The American Psychological Association (APA) defines developmental disorder as chronic

and severe neurological disorders that impact a person's adaptive behaviour, development,
and learning. These disorders are considered severe because they impair a person's ability to
perform in several major daily activities. Developmental disorders can manifest in infancy
or childhood as delays in reaching developmental milestones or as a lack of function in one
or more domains. These domains include: cognition, motor performance, vision, hearing and
speech, and behaviour. Students with developmental disabilities may require individualized
educational programming that includes specialized input from a range of disciplines.

LEARNING DISABILITY

Learning disabilities (LD) is a broad term that refers to a range of difficulties people
may face in school, despite having adequate intelligence, opportunities, and a supportive
environment. A formal definition often describes learning disabilities as problems with
acquiring specific scholastic skills, such as reading, writing, or math, even when a person has
the necessary cognitive abilities and resources to learn. For example, the World Federation of
Neurology defines dyslexia as a disorder characterized by difficulty in learning to read,
despite conventional instruction and adequate intelligence. the term "learning disability"
was coined by Samuel A. Kirk in 1963. In a speech, Kirk argued for more accurate
descriptions of children's learning problems, specifically excluding those with sensory
disabilities or intellectual disabilities from being classified as learning-disabled. This idea
resonated with others in the educational community, and the term "learning disability"
quickly gained popularity. In fact, it led to the formation of the Association for Children
with Learning Disabilities (later renamed the Learning Disabilities Association of America)

Incidence of Learning Disabilities

Most estimates suggest that 10% to 15% of school-age children need special training
for learning disabilities, but only about 2% receive special education. Calculating prevalence
is complicated because learning disabilities often emerge over time. For example, a common
method defines a learning disability as being 2 years behind in academic progress. Using this
criterion, fewer than 1% of 6-year-olds are considered learning-disabled, but this increases to
25% by age 19. This increase occurs because those with learning disabilities fall further
behind as they age. Additionally, variations in scholastic achievement across different school
systems make it difficult to determine accurate prevalence rates. Some schools cannot
provide data on special education needs due to a lack of resources.

Types of Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities (LD) are classified based on the specific academic skills or
behaviors that are affected. The types of learning disabilities typically reflect the areas of
emphasis in the school system, such as reading, mathematics, and behavior. These areas are
prioritized because they are seen as essential for success in formal schooling. As a result,
learning disabilities related to these core subjects are more likely to be diagnosed and
categorized.

If subjects like art or physical education were considered as critical as reading in the
early years of education, it’s possible that the classification of learning disabilities might look

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different. However, certain disabilities that interfere with the acquisition of skills in reading,
mathematics, spatial orientation, and social behavior are commonly identified.

Common Types of Learning Disabilities

1. Dyslexia(ReadingDisabilities)
Dyslexia, or difficulty with reading, is the most commonly recognized learning
disability. It affects a person's ability to decode and understand written words, despite
adequate intelligence and opportunity for learning. Many children with dyslexia may
struggle with spelling, reading fluency, and comprehension.
2. Dyscalculia(MathematicsDisabilities)
Dyscalculia refers to difficulties with math, such as trouble understanding numbers,
performing calculations, or grasping mathematical concepts. Children with
dyscalculia may struggle with basic arithmetic, understanding time, or learning math-
related facts and operations.
3. Dysgraphia(WritingDisabilities)
Dysgraphia involves difficulties with writing, which can include problems with
handwriting, spelling, or organizing thoughts on paper. Individuals with dysgraphia
may have trouble forming letters, writing legibly, or expressing ideas clearly in
writing.
4. Spatial Orientation and Motor Skills Disabilities
Some children experience difficulties in areas such as spatial awareness, coordination,
or motor control. This might manifest as issues with activities that require hand-eye
coordination, such as tying shoes, using utensils, or participating in sports.

Prevalence of Learning Disabilities

A study by Denckla examining a group of children with learning disabilities found

that, among 484 children aged 6 to 16 years, 76% were primarily dyslexic, with or without
other associated issues, and 18% were classified as hyperactive. This suggests that reading
difficulties (dyslexia) and behaviour issues (such as hyperactivity) are the most frequent
reasons for referral to clinics specializing in learning disabilities.

