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 1.1: Four Representations

Section 1.1: Functions - Four Representations

A relation is a rule that links one input value (x) to an output value (y). If any
particular input value corresponds to more than one output, the relation is not a
function.

A function is a rule that assigns exactly one output value (y) to each input value (x).
An input value can be referred to as a member of the function’s domain; an output
value can be referred to as a member of the function’s range. Function notation
f ( x) is used to describe a function with input variable x and output f ( x) .

A function can be represented numerically (in table form), algebraically (as an

equation), verbally (a description), or graphically.

The Vertical Line Test can be used to determine whether a relation satisfies the
definition of a function. If there is a vertical line that crosses the graph of a relation
in two or more places, then the graph does not represent a function.

Example 1: (CC5e pp. 11-12)

Determine whether each of the following graphs of a relation is also a function. If the
relation is not a function, explain why not. (The horizontal axis is the input axis.)

a. b. c.

___________________ ___________________ ___________________

___________________ ___________________ ___________________

1
 1.1: Four Representations

Example 2: (CC5e pp. 3-4)

Determine whether the following functions are represented numerically, algebraically, verbally,
or graphically.

a. The function g can be represented by either of the tables shown below.

It has a(n) ____________________________ representation.

t g (t )
2 18 t 2 3 4 5
3 54 g (t ) 18 54 156 435
4 156
5 435

b. The function g can be represented by the graph shown below.

It has a(n) ___________________________________ representation.

c. The function g can be represented as g (t ) = 3e t − 2t .

It has a(n) __________________________ representation.

d. The function g can be represented by the statement:

The area of a square equals the length of a side squared.

It has a(n) _____________________________________ representation.

e. The resident population of the United States between 1900 and 2000 can be modeled as
g (t ) = 80(1.013t ) million people where t is the number of years since the end of 1900.

The function g has a(n) ________________________ representation.

2
 1.1: Four Representations

Example 3: (CC5e pp. 5-6)

p (t ) = 80(1.013t ) million people gives the US population, where t is the number of years since
the end of 1900, between the years 1900 and 2000.
a. Explain why p is a function.

b. Identify the notation, unit of measure, and description for the input and output.

Input Output
Notation (variable)

Unit of measure

Description

An input/output diagram is a drawing that

uses a box and arrows to identify the notation
representing the input, output, and rule for a
particular function.

c. Draw an input/output diagram for p.

d. The ordered pair (0,80) lies on the graph of p (t ) . Rewrite the ordered pair using function
notation.

3
 1.1: Four Representations

A sentence of interpretation for an ordered pair uses ordinary conversational

language to answer the questions when?, what?, and how much?
When? refers to the input value and does not necessarily involve time.
What? refers to the output description for the function.
How much? refers to the output value.

______________
e. Write a sentence of interpretation for part d.

Given a function, when an input value is given, the output value is found by evaluating the
function at the specified input value.

When an output value is given, the function is used to write an equation which is solved
to find the necessary input value or values.

Example 4: (CC5e p. 4, p. 6)

Consider the function: g (t ) = 3e t − 2t . The input variable to the function is t and the output
variable is g.

a. Find the corresponding output value for an input of 4, using your calculator. In other
words, evaluate g (4) . Round the answer to 3 decimal places.

Using a TI-83/84 calculator, check that the calculator is set to FLOAT and TURN
PLOTS OFF:

• MODE
If FLOAT isn’t highlighted, hit
(down arrow) ENTER to change
the mode to FLOAT
• Y=
If Plot1, Plot 2, or Plot 3 is highlighted,
hit (up arrow) on the name of the plot you want to turn off and hit ENTER. Repeat if
needed.

4
 1.1: Four Representations

Enter a function into the equation editor:

• Y= (located directly under the

calculator screen) opens the
equation editor

• Enter the right side of the function

equation into Y1 using 2ND LN
[ex] for e and X,T,θ,n for x

• 2ND MODE [QUIT] returns to

the home screen

Evaluate the output value for the function entered in Y1:

• VARS (right arrow) obtains the

VARS Y-VARS options

• ENTER or 1 chooses 1: Function

• ENTER or 1 chooses 1: Y1

• (4) ENTER evaluates g at t = 4

b. Find g (9) . Round the answer to 3 decimal places.

Re-evaluating a function:

• 2ND ENTER [ENTRY] copies a

previous command (that has not yet
been deleted)
• Use to move the cursor over the
4 then change 4 to 9
• ENTER re-evaluates the function

5
 1.1: Four Representations

Using the table to evaluate a function (an alternate method):

• 2ND WINDOW [TBLSET] opens

options for the Table feature
• Use and to move the cursor
over the word Ask
• ENTER sets up the Table to accept
input values to be evaluated

• 2ND GRAPH [TABLE] opens the Table. In the X column type 4 ENTER 9 ENTER.

• Use and to move the cursor over a y-value to view its full decimal expansion.

c. Find all input values corresponding to an output of 10. In other words, solve the equation
3et − 2t = 10 .

