INTRODUCTION OF

INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS
Introduction

International Relations is a newer subject of study than history, economics,

politics, sociology. Up to end of 19th century, there was little organised study of
relations among nations. It was only after the world experienced the destruction
& huge harm inflicted by 1st world war (1914-19) that the need for studying
relations among nations was deeply realised.

Such a realisation led to the establishment of 1st chair of International Relation

called Woodrow Wilson Chair of International Relations at the University of
Wales, Aberystwyth (1919). The honour of being the inaugural holder of this
chair came to a professor of History, Alfred Zimmern. Department had two
staffs, Alfred Zimmern & Syney Herbert. In 1922 Charles Kingley Webster
became the 2nd holder of the chair. Thus began the process of conducting
organised & systematic study of the subject of relations among nations.

Definitions:

1. International Relations involve the study of ‘relations among state.’ It

includes all inter-state relations, political or non-political. -----Charles P.
Schleicher
2. International Relations is a field of study focussed upon the process by
which states adjust their national interest to those of other states. ---------
Hartman
3. The discipline (International Relations) studies interaction between &
among states & more broadly the working of international system as a
whole. -------------Oxford concise dictionary of Politics
4. Goldstein opines that IR basically concerns the relationship among
world’s government. But he also argues that IR is not just a relationship
between government. It needs to be understood in terms of the activities
of non-state actors also.
5. According to Hans Morgenthau, international relations is a struggle for
power among nations.
Some scholars define it as a system of interactions among nations, which
involves the use of power or threat of use of power. They prefer to call it
International Politics.

Several others seek to define it as a study of all relations among nations. So,
there is a diversity in terms of opinions of different scholars.

Nature of International Relations:

Changing Nature of International Relations

The nature of international relations Is dynamic. International relations is a

thorough analysis of what is happening in world politics.

The post-World War II period saw a huge shift in world politics. World politics
was divided into two poles, such as the NATO led by the USA and the Warsaw
Pact led by the USSR. The collapse of the Soviet Union in the 1990s led to a
kind of single polarity in world politics.

However, economically growing Asian countries such as China, India,

Singapore, Vietnam, and various South American countries such as Brazil are
all significantly influencing world politics. So it is clear that international
politics is moving towards multi-polar again.

The growing importance of non-state actors like NGOs (Non-Governmental

Organizations), MNCs (Multinational Companies), etc, are also discussed in the
field of International relations.

International Relations as an academic discipline discusses the changing pattern

of the contemporary world.

As an Interdisciplinary Subject

All social science subjects are interdisciplinary in nature. International Relations

also is an interdisciplinary field of study in which other disciplines in social
science such as history, economics, political science, philosophy, geography,
culture, etc, are interconnected.

The state is the primary actor in IR

In the field of international politics, State is the sole and unitary actor. The state
has always been a major player in international relations. The state’s behavior
as a major driving force in international politics is also studied in international
relations.

National Interest and power are the core of IR

The protection of national interests is the main goal of the state. With this goal
in mind, the state engages in relations with other states, and the national power
of the state will be able to satisfy its national interests.

Thus, it is seen that the issues of national interest and the role of national power
in fulfilling those interests are considered the core of IR.

Struggle for Power

According to Morgenthau, International politics is the struggle for power. I have

already said that power is the means of national interest. So power politics is the
key theme of IR.

Continuous Interaction among Nation States

No state in the present world is self-sufficient. Every state is dependent on each

other. Hence the need for interconnectedness and that is possible only because
of the interaction among different states.

International Relations also discuss the foreign policies of different states and
how they behave with each other.

Scope:

1. Nation-state System or Nation-states. Nation states are the primary

actors in international relations. Naturally, International Politics studies
relations & interactions between two or more states. Each state is
conditioned by its geography, resources, populations, level of industrial &
technological development, ideology, diplomacy, national interest etc.
Hence the study of inter-state relations necessitates a study of the basic
actors & these factors.
2. National Interest-Since national interest is the objective that each nation
tries to secure during the course of relations with other nations, it
becomes imperative for International Politics to study national interests of
various nations.
3. National Power- The concept of national power is the core concept in the
study of international politics. Nations are actors but these always act on
 the basis of their national power. It determines the role & ability of a
nation to carry out its foreign policy objectives. It is customary to
characterise nations as super powers, major powers, big powers, small
powers, or weak powers & this amply reflects the importance of national
power in international politics.
4. Foreign Policy- The behaviour of each state in international relations is
always directed & controlled by its foreign policy. Foreign policy is a
thought-out course of action for securing the objectives of national
interest of the nation. A study of foreign policies of various nations alone
can explain the nature of relations & interactions among them.
5. International & Regional Organisations, Agencies, Institutions, Non-
state actors. An outstanding feature of the contemporary era has been the
rapid growth of international & regional institutions & organisations as
the institutionalised means for the conduct of relations among nations.
Also rise of several active non-state international or supra-national or
trans-national actors, NGOs, Human Rights Organisations, Peace
Movements has necessitated the inclusion of the study of the role of these
actors in international system.
6. Study of Current Global issues & challenges before the international
community of nations. The scope of International Politics involves the
study of major contemporary issues & problems, for example,
International Terrorism, Protection of Human Rights, Issue of Climate
Change, Environment Protection Ethnic Conflicts, Sustainable
Development & Disarmament & Nuclear Disarmament.