Characteristics Associated with Learning Disabilities

The American Psychiatric Association's DSM-IV and the U.S. Department of

Health, Education, and Welfare both list various symptoms and characteristics often
associated with learning disabilities. These include:

1. Hyperactivity – Restlessness, inability to stay still or focused.

2. Perceptual-Motor Impairments – Difficulty interpreting or responding to sensory
information correctly (e.g., visual or auditory processing problems).
3. Emotional Lability – Rapid and extreme mood changes.
4. Coordination Deficits – Trouble with physical coordination, such as clumsiness.
5. Attention Disorders – Short attention spans, distractibility, or difficulty focusing on
tasks.

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 6. Impulsivity – Difficulty thinking before acting.
7. Memory and Thinking Problems – Challenges with recall, organizing thoughts, and
thinking through problems.
8. Specific Learning Disabilities – Problems in specific academic areas like reading
(dyslexia), math (dyscalculia), and writing (dysgraphia).
9. Speech and Hearing Disorders – Difficulties with articulation, language processing,
or auditory processing.
10. Neurological Irregularities – Unusual neurological signs or abnormal EEG
(electroencephalogram) readings that might suggest brain activity irregularities.

Variability in Symptoms

It's important to note that not all children with learning disabilities will exhibit all of
these symptoms. For example, while some children may have problems with motor
coordination, others might have better-than-average coordination but still struggle with
reading or attention. The variety of symptoms and their varying degrees of severity mean that
learning disabilities can look different from one child to another, even if they share the same
core challenge (e.g., reading difficulties).

In summary, learning disabilities can manifest in a variety of ways, including

difficulties with reading, writing, math, motor skills, and behavior. The classification of
learning disabilities often depends on the academic focus of the school system, but certain
core issues like dyslexia and ADHD are consistently reported. As research into learning
disabilities continues, a better understanding of their causes and manifestations can help
develop more effective educational strategies and interventions.

READING DISABILITIES

Reading relies on a combination of several skills, including letter identification,

phonological skills (converting letters to sounds), grapheme association (recognizing the
visual form of words to access known sounds), sequencing skills (arranging sounds in order),
and short-term memory (holding information as it’s processed). Along with these, a solid
vocabulary stored in the brain’s lexicon is key, as it includes the meanings and relationships
between words. People read in two main ways: phonological reading, where letters are
converted to sounds to aid understanding, and graphemic (or lexical) reading, where entire
words are recognized based on memory—this is often needed for irregular words that don’t
follow pronunciation rules, such as “Worcester.” Beginning readers generally rely on
phonological skills but, around ages 6 to 10, transition to graphemic reading. This shift has
led to some debate, as some schools skip phonological training and teach graphemic reading
first. These two methods point to distinct types of reading disabilities: children struggling
with phonological skills may face challenges in early reading stages, while those struggling
with graphemic skills may face later difficulties. Other issues like poor short-term memory
can make it hard to retain and understand text as it’s read, while poor long-term memory can
hinder understanding, as the person may be able to sound out words but not fully grasp their
meaning. Each of these reading processes is complex, and disruptions can appear in many
ways and at different stages of development.

Types of Reading

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 There are two main ways of reading: phonological reading and graphemic reading.
Imagine you're reading a book with unfamiliar names, like "Fzylx from Worcester." You
might sound out these names because you've never seen them before. Later, you realize it was
actually "Felix from Wooster," but since you hadn't heard the names before, you tried to read
them phonetically. This highlights two challenges: unfamiliar names and irregular spellings.
Graphemic reading is used for irregular or unfamiliar words, like some names or symbols,
where you rely on memory to recognize the word. Phonological reading, on the other hand,
involves sounding out letters to form words and understand their meaning.

Phonological reading is common for beginners learning to read, while graphemic

reading becomes more dominant as reading skills develop. This shift often occurs between
ages 6 and 10. Phonological skills help with early reading, and as children become more
skilled, they depend more on grapheme knowledge. This shift might explain why people
sometimes miss spelling errors when proofreading: they read whole words based on
recognition rather than letter-by-letter.

Reading skills involve different parts of the brain. Phonological reading is linked to
the left hemisphere, while graphemic reading is connected to the right hemisphere. Some
schools start teaching with graphemic reading, skipping the phonological stage, which has led
to debate on the best reading method.

Since these reading processes are different, children may show reading issues at
different ages. A child who struggles with phonological reading will have trouble learning to
read, while a child who struggles with graphemic reading will face issues later on. Research
shows that these age-related difficulties are common among poor readers, and children
struggling with phonological reading may find it hard to transition to graphemic reading.

