is transportation, and it has two parameters in the form of mobility
and accessibility. These two parameters are in conflict with each other where the enhancement of
one will require the limitation of the other.

In terms of functionality, it is important to define or classify the roads into various categories in order to
determine the design speed, carriageway widths, access control, intersections design, etc. In
Malaysia, roads are classified in rural areas into 5 categories: Expressway, Highway, Primary road,
secondary road and minor road. Whereas in urban areas, they are divided into 4 categories:
Expressway, Arterial, Collector and Local Street. This categorization is in ascending order of
accessibility and descending order of mobility.

The characteristics for road categories are summarised as in Table 2.2

-4-
-5-
2.4 DESIGN STANDARDS FOR ROADS

To provide uniformity and consistency in the design of road facilities for the safe and reliable
movement of traffic, it is beneficial to standardize the geometric design of all roads in Malaysia. This
can be done by considering the road hierarchy, trip lengths, travelling speeds, access control, traffic
volume, topography, area type, etc.

There are six groups each for rural ( R ) areas R6, R5, R4, R3, R2 & R1 and urban ( U ) areas U6, U5,
U4, U3, U2 & U1, all listed in descending order of hierarchy.

Degree of Access Control

Access control in the condition in which the right of owners or occupants of adjoining land or other
persons to access the road is fully or partially controlled by the public authority.

Full Control of Access means that preference is given to the through traffic by providing access
connecting with selected public roads only and by prohibiting crossings at grade or direct private
driveway connections.

Partial Control of Access means that preference is given to through traffic to a degree that in addition
to access connection with selected public roads, there may be some crossings trafficked roads. At-
grade intersections should be limited and only allowed at selected locations.

Non-Control Access means there is basically no limitation of access.

Selection of Access Control

The selection of degree of access control depends on traffic volumes, function of the road and the road
network around the areas. Tables 2.3A and 2.3B are general guides for the selection of degree of
access control.

Selection of Design Standard

The selection of the required design standard should begin with the assessment of the function of the
proposed road and the area it traverses. If there is an overlapping of functions, the ultimate function of
the road shall be used for the selection criteria. The projected average daily traffic (ADT) at the end of
the design life should then be calculated and from Table 2.3C, the required design standard can be
obtained. From the capacity analysis the required number of lanes can then be calculated.

The process of selecting design standard can be seen in Figure 2-1.

-6-
-7-
-8-
3.0 ROUTE SELECTION & PLANNING

3.1 TRAFFIC STUDY

Before any road scheme is seriously contemplated – irrespective of whether it is simply the
realignment of an existing road or an extensive new expressway – a traffic study of one kind or another
should be carried out. This study will provide the data on which the proposed road layout can be
based, and failure to obtain this information may lead to a false assessment of the potential traffic
requirements of the road, resulting in its inability to handle the volume of traffic subsequently wishing to
make use of that route.

Once the need for a new road has been established by the traffic study, the precise location of the
alignment must be determined as quickly as possible so that negotiations can proceed for the
purchase and acquisition of any land required.

3.2 THE RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY

3.2.1 Ground Reconnaissance

Large scale topographical maps published by the Survey Department may be purchased for initial
reconnaissance of the route. Aerial photographs and photogrammetry may also be used for this
purpose. More advanced method such as the use of satellite images (e.g. Ikonos, Landsat, SPOT,
etc.) can also be useful. Remote sensing systems such as LIDAR (LIght Detection And Ranging) and
IFSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar) can be used in the collection of high-resolution
digital elevation models (DEMs). And for detailed engineering design purpose, topographical or site
survey are generally required. In addition to these, the revenue sheets, land-use maps, and any
available development plans as well as underground utility mapping, etc. should also be used to
identify the suitable route.

3.2.2 Soil Investigation

The soil investigation involves an exploration of the soil conditions along the proposed road alignment
by means of boreholes, trial pits, hand augers, Cone Penetration Tests, Mackintosh Probes, etc. to
collect information related to the materials and conditions of the ground. This is to assess the
suitability of the route for the proposed works and to enable an adequate and economic design to be
prepared. Some preliminary information on soil conditions can be obtained by studying the Geological
Survey maps of the area and by inspecting neighbouring quarries and existing cuttings.

3.3 LAND ACQUISITION PROCESS

It is normally advisable for the corridor where the road alignment traverses to be ‘frozen’ so that no
further changes in the land use can be effected without the knowledge of the road authority and/or land
office. The freezing plan is normally prepared by the licensed surveyor with information supplied by
the road engineer. This land ‘freezing’ process helps to minimise future problems of designing the
road and cost of constructing it.

Once the design has been finalised, the proposed Right of Way (R.O.W.) will be defined. The Land
Acquisition Plans (LA Plans) prepared by the licensed surveyor will be submitted to the government for
land acquisition. This process will involve the road authority, road engineers, licensed land surveyor,
land acquisition consultants, Land Office and other related government agencies. The whole process
can be very tedious and time consuming.