Beginning of IR: Westphalian Treaty

 Ended 30 years of war & 80 years of war.
 Recognized Treaty of Augsburg-1555, and added freedom of
religion to common people
 Sovereignty of each state were recognised, Switzerland was
made independent from the hands of Holy Roman Empire,
Dutch Republic formally became independent from Spain, lead
to the existence of nation states & thus beginning of modern
international system.
 Peaceful coexistence & non-intervention in the affairs of other
states.
 Barriers on trade & commerce were abolished which came
during the war. Trade was promoted.

Phases of International System :

 a) 1648-1919-Westphalian world order (Billiard Ball Model)- The
Treaty of Westphalia, 1648, which concluded the 30 years of warfare,
has come to symbolise the new way of organising international
politics. From this point onwards, international politics was a matter
of relations between states and no other political units. All states were
sovereign, meaning that they laid claims to the exclusive right to rule
their own territories and to act, in relation to other states, as they
themselves saw fit. All states were formally equal and they had the
same rights and obligations. Taken together, the states interacted with
each other in a system in which there was no overarching power.
Sovereignty and formal equality led to the problem of anarchy. Within
a country ‘anarchy’ refers to a breakdown of law and order, but in
relations between states it refers to a system where power is
decentralised and there are no shared institutions with the right to
enforce common rules. An anarchical world is a world where
everyone looks after themselves and no one looks after the system as a
whole. Instead, states had to rely on their own resources or to form
alliances through which the power of one alliance of states could be
balanced against the power of another alliance. Yet, as soon became
clear, such power balances were precarious, easily subverted, and
given the value attached to territorial acquisitions, states had an
incentive to engage in aggressive wars. As a result, the new
international system was characterised by constant tensions and
threats of war – which often enough turned into actual cases of
warfare. Also, Practice of diplomacy as exemplified by the way peace
treaties were negotiated.

Billiard Ball Model - Given by Arnold Wolfers. Based on Westphalian world

order.
There are 4-5 great powers but no superpower. (In that case, this model will not
hold). Universal actor is also absent. i.e. world government or international
actor. (League of Nations, or UN). Hence we can call it as a situation of
anarchy.
Each country will have to depend on itself for its survival. (Impact of anarchy).
Hence, nations will go for internal and external balancing to maintain the
balance of power. Nations will consistently collide with each other like the free
standing balls with hard shell in game of billiards.
The model also shows that there are no permanent friends and enemies.

2nd Phase: Interwar period.

Attempts were made to change the manner in which politics is conducted
among states.
As suggested by Woodrow Wilson, League of Nations was established. It was
expected that new world order will come into existence. Collective security will
eliminate the balance of power.
However new world order could not come into existence.
USA could not join League of Nations because of opposition from US
Congress. As USA did not join League of Nations, the responsibility was on
Britain and France. They neither had any experience nor motivation for
collective security. They accepted the idea only under the pressure of USA but
were sceptical about the idea. They continued with their old politics.
In 1917, Communist revolution took place in USSR, frightening the capitalist
world. In this context, France and Britain preferred appeasement of fascist
powers against the threat of communism. Hence they overlooked expansionist
actions by Italy, Germany and Japan. They allowed League of Nations and
collective security to collapse. Hence the vision of new world order given by
Woodrow Wilson proved short lived, the old style of politics 1) Protectionism,
2) Arms race 3) Alliances and counter-alliances started giving rise to 2nd WW..

3rd Phase: Cold War

After the end of 2nd WW, we see the beginning of cold war. Cold war world
order has seen the rise of superpowers. The status of superpowers is different
from great powers. Superpower denotes extraordinary power. It means other
nations not even in combination can challenge the superpower. The status of
other states will be reduced to the status of satellites. Satellites denote the loss
of sovereignty in real sense, sovereignty of the states became just a formality.
The second defining feature of cold war was the collapse of the traditional
balance of power politics giving rise to the nuclear deterrence i.e. nuclear
balance of power to avoid war.
International politics became ‘international’ in true sense. Westphalian world
order was multipolar, cold war world order was bipolar.

4th Phase- Era of US Hegemony

The Factors responsible for the rise of US hegemony in world politics are:

- The disintegration of the USSR left the US as the sole superpower.

- The US had Superior Military power.

- US is a supreme power in providing global goods. Also, United States was

also a superior economic power.

- US had the ascendancy in ideological spheres.