There are also other reasons people may struggle with reading. Poor short-term
memory can make it hard to remember words while reading, especially as reading material
becomes complex. Poor long-term memory can make it difficult to understand word
meanings, even if the person can read well. This is like someone who can read Italian aloud
but doesn’t know what the words mean. Similarly, people with dementia may be able to read
but not understand the content.

Sensory Detection's Role in Reading:

Reading and language challenges may start with how children process sounds.
Bradley and Bryant studied children’s ability to sort sounds, asking them to pick the word
that didn’t share a sound with others. For instance, in “hill, pig, pin,” “hill” is different. They
found that children with early difficulties in sorting sounds often struggled with reading and
spelling later. Training in rhyming and alliteration helped improve reading skills, suggesting
that one root of reading challenges is low awareness of sounds.

Early Sound Detection and Language Development:

Detecting learning risks could start even earlier. Frith suggested that babies’ babbling
might hint at risks for reading problems. Research shows infants can initially hear all speech

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sounds, but over time, they focus only on those in their language. If this process is disrupted,
it may lead to language issues.

Sensory Detection Speed and Learning Disabilities:

Tallal and her team found that children with learning disabilities struggle to detect
quick sensory changes. For example, two fast sounds may seem like one to them, requiring
longer pauses between sounds to hear them distinctly. This affects how well they hear fast-
changing sounds, like the beginning of words such as "da" and "ta." These skills rely on the
brain’s left hemisphere, which handles quick sound discrimination essential for language.
Left-hemisphere issues can disrupt this ability.

Improving Sound Discrimination for Language Skills:

To address this, Tallal's team developed targeted training, focusing on distinguishing

sounds instead of general language skills. They used computer games that slowly increased
sound difficulty and adjusted sound rates to help children distinguish them better. Children
showed progress in distinguishing sounds and, over time, improved in language
comprehension. The improvements also lasted for six months, showing the potential of this
training for sustained language gains.

Fast ForWord Program Results:

The Fast ForWord program, tested in the U.S. and Canada with 500 children, showed
promising results. Kids trained in sound discrimination for 2 hours a day over two months
improved in both sound discrimination and overall language skills. This supports the idea that
better sound detection can enhance language abilities.

Analysis of Correlated Deficits

Reading deficits, like those seen in dyslexia, are complex and vary widely. People
with dyslexia show many different symptoms, and each person’s experience can be unique.
Some of the common difficulties involve attention, eye movement, memory, coordination,
spatial skills, movement sequencing, and visuospatial processing.

These varied symptoms occur because language plays a crucial role in managing
mental processes, which affects many behaviors. Dyslexic individuals often struggle with
separating stimuli across all senses (like sight, sound, and touch). They may need more time
to detect differences between stimuli, and they can also have trouble making quick
movements or distinguishing sounds in noisy environments.

One theory by Hari and Renvall suggests that dyslexia may stem from "sluggish
attention shifting." This means people with dyslexia may find it hard to switch focus quickly,
possibly due to issues in the brain’s parietal lobe, which coordinates sensory inputs and
movements.

Another theory, called the magnocellular theory, links reading difficulties to a

specific part of the visual system that detects motion. If there’s an issue here, words on a page

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might seem to move, making reading hard. Some believe using a color filter or reading with
one eye can help, but research on this theory is mixed, with some studies supporting it and
others not. The lack of agreement in research comes from the complexity of the theory,
differences in study methods, and variations in how dyslexia is diagnosed.

In summary, understanding reading disorders like dyslexia is challenging, and

theories on their causes remain debated.

Neuropsychological Evaluation

Neuropsychological assessments for dyslexia are based on a few key ideas:

1. Dyslexia may impact specific skills, not all areas of learning.

2. These skills can be tested using neuropsychological methods.
3. If one teaching method doesn’t work, another might.
4. Test results should suggest strategies for helping with learning difficulties.

While there isn’t strong scientific proof for these assumptions, these tests are still
useful for understanding an individual’s challenges and offering guidance.

Neuropsychological testing looks at many areas of brain function. Children with

learning disabilities often have multiple symptoms that aren’t immediately obvious to parents
or teachers. These tests can help adults understand what a child is struggling with and can
also show whether reading issues are due to learning difficulties or emotional/social factors.