-9-
4.0 DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA

4.1 TOPOGRAPHY AND LAND USE

The location of a road and its design are considerably influenced by the topography, physical features,
and land use of the area traversed. The geometric design elements such as horizontal alignment,
vertical gradients, sight distance and cross-section are directly affected by the topography. These
elements must be suitably selected so that the road designed will reasonably fit into those natural and
man-made features and that the construction and maintenance can be economised.

The topography through which the road passes can be generally divided into three groups, namely,
FLAT, ROLLING & MOUNTAINOUS terrain.

FLAT terrain means the natural ground cross slopes are generally below 3%.
ROLLING terrain means the natural ground cross slopes are generally between 3% and 25%.
MOUNTAINOUS terrain means the natural ground cross slopes are generally above 25%.

4.2 TRAFFIC

The design of a road should be based on traffic data, which serve to establish the “loads” for geometric
design. Traffic data for existing roads or section of road are available from the annual “Road Traffic
Volume, Malaysia” published by the Highway Planning Unit (HPU) of the Ministry of Works.

Average Daily Traffic (ADT) represents the total traffic for the year divided by 365, or the average
traffic volume per day.

Design Hourly Volume (DHV) is the hourly traffic used for design and is the 30HV of the future year
chosen for the design, where 30HV represents the 30th highest hourly volume of the year.

Design Hourly Volume Ratio (K) is the traffic ratio of DHV to the designed ADT. K’s value ranges
from 7% to 20%. The actual value should be obtained from traffic data or census. As a guide, K=12%
for urban and K=15% for rural roads may be used. Where the design of the road facility is sensitive to
the value of K, the K value should be established from traffic survey/study.

Traffic Composition refers to the percentage of various classes of vehicles in the DHV. Vehicles of
different sizes and weights have different operating characteristics which must be considered in
geometric design. Commercial vehicles generally are heavier, slower and occupying more roadway
space, thus imposing greater traffic effect on the road that passenger vehicles. Vehicles of various
sizes and weights are classified into 6 groups under the annual National Traffic Census conducted by
HPU: motorcycles, cars and taxis, light vans and utility vehicles, medium lorries (2 axles),
heavy lorries (3 or more axles) and buses.

The Projection of Traffic for use in the design should be based on a period of 15 years after
completion of the road.

4.3 DESIGN VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS

The design vehicles to be used for geometric design follow that used by AASHTO. Figures 4.1, 4.2
and 4.3 show the dimensions and turning characteristics for the P, SU and WB-15 design vehicles.

A summary of the dimensions of design vehicles is tabulated in Table 4.1.

- 10 -
TABLE 4.1 DESIGN VEHICLE DIMENSIONS

- 11 -
 FIGURE 4.1 MINIMUM TURNING PATH FOR PASSENGER CAR (P) DESIGN VEHICLE

(Source : AASHTO – A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Street (2011), Figure 2.1)

- 12 -
 FIGURE 4.2 MINIMUM TURNING PATH FOR SINGLE UNIT TRUCK (SU) DESIGN VEHICLE

(Source : AASHTO – A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Street (2011), Figure 2.2)

- 13 -
 FIGURE 4.3 MINIMUM TURNING PATH FOR SEMI TRAILER (WB-15) DESIGN VEHICLE

(Source : AASHTO – A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Street (2004), Exhibit 2.14)

- 14 -
4.4 SPEED

Speed is the primary factor in all modes of transportation, and is an important factor in the geometric
design of roads. The speed of vehicles on a road depends on the general conditions such as the
physical characteristics of the highway, the weather, the presence of other vehicles, the legal speed
limitations, as well as the driver and vehicle capabilities. The speed is selected to meet the needs of
the road to fulfil its function. Thus roads which are planned to provide long distance travel will be
designed with a higher speed while those provides shorter distance travel can be given a lower design
speed.

Design speed is defined as: “a speed selected to establish specific minimum geometric design
elements for a particular section of highway”. The choice of design speed is influenced primarily by
factors such as the terrain, economic, environmental factors, type and anticipated volume of traffic,
functional classification of the highway, and whether the area is rural or urban. Tables 4.2A and 4.2B
indicate the selection of design speeds with respect to rural and urban standards.

Operating speed is the highest overall speed at which a driver can travel on a given road under
favourable weather conditions and prevailing traffic conditions without at any time exceeding the
design speed.

4.5 CAPACITY

The term highway capacity pertains to the ability of a roadway to accommodate traffic. It is defined as
the maximum number of vehicles that can pass over a given section of a lane or a roadway during a
given time period under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. Capacity considered here is
applicable only to uninterrupted flow or open roadway conditions.

Capacity is often stated in terms of passenger car units (pcu). Table 4.3 gives the conversion factors
to be used in converting the various classes of vehicles to passenger car units.

4.5.1 Capacity under ideal conditions

Under ideal condition, the possible capacity for uninterrupted flow is as follows:

For 2-lane two way (total) = 2,800 pcu/hr

For multilane (per lane) = 2,000 pcu/hr

Ideal conditions consist of the following for two-lane roads:

a) Design speed greater than or equal to 100 km/h
b) Lane widths greater than or equal to 3.65m (12 ft)
c) Clear shoulders wider than or equal to 1.83m (6ft)
d) No “No passing zones” on the highway
e) All passenger cars in the traffic streams
f) A 50/50 directional split of traffic
g) No impedient to through traffic due to traffic control or turning vehicles
h) Level terrain

Where one or more of these conditions are not met, the actual capacity will be reduced. The effects of
each are discussed in the Highway Capacity Manual which gives adjustment factors for the
determination of the design capacity.