Beginning Of The 'New World Order

The US hegemony began in 1991 after Soviet power disappeared from the
international scene but it did not start behaving like a hegemonic power right
from 1991.

Iraq Invasion

In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait, quickly occupying and annexing the
country. The United Nations authorised the use of force to liberate Kuwait after
a series of diplomatic attempts failed to persuade Iraq to halt its aggression.

This was a difficult decision to make after years of deadlock during the Cold
War. The emergence of a "new world order" was lauded by US President
George H.W. Bush.

First Gulf War

A massive coalition force of 660,000 troops from 34 countries fought and

defeated Iraq in what became known as the First Gulf War.

The UN operation,"Operation Desert Storm," was overwhelmingly made up of

Americans. An American general named 'Norman Schwarzkopf', led the UN
coalition forces, also the UN forces comprised nearly 75% of the soldiers from
American forces.

Iraqi President Saddam Hussein promised "the mother of all battles," but Iraqi
forces were defeated quickly and forced to withdraw from Kuwait.

The First Gulf War exposed the massive technological divide that had
developed between the US military and that of other nations.

 The US's widely publicised use of "smart bombs" dubbed the conflict a
"computer war."

 It was also dubbed a "video game war" due to widespread television

coverage.
  The United States may have profited from the war.

 According to many reports, the US received more money than it spent on

the war from countries such as Germany, Japan, and Saudi Arabia.
Operation Enduring Freedom
 After the attack of 9/11, The US launched 'Operation Enduring Freedom'
against all those suspected of being behind the attack, primarily Al-Qaeda
and Afghanistan's Taliban regime.
 US forces arrested people all over the world, often without the knowledge
of the governments that arrested them, and held them in secret prisons.
 They were transferred to Guantanamo Bay, a US naval base in Cuba,
where they were not protected by international law, domestic law, or US
law.
 Even UN representatives were barred from visiting these detainees.

Operation Iraqi Freedom

The United States launched ‘Operation Iraqi Freedom' on March 19, 2003. After
the UN refused to give the invasion a mandate, more than forty other countries
joined the US-led "coalition of the willing."
The primary objective of the invasion was to prevent Iraq from developing
weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Additional motive was to control Iraqi
oilfields and installing a US-friendly regime.
Saddam Hussein's government fell quickly, and the US was unable to 'pacify'
Iraq. In Iraq, a full-fledged insurgency against US occupation erupted, while the
United States has lost over 3,000 military personnel in the war, Iraqi casualties
were significantly higher.
Hegemony As Hard Power

The following notion of hegemony reflects the military landscape of a powerful

country. The United States' strength stems primarily from its superior military
prowess.

The following are some characteristics of US hegemony as a hard power:

 The weapons of the United States can reach any part of the globe with
pinpoint accuracy and lethality. It can deal the most damage to its
opponents while also shielding its own forces from enemy attacks to the
greatest extent possible.

 No other country in the world can match the United States' military
might. It not only has superior military weapons, but it also heavily
invests in military research and development
 Hegemony As Structural Power

The second definition of hegemony is significantly different from the first. The
existence of a hegemon or dominant power is required for an open world
economy to function.
The United States has been a major contributor to global public goods. The term
"public goods" refers to goods that are used by one person without reducing the
number of goods available to others.
Hegemony As Soft Power

The third sense of hegemony is the ability to "manufacture consent." When a

country establishes its cultural supremacy in the world in various defined forms,
it becomes a soft power.
In the following dimensions, the United States has established itself as a
hegemonic soft power:
The United States dominated not only militarily and economically, but also
culturally. Dreams of individuals and societies are influenced by twentieth-
century American practices.
Because America is the world's most powerful culture, it is referred to as "soft
power" because it can persuade rather than coerce others.
For an entire Soviet generation, blue jeans came to represent aspirations for the
"good life" that were not available in their own country.

5th Phase 2001 onwards

we are witnessing the decline of liberal world order, and countries are returning
to the old style. State-centric geopolitics. e.g. In 2014 Russia militarily annexed
Crimea.
Joseph Nye explains the present world order as ‘3D Chess Board’.
World is unipolar in militaristic sense as if we observe the alliances of USA, but
as countries like China, India, France, Russia etc are continuously increasing
their defence advancement, world is multipolar in true sense.
World is multipolar in economic sense for example China, USA, Britain, India,
Japan, Germany etc
There is no pole rather diffusion of socio-cultural power among numerous
organizations, groups etc.
John Burton has given the concept of ‘cob-web’ model in place of ‘billiards
ball’ model. In cobweb model, people are connected with each other through
multiple threads or channels that it looks like spider’s web.
Billiards ball model Cobweb model

State centric Society centric

Only one channel of Multiple channels of communication.

communication. i.e. It is primarily the impact of information
through state technology.

States are like hard shells. States have become porous. i.e. their surveillance capacity
has declined