One common pattern, the "ACID profile," is often seen in dyslexic children. They
tend to score lower on tests involving arithmetic, coding, information, and digit span, though
their overall IQ scores average around 100. This pattern typically appears in children older
than 8, suggesting it may develop with age.

Dyslexic children’s scores on IQ subtests can vary widely, with some scores high,
some low, and some average. These patterns can be meaningful for experienced counselors.

Comparing dyslexic and non-dyslexic children’s test results shows some differences
that depend on age. For example:

 In left-right differentiation, both dyslexic and non-dyslexic children under 8 perform

similarly, but older dyslexic children struggle compared to non-dyslexic peers.
 On word fluency tests (e.g., listing words starting with "S"), younger dyslexic and
non-dyslexic children score similarly, but as they age, non-dyslexic children improve
while dyslexic children’s scores stay about the same.
 The Semmes Body-Placing Test (left-right discrimination) shows significant
differences in adults, with non-dyslexic adults performing nearly perfectly.

These findings suggest that while these tests are useful for children, results should be
interpreted carefully, especially with younger kids. Retesting at different ages can provide
clearer insights.

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Nonlanguage Learning Disabilities

Six nonlanguage learning disabilities are covered here:

1. Hyperactivity (often called ADHD)

2. Cerebral palsy,
3. Hydrocephalus,
4. Autism,
5. Fragile-X syndrome, and
6. Fetal alcohol syndrome.

Children with these conditions may have trouble understanding their surroundings,
interpreting emotions and facial expressions, pretending, and performing complex
movements.

Hyperactivity (ADHD)

Hyperactivity, or ADHD, stands out because it disrupts behavior and learning in

school, affecting most areas of school performance. Children with ADHD may also have
other learning disabilities that contribute to their hyperactivity. ADHD has several diagnostic
labels, including minimal brain dysfunction and hyperkinetic impulsive disorder.

Diagnostic Criteria for ADHD:

1. Excessive hyperactivity: Younger children might run or climb impulsively, while

older kids struggle to sit still and fidget often.
2. Difficulty focusing: Children may leave tasks unfinished, be forgetful, and struggle in
situations requiring independence.
3. Impulsiveness.
4. Symptoms lasting over a year.

In early childhood, hyperactive children might have irregular sleep, colic, dislike
being held, and start running before walking. By school age, they often struggle with
behavior, listening, and playing with others, leading to referrals for assessment. In
adolescence, many face academic failure, legal issues, and challenges in social relationships
or employment.

ADHD is the most common behavioral disorder in children, with a higher incidence
in boys (5:1 to 9:1). Prevalence rates vary, with North American rates higher due to lower
tolerance for hyperactive behavior. Surveys show that up to 50% of children in North
America are considered hyperactive by parents and teachers.

Causes and Treatments of ADHD: The causes of ADHD might include brain injury,
genetics, allergies, high lead exposure, and home or school environments. A single cause is
unlikely for all cases. Treatments involve counseling and structuring the home/school
environment. Since the 1960s, stimulant medications like Ritalin have been used to help
children focus, although their long-term effectiveness is uncertain. Ritalin may help by either
enhancing focus or having a mild calming effect on children.

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Cerebral Palsy

Cerebral palsy (CP) is primarily a motor function disorder caused by brain injury
during fetal development or birth. It’s hard to define precisely because:

1. The motor symptoms vary widely,

2. It can come with different cognitive impairments, and
3. The causes are diverse.

Since it presents differently in each person, “cerebral palsy” is used more as a general
term for people with nonprogressive brain-based motor disorders. CP isn’t curable, but
therapy and training can often help manage symptoms.

History and Key Features

 First described by Dr. William Little in 1853, CP was linked to difficult labor,
premature birth, or lack of oxygen (asphyxia). Little noted that CP often causes
permanent disabilities, intellectual challenges, personality effects (like irritability),
and epilepsy. He also warned that improper training could worsen these problems.
 CP affects about 6 in every 1,000 births, with equal rates in males and females.
 Around 10% of people with CP need no special services, 65% need occasional
support, and 25% require special education or care.

Types of CP by Motor Symptoms

1. Spastic CP (50%): Muscles are stiff, and limbs resist movement.

2. Athetoid CP (25%): Slow, involuntary movements.
3. Rigid CP (10%): Muscle stiffness around joints.
4. Ataxic CP (10%): Difficulty with voluntary movement.