- 15 -
TABLE 4.2A DESIGN SPEEDS FOR RURAL ROADS

TABLE 4.2B DESIGN SPEEDS FOR URBAN ROADS

- 16 -
4.5.2 Design volume

Design volume is the volume of traffic estimated to use the road during the design year, which is taken
as 15 years after the completion of the road.

Design of new highways or improvements of existing highways usually should not be based on current
traffic volume alone. Considerations should be given to the future traffic expected to use the facilities.
A highway should be designed to accommodate the traffic that might occur within the life of the facility
under reasonable maintenance.

4.5.3 Service volume

The service volume is the maximum volume of traffic that a designed road would be able to serve
without the degree of congestion falling below a pre-selected level as defined by the level of service
which is the operating conditions (freedom to manoeuvre) at the time the traffic is at the design hour
volume. Table 4.4 gives an indication of the level of service used while Figure 4.4 gives a schematic
concept of the relationship of level of service to operating speed and volume/capacity ratio.

- 17 -
 TABLE 4.4 : LEVELS OF SERVICE

Level of Service Remarks

Free flow with individual users virtually unaffected by the presence of other
A vehicles in the traffic stream. This is a condition of free flow with low volume
and high speed of vehicle travel on the highways.

Stable traffic flow with a high degree of freedom to select speed and operating
B
condition but with some influence from the other users.

Restricted flow that remains stable but with significant interaction with others in
the traffic stream. The general level of comfort and convenience decline
C noticeable at this level. Speed and maneuverability are closely controlled by
the higher volume. Most of the drivers are restricted in their freedom to select
their own speed, change lane or pass.

High density flow in which speed and freedom to maneuver are severely
restricted and comfort and convenience have decline even though flow remains
D
stable. This level represents unstable flow with operating speed being
maintained, though considerably affected by changes in operating condition.

Unstable flow at or near capacity levels with poor level of comfort and
convenience. This level represents operation at lower operating speed with
E
volume at or near the capacity of the highways. Flow is unstable and stoppage
may occur for a momentary duration.

Forced traffic flow in which the amount of traffic approaching a point exceeds
the amount that can be served. LOS F is characterized by poor time travel with
low comfort, convenience and increase accident exposure. This condition
F
describes a forced flow operation at low speed where volumes are below the
capacity. Speed is reduced substantially and stoppage may occur for short or
long periods of time because of the downstream traffic condition.

(Source : Malaysia HCM 2011)

- 18 -
- 19 -
4.5.4 Design Level of Service (LOS) and Volume/Capacity Ratio

The selection of the design level of service is as given in Tables 4.5A and 4.5B. This level of service
concept can be simplified into volume to capacity ratio (V/C) for the purpose of design to determine the
service volume as indicated above. Tables 4.5A and 4.5B also gives the ranges of V/C ratio
consistent with the levels of service for the purpose of design.

TABLE 4-5A : DESIGN LEVEL OF SERVICE AND VOLUME/CAPACITY RATIO (RURAL)

Road Category Design Level of Service Volume / Capacity Ratio

Expressway C 0.70 - 0.80

Highway C 0.70 - 0.80

Primary Road D 0.80 - 0.90

Secondary Road D 0.80 - 0.90

Minor Road E 0.90 - 1.00

TABLE 4-5B : DESIGN LEVEL OF SERVICE AND VOLUME/CAPACITY RATIO (URBAN)

Road Category Design Level of Service Volume / Capacity Ratio

Expressway D 0.80 - 0.90

Arterial D 0.80 - 0.90

Collector D 0.80 - 0.90

Local Street E 0.90 - 1.00

- 20 -
5.0 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

5.1 SIGHT DISTANCE

The ability of a driver to see ahead is of the utmost importance to the safe and efficient operation of a
road. The designer must provide sufficient sight distance in which the driver can control the speed of
the vehicles so as to avoid striking any unexpected obstacle on the travel way. The sight distance is
the length of road ahead visible to the driver.

5.1.1 Stopping Sight Distance

The stopping sight distance is the length required to enable a vehicle travelling at the design speed to
stop before reaching an object in its path. The minimum stopping sight distance is the sum of the
distance traversed by a vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object and the instant he/she
applies the brakes and the distance required for the vehicle to stop after the application of brake
begins. The perception and brake reaction time = 1.5s + 1.0s = 2.5 seconds for most operators.

Braking distance, d, on level roadway is computed thus:

d = (0.278)(t)(V) + V2 / 254f

where t = brake reaction time, generally assumed to be 2.5s;

V = initial speed, km/h; and
f = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway.

The factor, f, varies considerably due to many physical elements such as conditions of tires, conditions
of pavement surface, the presence of moisture etc.