Causes and Risk Factors

 Almost 50% of CP cases are due to birth injuries or developmental injuries.

 Other causes include seizures (9%) and prematurity (8%).
 Maternal factors like health, body size, and weight gain during pregnancy can also
increase the risk.

Affected Brain Areas Lesions in areas like the corticospinal tracts, basal ganglia, brainstem,
and cerebellum are believed to contribute to CP symptoms, though exact links between
lesions and symptoms are still unclear.

Hydrocephalus

Hydrocephalus is a condition where cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) builds up in the brain,

leading to increased pressure. There are two main causes:

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 1. In Adults: Shrinking of brain tissue can lead to enlarged ventricles (fluid spaces in
the brain).
2. In Infants: A blockage in CSF flow creates pressure, causing ventricles to expand.

CSF normally flows from the brain’s ventricles through small openings and is
absorbed into the bloodstream. Blockages in this flow cause pressure buildup, which can vary
based on the location of the blockage. Sudden blockages cause rapid pressure increases,
potentially leading to coma, while gradual blockages from issues like tumors lead to
symptoms like visual problems, palsies, and even dementia.

Infant Hydrocephalus In infants, hydrocephalus causes an enlarged head since their skull
bones haven’t fused yet, allowing for expansion. This condition can affect intelligence if
brain tissue is damaged. Hydrocephalus occurs in about 27 out of 100,000 newborns, with
causes including malformations, inflammation, trauma, or tumors.

Treatment A common treatment is the surgical insertion of a valve and tube that drains
excess CSF into a vein, preventing further pressure buildup. Without treatment,
hydrocephalus can lead to severe disabilities or death.

Autism

Autism, first identified by Kanner and Asperger in the 1940s, is a developmental

disorder marked by challenges in social interaction, limited interests, and atypical
communication. It is estimated to affect about 1 in 500 children, occurring four times more
often in boys. Autistic individuals vary greatly in ability, with some needing significant
support and others showing remarkable talents in specific areas, such as music, art, or math.

Characteristics of Autism

 Social Difficulties: Challenges in understanding and interacting with others, often

avoiding physical contact and eye contact.
 Need for Routine: Preference for sameness, resisting changes in routine or
environment. This might be due to difficulty in managing new or unexpected
situations.
 Repetitive Behaviors: May include hand flapping, rocking, or attachment to specific
objects.
 Range of Abilities: Some have exceptional abilities, often called “savant” skills, like
extraordinary memory or musical talents.

Causes of Autism

While there is no specific known cause for autism, several factors might contribute:

 Genetic Factors: Autism tends to occur more frequently among identical twins
compared to fraternal twins.

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  Environmental Factors: A mother’s exposure to rubella (German measles) during
pregnancy or potential toxins could increase the risk.
 Brain Abnormalities: Some research links autism to differences in brain areas, like
the temporal lobes and cerebellum, which might affect memory and learning. For
example, people with autism may struggle to habituate (get used to) repeated noises,
which can make everyday sounds seem intensely loud or distressing.

Related Conditions

 Asperger’s Syndrome: A milder form of autism where children generally have good
grammar and early speech but show social withdrawal, preference for routines, and
may have specialized talents.
 Hyperlexia: Often associated with Asperger’s, some children develop advanced
reading skills at an early age but may struggle with comprehension and social skills.

Savant Syndrome

Some autistic individuals have “savant” skills—special talents in specific areas like
memory, music, or math, despite general cognitive impairments.

Fragile-X Syndrome

Fragile-X syndrome is the most common inherited cause of intellectual disabilities,

affecting about 1 in 2,000 males and 1 in 4,000 females. It is passed down through a mutation
in the FMR1 gene on the X chromosome, which causes varying degrees of mental
impairment and specific physical traits. Men are typically more affected than women due to
the way the mutation impacts the X chromosome.

Key Characteristics

 Cognitive Impairments: Ranges from mild learning disabilities to severe intellectual

disability. Symptoms often include attention deficits, hyperactivity, anxiety, and some
behaviors similar to autism.
 Physical Traits: People with Fragile-X often have a long face, large ears, flat feet,
and flexible joints, especially in their fingers.
 Gender Differences: Males generally experience more severe symptoms because
they have only one X chromosome, while females have two X chromosomes. The
presence of a second, typically normal X chromosome in females can lessen the
impact.

Cause

The syndrome is caused by a mutation in the FMR1 gene, which normally helps brain
cells make connections (synapses). This gene has a DNA sequence that, when repeated too
many times (over about 100 times), stops producing a necessary protein for normal brain
function, affecting brain cell development. The excessive repeats also impact brain structures,

10
leading to differences like a thinner cortex and a smaller caudate nucleus, as shown in brain
scans.

Current Research and Potential Treatments

Researchers are exploring two potential approaches:

1. Gene Therapy: Inserting a working FMR1 gene into brain cells could, in theory,
reduce neuronal abnormalities.
2. Reactivate Existing Genes: Scientists are investigating how to restore the FMR1
gene's normal function without adding new genetic material, focusing on "switching
on" the gene to start making the needed protein again.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) describes the physical and mental impairments in
children born to mothers who consumed alcohol during pregnancy. First identified in 1973,
FAS includes a range of abnormalities that can vary in severity, depending on the timing,
amount, and frequency of alcohol exposure.

Key Characteristics

 Physical Features: Children with FAS may have specific facial traits, such as widely
spaced eyes and a short nose. They are often smaller than average and may be thin.
 Brain and Cognitive Impairments: FAS can lead to brain abnormalities, which vary
from small brain size to issues in cell organization within the brain's cortex. These
structural differences are linked to learning disabilities, lower intelligence scores,
hyperactivity, and social challenges.

Causes and Risk Factors

 The severity of FAS is often linked to when, how much, and how frequently alcohol
is consumed:
o Timing: Drinking in the first three months of pregnancy can be especially
harmful, a period when some women may not yet realize they are pregnant.
o Quantity: Higher blood-alcohol levels from binge drinking can increase the
risk.
o Other Factors: Poor maternal health, use of other drugs, and smoking can
contribute to a more severe outcome.

Important Considerations

Since even low levels of alcohol may impact a developing fetus, experts recommend
complete abstinence from alcohol before and during pregnancy. This is especially important
because the effects on a child’s intelligence and development can be long-lasting.

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 Women most at risk for having children with FAS may face additional challenges,
such as poverty and lack of access to healthcare, making education and support crucial for
preventing FAS.

Developmental Influences on Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities in children can be influenced by various factors. Six major ones
are commonly cited:

1. Structural Damage and Toxic Effects:

o Some childhood learning disabilities, like dyslexia, may be linked to brain
damage, but not all cases are caused by structural damage. For example,
children with developmental dyslexia do not typically show symptoms like
blind spots (scotomas) or loss of vision in half the field (hemianopsia), which
are common in adults with brain damage.
o Environmental factors, such as poor nutrition, drug use, and exposure to toxic
substances, can also contribute to learning disabilities. Studies have shown
that children with learning disabilities may have abnormal levels of certain
metals (like lead and cadmium) in their hair, suggesting a possible
biochemical cause.
2. Hormonal Effects:

o Changes or imbalances in hormones during development may

influence cognitive functions and learning abilities, though this area needs more
research to fully understand the mechanisms.
 The Geschwind-Galaburda Theory

The Geschwind-Galaburda Theory suggests that testosterone affects brain

development and learning abilities

Brain Asymmetry:

o In most right-handed people, the left side of the brain is larger in areas that
control speech. Males, however, show more differences in this brain
asymmetry. High levels of testosterone during pregnancy might cause the left
side of the brain to develop more slowly, giving the right side (which controls
spatial skills) more time to grow.

Effect of Testosterone:

o Testosterone may make the right side of the brain stronger, helping with skills
like math or spatial reasoning, but it can also lead to learning disabilities (like
dyslexia).

Learning Differences:

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 o This could explain why males often excel in math but also face learning
challenges. The hormone influences both positive and negative outcomes.

Health Issues:

o Testosterone might also increase the risk of autoimmune disorders (like

asthma or allergies) in those with special abilities or learning disabilities.

Left-Handedness:

o The theory suggests that left-handedness is more common in people with

learning disabilities or special abilities because of the brain's hormonal
influence.