The sum of the distance traversed during perception and brake reaction time and the distance required
to stop the vehicle is the minimum stopping sight distance. The values to be used for minimum
stopping sight distances are as shown in Table 5.1.

TABLE 5.1 : MINIMUM STOPPING DISTANCE

Design Speed (km/h) Min. Stopping Sight Distance (m)

120 250
110 220
100 185
90 160
80 130
70 105
60 85
50 65
40 50
30 35

- 21 -
5.1.2 Effect of Grade on Stopping Sight Distance

When a highway is on a grade, the standard formula for braking distance is the following:

d = V2 / 254(f ±G)

in which G is the percent of grade divided by 100.

The Effect of Grade on Stopping Sight Distance is given by Table 5.2

TABLE 5.2 : EFFECTS OF GRADES IN STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE – WET CONDITIONS

Design Stopping Sight Distance (m) for Stopping Sight Distance (m) for
Speed Downgrades Upgrades
(km/h)
3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9%

30 32 35 35 31 30 29
40 50 50 53 45 44 43
50 66 70 74 61 59 58
60 87 92 97 80 77 75
70 110 116 124 100 97 93
80 136 144 154 123 118 114
90 164 174 187 148 141 136
100 194 207 223 174 167 160
110 227 243 262 203 194 186
120 263 281 304 234 223 214

5.1.3 Passing Sight Distance

Most roads in rural areas are two-lane two way on which vehicles frequently overtake slower moving
vehicles, the passing of which must be accomplished on a lane regularly used by the opposing traffic.
Passing sight distance for use in design should be determined on the basis of the length needed to
safely complete a normal passing manoeuvre. The minimum passing sight distance for two-lane
highways is determined as the sum of four distances:

(i) distance traversed during the perception and reaction time and during the initial acceleration to
the point of encroachment on the passing lane.
(ii) distance travelled while the passing vehicle occupies the passing lane.
(iii) distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its manoeuvre and the opposing vehicles.
(iv) distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the passing vehicle
occupies the passing lane.

The total passing distance is determined by the sum of the above four elements. Table 5.3 gives the
minimum values to be used for each design speed.

- 22 -
 TABLE 5.3 : MINIMUM PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE (2-LANE-2 WAY)

Design Speed (km/h) Minimum Passing Sight Distance (m)

120 775
110 730
100 670
90 615
80 540
70 485
60 410
50 345
40 270
30 200

The effect of grade on passing sight distance should also be considered. It should be realised that
greater distances are needed for passing on grade as compared to level conditions.

5.1.4 Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance

In measuring the sight distance, the eyes of the average driver in a passenger vehicle are considered
to be 1070mm above the road surface.

The height of object of 150mm is assumed for measuring stopping sight distance and the height of
object for passing sight distance is 1300mm, both measured from the road surface.

Horizontal sight distance should be measured in the inside of a curve at the centre of the inside lane.
Vertical sight distance should be measured along the longitudinal profile of the centre line, using the
height of driver’s eye (1050mm) and the object height (200mm). Figures 5.1 and 5.2 provide
examples of measuring sight distance in both plan and profile respectively.

TABLE 5.3a

- 23 -
- 24 -
- 25 -
5.2 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

5.2.1 Geometric Design of Roads/Highways

Geometric design of a highway is concerned with horizontal and vertical alignments as well as the
cross-sectional elements of the highway.

In the design of horizontal curves, it is necessary to establish the proper relation between the design
speed and curvature and also their joint relations with superelevation and side friction. From research
and experience, limiting values have been established for the superelevation (e), and the coefficient of
friction (f).

5.2.2 Superelevation Rates

The maximum rates of superelevation usable are controlled by several factors such as climatic
conditions, terrain conditions and frequency of very slow moving vehicles that would be subjected to
uncertain operation. For practical purposes in establishing the design criteria for horizontal alignment,
the maximum superelevation rates ranging from 6% to 10% can be used. As a general guide, a
maximum superelevation rate of 10% is used for roads in rural areas and 6% for roads in urban areas.

5.2.3 Minimum Radius

The minimum radius is a limiting value of curvature for a given speed and is determined from the
maximum rate of superelevation and the maximum allowable side friction factor.

The minimum safe radius (Rmin) can be calculated from the standard curve formula:

Rmin = V2 / 127 (e + f)

Where Rmin = minimum radius of circular curve (m)

V = Design Speed (km/h)
e = maximum superelevation rate
f = maximum allowable side friction factor

Table 5.4 lists the minimum radius to be used for the designated speed and maximum superelevation
rates:
Table 5.4 : Minimum Radius
Minimum Radius (m)
Design Speed (km/h) e = 0.06 e = 0.06 e = 0.10
120 755 665 595
110 560 500 455
100 435 395 360
90 335 305 275
80 250 230 210
70 195 175 160
60 135 125 115
50 90 80 75
40 55 50 45
30 30 30 25

- 26 -
5.2.4 Transition Curves

Vehicles follow a transition path as it enters or leave a circular horizontal curve. To design a road with
built-in safety, the alignment should be such that a driver travelling at the design speed will not only
find it possible to confine his vehicle to the occupied lane but will be encouraged to do so. Spiral
transition curves are used for this purpose. Generally, the Eulers spiral, also known as the clothoid is
used, given by the following formula:

1/r = l / (RLs)
where r = instantaneous radius of curvature at any point on the transition curve,
l = distance from the start of the transition,
R = radius of curvature of the circular arc, and
Ls = Length of transition curve length.