Brain Abnormalities:

o Studies of people with reading disabilities show brain differences, like small
or unusual brain folds, supporting the idea that brain structure can affect
learning.

o In short, the theory links testosterone to brain differences, which may

explain why males are more likely to have learning disabilities and special
abilities

3.Abnormal Cerebral Lateralization

A variety of theories rest on Orton’s premise that learning disabilities result

from slowed cerebral lateralization. This premise is based on the assumption that,
because language is lateralized in the left hemisphere of most adults, such
lateralization must be advantageous and acquired with language acquisition, and its
slowed development would be deleterious to the acquisition of language skills. In the
past 20 years, dozens of studies have examined dichotic and visual field asymmetries,
but the data are far from unequivocal. Satz concludes: One might ask what light
laterality studies shed, if any, on the problem of cerebral dominance and reading
disability. The answer should be— not much. The reason for this somewhat
discouraging view lies in the numerous methodological and conceptual problems that
continue to plague research efforts in this area. (Satz, 1976, p. 288

4.Maturational Lag:

The maturational-lag hypothesis postulates that the cognitive functions

producing language, reading, and other complex behaviors are organized
hierarchically and that the levels of the hierarchy develop sequentially in the course of
ontogeny. Should one level of the hierarchy be slow to develop, the development of
all subsequent levels will be delayed, inasmuch as higher functions depend on the
integrity of lower ones. The original delay in maturation could result from a variety of
factors. Two possibilities are delayed myelinization of a particular region and slow

13
 development of cortical connections. Although the results of some studies do suggest
that various functions in learning-disabled children are slow in maturing, the type of
study needed for a definitive test of this hypothesis is a careful longitudinal analysis
of children tested on a large number of perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills for a
period of 10 to 15 years. When learning-disabled children have been re examined in
adulthood, they have been found to retain their characteristic impairments even
though maturation should have been complete. For example, Frauenheim studied 40
adults who had been diagnosed as dyslexic in childhood and found that, on test
performance and on self-report evaluations, they were essentially unchanged from the
original diagnosis. This result does not support the maturational-lag hypothesis.

5.Environmental Deprivation:

It is well known that environmental deprivation can have long-lasting con

sequences for physical and intellectual function. Children raised in orphan ages with
adequate physical care but without adequate social stimulation fail to thrive. They fall
below age norms in both physical and intellectual devel opment. A recent example is
that of Romanian orphans. In the 1970s, the communist regime then governing
Romania outlawed all forms of birth control and abortion. The result was hundreds of
thousands of unwanted pregnancies, with children placed in orphanages, where the
conditions were appalling. After the Communist government fell and the outside
world was able to intervene, hundreds of these children were placed in adoptive
homes throughout the world. There have been several studies of the fate of these
children. Initially malnourished and small in size, they improved spectacu larly in
their adoptive homes. Their average height and weight became al most normal, and
most achieved normal motor and cognitive development. A significant number were
retarded, however, and many had psychosocial problems—difficulty in developing
relations with peers and in developing secure attachments with adults. Children who
were adopted before 6 months of age had significantly better outcomes than did those
adopted at older ages. People in developed countries continue to adopt children from
developing countries—children who have been subjected to various degrees of
depriva tion. In addition, many children in even the most advanced countries suffer
various degrees of deprivation and abuse. Accordingly, environmental deprivation
continues to be a leading cause of learning disabilities

The Birthday Effect A subtle variant of the deprivation hypothesis is called the
birthday effect. One perspective on this hypothesis comes from studies undertaken by
Barnsley and colleagues of birthdays of North American hockey players. In senior hockey
leagues, there is a negative relation between birth month and number of players. More than
30% of players have birth dates in the first quarter of the year (16% in January), whereas
fewer than 15% have birth dates in the last quarter of the year (5% in December).
Furthermore, a disproportionate number of the superstars have first-quarter birthdays. This
birth discrepancy is not present in beginning leagues but emerges progressively as players are
pro moted through the leagues. The explanation appears to be straightforward. Players enter
the most junior league according to age—children must be 8 years old between January 1 and
December 31 of the year in which they enter Mite hockey. Equal numbers of children born in
each month enter. But children born in December enter hockey almost a year earlier than
children born in January, who in effect have had to wait a year. The younger, smaller children

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are at a developmental disadvantage from the outset. They receive less playing time and
reinforcement and are more likely to drop out. Research on the effects of relative age on
educational achievement produces similar results. Children entering school at a younger age
perform at a significantly lower level than do their older classmates. Both Diamond and
Maddux found that children entering first grade at an early age were more likely than their
older classmates to be classified as learning-disabled later in their school career. Furthermore,
Maddux and coworkers found that, among children who are classified as gifted, a larger
population entered school late than entered school early. This effect may last into later grades
and even into university. The rather simple birthday effect stands in sharp contrast with the
brain-based hypotheses and should inspire sober reflection in neuropsychologists who are
making diagnoses