The degrees of curve vary from zero at the tangent end of the spiral to the degree of the circular arc at
the circular curve end.

The length of spirals to be used are normally calculated from the spiral formula or from the empirical
superelevation runoff lengths. The following formula is used by some for calculating the minimum
lenth of a spiral:

L = 0.0214 V3/(RC)
Where L = minimum length of spiral (m);
V = speed (kph);
R = curve radius (m); and
C = rate of increase of centripetal acceleration (m/s3), normally varies from 1 to 3.

5.2.5 Pavement Widening on Curves

Pavements on curves are widened to make operating conditions on curve comparable to those on
straights. Widening should be attained gradually on the approaches to the curve to ensure a
reasonable smooth alignment on the edge of pavement and to fit the paths of vehicles entering or
leaving the curve. Preferably, widening should be attained over the superelevation runoff length with
most or all of the widening attained at the start of the circular curve point.

5.2.6 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

There are usually sight obstructions across the inside of curves, such as walls, cut slopes, buildings,
guardrails, trees, etc. The designer should check the actual condition and make necessary
adjustments to provide adequate sight distance.

5.2.7 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment

In addition to the specific design elements for horizontal alignment, a number of general controls are
recognised and should be used. These controls are not subject to empirical or formula derivation but
are important for the attainment of safe and smooth-flowing roads. Some of these controls are:

a) Winding alignment composed of short curves should be avoided. Very long straights should
also be avoided.
b) Sharp curves should not be introduced at the end of long tangents.
c) Any abrupt reversal in alignment should be avoided.
d) The designer should ensure that the required sight distance is provided when approaching
interchanges and intersections.

- 27 -
5.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

In vertical alignment design, we need to consider the gradients (grades) and the vertical curves.

5.3.1 Maximum Grades

The vertical profile of road affects the performance of vehicles. In determining the maximum grade
controls in terms of design speed for general purpose roads, the effect of grades on trucks which have
weight/power ratio of about 180kg/kW is considered.

The maximum grade controls in terms of design speed for various category of roads are summarised
in various tables in Arahan Teknik ATJ 8/86 (Pindaan 2015). A typical one for R5 standard roads is
summarised in Table 5.5:

Table 5.5 : Maximum Grades

Design Speed Desirable Maximum Grade

(km/h) Maximum Grade (%) (%)
110 3 5
100 3 6
90 4 6
80 4 7
70 5 7
60 5 8

5.3.2 Minimum Grades

In most cases, designer should not allow any grade to be less than a desirable minimum of 0.5%.
However, a grade of 0.35% may be the allowable minimum where a high type pavement accurately
crowned is used. On straight stretches across wide areas of low lying swamps, the use of even flatter
grades may be allowable with prior approval. However, the design of the storm water drainage outlet
should be considered carefully at these locations to ensure that flooding of the travelled lanes is
avoided.

5.3.3 Critical Grade Length

The term “critical grade length” indicates the maximum length of a designated upgrade upon which a
loaded truck can operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed.

The length of any given grade that will cause the speed of a representative truck (180kg/kW) entering
the grade at 90 km/h to reduce by various amounts below the average running speed is shown
graphically in Figure 5.3. The 25 km/h speed reduction curve should be used as the general design
guide for determining the critical length of grade.

Where the length of critical grade is exceeded and especially where grade exceed 5%, the designer
should consider providing an added uphill lane, i.e. the climbing lane, for slow moving vehicles,
particularly where the volume is at or near capacity and the truck volume is high.

- 28 -
- 29 -
5.3.4 Vertical Curves

Vertical curves are used to effect a gradual change between tangent grades. For simplicity, the
parabolic curve with an equivalent vertical axis centred on the vertical point of intersection is used.

If g = g2 – g1
where g1 = tangent grade before the curve and
g2 = tangent grade after the curve

then the curve used to effect the change of grade with g < 0 is called a crest vertical curve and that
with g > 0 is called a sag vertical curve.

The ratio of L/g, termed K is useful in determining the minimum lengths (L) of vertical curves for the
various design speeds.

Tables 5.6 and 5.7 indicate the required k values that are to be used in design for the various design
speed:

Table 5.6 : Crest Vertical Curve (K Values) (for Stopping Sight Distance)

Design Speed (km/h) 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30

Minimum k Value 144 112 78 59 39 26 17 10 10 5

Table 5.7 : Sag Vertical Curve (K Values) (for Stopping Sight Distance)

Design Speed (km/h) 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30

Minimum k Value 63 55 45 38 30 23 18 13 9 6

5.3.5 General Controls for Vertical Alignment

In addition to the specific design elements for vertical alignment, there are several general controls that
should be considered:

a) A smooth gradeline with gradual changes should be strived for instead of a line with numerous
breaks and short lengths of grade.
b) The ‘roller coaster’ or the ‘hidden-dip’ type of profile should be avoided.
c) A broken back gradeline should be avoided, particularly in sags where the full view of both
vertical curves is not pleasing.
d) On long grades, it is preferable to place the steepest grades at the bottom and lighten the
grades near the top of the ascent or to break the sustained grade by short intervals of higher
grade instead of a uniform sustained grade that might be only slightly below the allowable
minimum.
e) Where intersections at grade occur on sections with moderate to steep grades, it is desirable
to reduce the gradient through the intersection.