6.Genetic Influences:

Genetic factors can play a significant role in learning disabilities. Children

with a family history of learning difficulties may be more likely to experience similar
challenges. Any consideration of the possibility that learning disorders have a genetic
basis must recognize some of the obstacles to demonstrating such a hypothesis. First,
the environment can affect development in many ways. Consequently, it is extremely
difficult to separate environmental influences from genetic effects in any kind of
research. Second, learning disabilities take many forms. At pres ent, criteria for
categorizing types of learning disabilities are poorly developed, which makes it
difficult for researchers to correlate specific types of disabilities with specific causes.
Third, the incidence of learning disabilities is related to the quality of schooling. The
average length of schooling and the demands made by schools on students have
changed greatly in the past two generations; so it is difficult to compare the reading
abilities of children with those of their parents. Fourth, learning-disabled children are
typically of average intelli gence, as are their parents (that is, their overall IQs are
about 100), and people with strictly average IQs generally find school difficult, even
when no specific disability exists. Fifth, the ability to read is itself probably inherited,
making it difficult to sort out the contribution made by inherited reading skill from
that made by a supposedly inherited causal factor underlying a disability

These factors together contribute to the complexity of learning disabilities and suggest
that a variety of influences—biological, environmental, and genetic—can affect a child's
ability to learn.

Adult Outcome of Learning Disabilities varies widely, with both successes and
challenges reported.

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 1. Optimistic Outcomes: Some studies, like the one by Critchley, report positive
outcomes for learning-disabled individuals. For example, a group of dyslexic boys
who received special training in a private school went on to become successful adults,
including medical doctors, lawyers, teachers, and business owners.
2. Pessimistic Outcomes: However, many studies paint a less hopeful picture. Spreen's
study of 203 learning-disabled individuals showed that most struggled through school
and had poor social lives, with many facing difficulties in securing advanced training
or skilled employment. Despite these struggles, they did not have a higher incidence
of delinquency or mental health issues. Over time, they did improve their career
prospects and social adjustments, but they continued to dislike school, and women
generally had worse social adjustments than men.
3. Challenges for Hyperactive Children: Weiss and Hechtman found that children
with hyperactivity often face lifelong challenges, including impulsivity, low self-
esteem, poor social skills, and frequent job changes. While they do not remain
hyperactive into adulthood, their problems with social adjustment and personal
stability persist.
4. Recommendations: The study emphasizes the importance of careful assessment of
each child's cognitive challenges to tailor effective educational strategies. Instead of
pushing children to learn skills that are difficult for them, education should focus on
helping them acquire skills for employment and independence. Counseling for both
the child and parents is crucial to address negative feelings about school and help
devise strategies to manage disabilities.

In summary, the outcomes for individuals with learning disabilities are mixed. While
some overcome their challenges and achieve success, others continue to face significant
struggles throughout their lives. Tailored support and realistic educational goals are essential
for improving their long-term prospects.

Childhood disorders can significantly impact both academic progress and social
adjustment. One of the most crucial areas of learning in school is reading, and any disorder
that affects reading can be a major barrier to academic success. Reading is a complex task
that involves multiple skills, and research suggests that the ability to make quick
discriminations and shift attention rapidly is particularly important for acquiring literacy.
Training in stimulus discrimination (the ability to distinguish between different stimuli) has
been found to help improve reading skills in individuals with difficulties.

Additionally, nonverbal disabilities—conditions that affect skills like motor

coordination, spatial awareness, or perception—can also lead to academic and social
difficulties. These disabilities are often linked to general, diffuse brain damage that can
vary from case to case, making each individual’s challenges unique.

Environmental factors can also influence a child’s development and brain function.
These include:

 Brain injuries (such as trauma)

 Toxins (including lead exposure)
 Drugs (either prenatal or postnatal exposure)
 Environmental deprivation (like neglect or lack of stimulation)

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 Even less obvious factors, such as the age at which a child begins school, can have a
surprisingly large impact on their success in school. Early school entry can give some
children an advantage, while those who are younger may struggle more academically.

In summary, disorders affecting reading, nonverbal skills, or caused by

environmental factors can hinder academic progress. Addressing these issues early, through
specialized training and supportive environments, can help mitigate their impact.

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