- 30 -
5.4 COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

The horizontal and vertical alignments should not be designed independently. They should
complement each other. An excellence design in both the horizontal and vertical alignments and their
combination will increase utility, safety and aesthetics.

Proper combination of horizontal alignment and profile is obtained by engineering study and
consideration of the following general controls:

a) Curvature and grades should be in proper balance.

b) Vertical curvature superimposed upon horizontal curvature, or vice versa, generally results in a
more pleasing facility but it should be analysed for effect on traffic. Successive changes in
profile not in combination with horizontal curvature may result in a series of humps visible to
the driver for some distance, a hazardous condition.
c) Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the top of a pronounced crest
vertical curve. Their condition is hazardous in that the driver cannot perceive the horizontal
change in alignment, especially at night when the headlight beams go straight ahead into
space.
d) Sharp horizontal curvature should also not be introduced at or near the low point of a
pronounced sag vertical curve.
e) On 2-lane roads the need for safe passing sections at frequent intervals and for an
appreciable percentage of the length of the road often supersedes the general desirability for
combination of horizontal and vertical alignment. In these cases it is necessary to work toward
long tangent sections to secure sufficient passing sight distance in design.
f) Horizontal curvature and profile should be made as flat as feasible at intersections where sight
distance along both roads is important and vehicles may have to slow down or stop.
g) On divided roads, variation in the width of median and the use of separate profiles and
horizontal alignments should be considered to derive design and operational advantages of
one-way roadways.
h) In residential areas the alignment should be designed to minimise nuisance factors to the
neighbourhood. Generally, a depressed road makes it less visible and less noisy to adjacent
residents.

Examples of poor and good practices are illustrated in Figures 5.4 A to N.

- 31 -
- 32 -
- 33 -
- 34 -
- 35 -
- 36 -
- 37 -
- 38 -
5.5 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

5.5.1 Pavement

Pavements may be considered as three general types according to the volume of traffic they carry –
high, intermediate and low. These range from asphaltic concrete and concrete surfacing, to
bituminous macadam, to surface treatment/semi-grout, to gravel surfacing.

5.5.2 Lane Width

The capacity of a highway primarily depends on the number of traffic lanes and their widths. The lane
width is determined by the size of vehicle, average daily traffic volume of commercial vehicles and the
requirements for overtaking/passing.

5.5.3 Shoulders

A shoulder is defined as the portion of the roadway continuous with the travelled way for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, for emergency use and for lateral support to the pavement.

A typical cross section showing shoulder and verge is as shown in Figure 5.5A.

The main functions of shoulders are:

a) space is provided for emergency stopping free of traffic lane;

b) space is provided for the occasional motorist who desires to stop for various reasons;
c) space is provided to escape potential accidents or reduce their severity;
d) the sense of openness created by shoulders of adequate width contributes to driving ease and
comfort;
e) sight distance is improved in cut sections, thereby improving safety;
f) highway capacity is improved and uniform speed is encouraged;
g) lateral clearance is provided for signs and guardrails;
h) structural support is given to the pavement.

The normal usable shoulder width that should be provided along high type facilities is 3m. However, in
difficult terrain and on low volume roads, usable shoulders of this width may not be feasible. In these
cases, shoulder widths of 1.5m to 2.5m may be used.

5.5.4 Kerbs

The type and location of kerbs appreciably affect driver’s behaviour and in turn the safety and usage of
a road. Kerbs are used for drainage control, pavement edge delineation, aesthetics, delineation of
pedestrian walkways and to assist in the orderly development of the roadside.

Kerbs are needed mostly on roads in urban areas. In rural areas, the use of kerbs should be avoided
as far as possible except in localized areas which has predominant aspects of urban conditions.

- 39 -
5.5.5 Sidewalks

Sidewalks are accepted as integral parts of urban streets and should be provided wherever possible.
These can be placed adjacent to the kerbs and raised above the pavement. Sidewalks are also
needed in many rural areas in Malaysia where there are concentration of pedestrians, such as schools,
local business centre and industries.

5.5.6 Traffic Barriers

Traffic barriers are used to minimize the severity of potential accident involving vehicles leaving the
travelled way. Because barriers are a hazard in themselves, emphasis should be on minimizing the
number of such installations. REAM-GL 9/2006 “Guidelines on Design and Selection of Longitudinal
Traffic Safety Barrier” should be used for the design of longitudinal traffic barriers.

5.5.7 Medians

A median is a highly desirable element on all roads carrying four or more lanes and should be provided
wherever possible. The principal functions of a median are to provide the desired freedom from the
interference of opposing traffic, to provide a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles, to provide for
speed change and storage of right-turning vehicles and to provide for future lanes.

Figure 5-5B gives examples of kerbed and non kerbed medians.

- 40 -
 FIGURE 5-5B MEDIAN TYPES

5.5.8 Service Roads

Service roads are generally found in urban areas and they can have numerous functions, depending
on the type of road they serve and the character of the surrounding area. They may be used to control
access or function as a street facility serving adjoining property. They segregate local traffic from the
higher speed through traffic and intercept driveways of residences and commercial establishments
along the road. Service roads not only provide more favourable access for commercial and residential
development than the faster moving arterials but also help to preserve the safety and capacity of the
latter.

- 41 -
Figure 5.6 gives the recommended layout for a two-way operation service road fronting an urban
arterial where the distance between junctions is greater than 500m. The minimum reserve width for a
service road is 12m.

- 42 -
5.5.9 Pedestrian Crossing

Pedestrian crossings (whether level, overpass or underpass) should be provided where pedestrian
volumes, traffic volumes, intersection capacity and other conditions favour their use.

5.5.10 U-Turn

U-turns are categorised into 2 types: Dedicated U-turn and Median Opening U-turn.

The locations of U-turns are very important and traffic safety should be given due consideration. The
U-turn should be designed such that the through traffic approaching the U-turn is travelling at much
lower than the highway design speed. Traffic signage and calming devices, etc. should be considered.

5.5.11 Bridge and Structure Cross Section

Wherever possible, the width of shoulder on bridges and structures should be the same as that of the
carriageway. The clear vertical height of all structures should be at least 5.1m over the entire width of
traffic lanes, including auxiliary lanes and shoulders. For minor roads and local streets or where
alternative routes with clearances above 5.1m within a reasonable distance are available, the vertical
clearance may be reduced, with the permission of the relevant authorities.

Figure 5.7 shows the typical bridge cross section to be used. Figure 5.8 indicates the clearance
required at underpasses for various types of cross sections.

For the minimum vertical and horizontal clearance over railway lines, LRT lines, rivers, navigational
channels, etc. guidelines and approval shall be sought from the relevant authorities.

5.5.12 Bus Laybyes

Bus laybyes serve to remove the bus from the through traffic lanes. Its location and design should
therefore provide ready access in the safest and most efficient manner possible.

Figure 5.9 shows the typical layout and dimensions of bus laybyes that are to be used in both rural
and urban areas.

5.6 OTHER ELEMENTS AFFECTING GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Other elements affecting geometric design are as follows:

1) Road Safety
2) Drainage
3) Lighting
4) Utilities
5) Signing and Markings
6) Traffic Signals
7) Erosion Control, Landscape Development and Environmental Impacts

- 43 -
FIGURE 5-7 TYPICAL BRIDGE CROSS SECTIONS

- 44 -
FIGURE 5-8 CLEARANCES AT UNDERPASS

- 45 -
- 46 -
6.0 JUNCTION DESIGN

6.1 DESIGN OF AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS

6.1.1 Principles of Design

The term “intersection” refers to both intersections and junctions, i.e. where two or more roads cross
or meet. They are important parts of the road system. Their capacity controls the volume of traffic
within the network system.

There are four basic types of intersection manoeuvres: diverging, merging, crossing and weaving.

6.1.2 Types of At-Grade Intersection Layouts

Three basic types of intersection layouts at grade are:

 Unchannelised and unflared;
 Flared;
 Channelised.

The spacing of intersections depends on factors such as weaving distance and, storage length
required for queuing traffic at signalised intersections and the lengths of right turning lanes.

Table 6.1 gives the desirable minimum spacings of intersections for the various categories of the major
roads.

Table 6.1 Desirable Minimum Spacings of Intersections

Area Category of Major Road Spacing (m)

Expressway 3000
Highway V x 20
Rural
Primary V x 10
Secondary Vx5
Minor Vx3
Expressway 1500
Arterial Vx3xn
Urban
Collector Vx2xn
Local Street V x 1.5 x n

V = Design speed, km/h

n = no. of through lane in one direction

6.1.3 Stop Control Intersection

All intersections shall be designed under the assumption that one of the intersecting roads has priority
except where the intersection is signalised. The priority road will normally be that which is of the
higher design standard. If the two roads are of the same standard, then the priority road shall normally

- 47 -
be that for which the highest traffic volume is predicted. In T-junctions and staggered junctions (which
may be considered as two T-junctions) the priority road shall be the through road. If the main traffic
flow in a T-junction is on the stem of the T, then a change of layout should be considered.

6.1.4 Other types of Intersection

Where the traffic flows exceed the capacity of the stop control intersection, other types of intersection
have to be considered. These are:

 Roundabouts
 Signalised Controlled Intersections
 Grade separated Intersections or Interchanges

Roundabouts may be applicable for total traffic volume (sum of all directions) of up to 6000
vehicles/hour.

Signal controlled intersections are applicable to very high traffic volume of 8000 vehicles/hour or
more provided that the necessary numbers of approach lanes are present and that there is no
interference from other nearby intersections.

Grade separated intersections (interchanges) serve very high traffic volumes with very little
interference to the through traffic. The design of interchanges will be discussed separately later.

6.1.5 Combination and Coordination in Successive Intersections

Minor roads at close proximity create successive intersections on the major road. They should be
treated as follows:

(a) Local service roads should not be linked directly to the major road, but should be
connected to collector roads or combined into one and then linked to the major road at a
proper location.
(b) Local streets should not be linked to the major road near major intersections. If this is
unavoidable, only left-turning movements should be allowed. Right-turns from the major
road and from the cross road should be physically prevented with continuous kerbed
median and remodelling the entrance to the minor road.
(c) When a new major road is being planned over an existing road network, coordination and
adjustment on the layout and spacing of intersections which would be created along the
road must be done. Relocation of existing roads and systematic traffic control may be
required.

- 48 -
6.2 DESIGN OF INTERCHANGES

6.2.1 Warrants for Grade Separation and Interchanges

An interchange is a useful and an adaptable solution for many intersection problems, but because of
the high initial cost, it is used to eliminate existing traffic bottlenecks or to correct existing hazardous
conditions and is limited to those cases where the required expenditure can be justified.

6.2.2 Types of Separation Structures

A detailed study should be made at each proposed highway grade separation to determine whether
the main road should be carried over (an ‘overpass’) or under (an ‘underpass’) the structure. Often,
the choice is dictated by features such as topography or highway classification.

6.2.3 Interchange Types

Three Leg Design

Example, Trumpet Interchange & multi-tiered high type T or Y interchange. (See Figures 6-1 & 6-2).

Four Leg Design

These may be grouped under 4 types:

(a) Ramps in one quadrant,

(b) Diamond interchange,
(c) Partial Cloverleaf,
(d) Full cloverleaf

See Figures 6-3 to 6-8.

Directional and Semi-Directional Design

See Figure 6-9 & Figure 6-10.

Rotary Design

A rotary interchange is a roundabout with the major through highway grade-separated. (Figure 6-11).

Combination Interchanges

Typical example of combination interchanges are:

(a) A diamond with a semi-direct connection

(b) A cloverleaf with a semi-direct connection
(c) A one-half diamond with a one quadrant cloverleaf

- 49 -
- 50 -
- 51 -
- 52 -
- 53 -
- 54 -
- 55 -
- 56 -
- 57 -
7.0 COST ESTIMATE

A typical road or highway project may involve costs which are not directly related to the permanent
physical works as designed, it will normally also involve many other costs which are directly or
indirectly resulting from the implementation of such project. Listed below are the typical cost
components of a road or highway project:

a) Land acquisition cost

b) Preliminary costs of data collection such as:
(i) Ground survey, such as
 Aerial photogrammetry
 Satellite images
 Topographical survey
 Survey of overhead structures and utility services
(ii) Soil investigation
(iii) Underground utility detection, such as
 Water pipes
 Sewer pipes
 Gas pipes
 Electricity cables
 Telecommunication cables
c) Traffic study
d) Environmental Impact Assessment
e) Design Cost
(i) Engineering Design
(ii) Independent Checkers
(iii) Road Safety Auditors
(iv) Coordination and Liaison with relevant authorities
(v) Landscape design
f) Construction Cost involving cost of
(i) Construction of actual physical works
(ii) Demolition of unwanted existing structures
(iii) Construction of temporary works and demolish there-after
(iv) Traffic Management
(v) Environmental Management
(vi) Relocation of existing utility services
(vii) Landscaping, etc.
g) Supervision Cost
h) Project Management Cost
i) Cost of Financing

8.0 CONCLUSION

It is hoped that with this brief overview, the readers will have a bird’s eye view of the various aspects of
road and highway engineering. This paper is by no means sufficient to guide the readers into road
design straight away. Much more knowledge and experience need to be gained by the readers
themselves through further reading and, more importantly, through gaining the actual experience
working under the proper guidance of the experienced engineers. With knowledge, experience and
wisdom, the readers will be able to contribute much to the field of engineering for the benefit of
mankind.

- 58 -
- 59 -
References:

1. Induction Course for New Civil & Structural Engineers, Lecture notes on Road prepared by Ir.
Phua Jee Chin.
2. Highway Engineering, Robert Ashworth.
3. Highway Engineering, Paul H. Wright & Radnor J. Paquette.
4. A Guide on Geometric Design of Roads, Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86, JKR (and its Revision by
Road Engineering Association of Malaysia: REAM-GL 2/2002, and JKR’s revision Pindaan
2015)
5. A Guide to the Design of At-Grade Intersections, Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 11/87, JKR
6. A Guide to the Design of Interchanges, Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 12/87, JKR
7. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 1994 (and Latest Revisions 2004 & 2011.)
8. Garis Panduan Untuk Penyediaan Pelan Pengambilan Balik Tanah Bagi Projek Jalan
Persekutuan, Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 7/85
9. Design Standards for the Interurban Toll Expressway System of Malaysia, LLM (11/86)
10. Standards for Highway Works, Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 6: “Road
Geometry”, published by The Stationery Office, UK.

- 60 -