Using the equation solver to solve an equation:

• MATH:SOLVER (0: Solver or

B: Solver) returns the solver

• (up arrow) returns the

EQUATION SOLVER screen

• Complete the equation to be solved

so that it reads 0 = Y1 – 10

• (down arrow) returns a new

screen

• Position the cursor on the X = line

(shown as X = 0 in the screenshot
to the right)

• ALPHA ENTER [SOLVE]

returns a solution to the equation

For an equation with only one solution, any value in the domain of the function will
return the solution. For an equation with multiple solutions, the solver usually returns the
solution that is closest to the initial x-value provided by the user, so several guesses may be
necessary.

6
 1.1: Four Representations

Finding a second solution:

• Use to return to the X = line and

type a different x-value, such as -2

• ALPHA ENTER returns a second

solution

d. Sketch a graph of g (t ) = 3e t − 2t on −20 ≤ t ≤ 5 .

Graphing on a specific domain:

• Set the WINDOW (x-values only):

Xmin = -20 and Xmax = 5

• ZOOM 0 (0:ZoomFit)

7
 1.1: Four Representations

Example 5:
15
Consider f ( x) = on the interval −10 ≤ x ≤ 10 . Solve for the input value that
1 + 2e −0.5 x
corresponds to output value f ( x) = 10 .

Using a graph and the intersect function to solve an equation (an alternate method):

• In the Y= list, enter f ( x) in Y1

and the output value in Y2

• WINDOW

• Xmin=-10 and Xmax=10

• ZOOM 0 [ZoomFit] returns the

graph

• 2ND TRACE 5 [intersect]

• Place the cursor on one of the

functions and hit ENTER

• Place the cursor on the other

function and hit ENTER

• Use the to move the cursor to the

intersection point and hit ENTER

• 2ND MODE [QUIT] to return to

the home screen

8
 1.1: Four Representations

Example 6: (CC5e pp. 5-6)

p (t ) = 80(1.013t ) million people gives the US population, where t is the number of years since
the end of 1900, between the years 1900 and 2000.

a. Calculate the values of p (t ) for the given values of t. Report the answers correct to three
decimal places.

t years since
0 20 40 60 80 100
1900
p(t) million
people

b. Use p to calculate the U.S. population at the end of 1945. Include units with the answer.

c. Write the answer to part b using function notation. _

______________
d. Write a sentence of interpretation for parts b and c.

e. Sketch a graph of p on the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 100 . Note the variable and unit of measure on
each axis.

f. According to the function p, in what year did the U.S. population reached 250,000,000
people?

9
 1.1: Four Representations

Example 7: (CC5e p. 10, Activity 17)

Consider the function t (n) = 15e − 5n . If an input value is given, find its corresponding
0.5 n 2

output value. If an output value is given, find its corresponding input value(s). Round
answers to three decimal places.

a. n = 3 t (3) = ___________________________

b. n = 0.2 t (0.2) = __________________________

c. t (n) = 200 n = _____________________________

Example 8: (CC5e p. 10, Activity 25)

15
Consider the function t (n) = . If an input value is given, find its corresponding
1 + 2e −0.5n
output value. If an output value is given, find its corresponding input value(s). Round
answers to three decimal places.

a. n = −2.5 t (−2.5) = ______________________

b. t (n) = 7.5 n = ___________________________

c. t (n) = 1.8 n = ___________________________

Example 9: (CC5e p. 10, Activity 31)

Consider the function g ( x) = 4 x 2 + 32 x − 13 . If an input value is given, find its

corresponding output value. If an output value is given, find its corresponding input value(s).
Round answers to three decimal places.

a. x = −3 g (−3) = ___________________________

b. g ( x) = 247 x = _____________ or ______________

10
 1.2: Function Behavior and End Behavior Limits

Section 1.2: Function Behavior and End Behavior Limits

The direction of a function is described as:

Increasing if output values increase as input values increase,
Decreasing if output values decrease as input values increase, and
Constant if output values remain the same as input values increase.

The curvature of a function is described as concave up on an interval where the

graph appears as a portion of an arc that opens upward. The curvature of a function
is described as concave down on an interval where the graph appears as a portion of
an arc opening downward. A line has no concavity.

Any point on a continuous function where the concavity changes is called an

inflection point.

Example 1:
Identify each function as increasing, decreasing, or constant on the given interval.
Identify each function as concave up or concave down on the given interval.

11
 1.2: Function Behavior and End Behavior Limits

Example 2: (CC5e p. 15)

The figure shows the graph of function w that

models the number of 20- to 24-year-olds
employed full time for years between 2001
and 2008.

a. State the interval(s) on which w is increasing.

b. State the interval(s) on which w is decreasing.

c. State the interval(s) on which w is concave up. ___

________________________
d. State the interval(s) on which w is concave down.

e. At what input value does w have an inflection point?

The end behavior of a function describes output values of a function as input values either
increase or decrease without bound. It can be estimated by evaluating the function at
increasingly large or decreasingly small input values. This process is called numerical
estimation.

The notation lim f ( x) = L indicates that the output values of a function f have a
x →± ∞

limiting value L as x increases or decreases without bound. When a function has a

limiting value L, the line with equation y = L is called a horizontal asymptote.

The notations lim f ( x) = ∞ and lim f ( x) = −∞ indicate that the output values of a
x →± ∞ x →± ∞

function f do not have a limiting value, but instead increase or decrease indefinitely
as x increases or decreases without bound.

12
 1.2: Function Behavior and End Behavior Limits

Example 3: (CC5e p. 18)

The number of credit card holders in the

United States can be modeled as
29
C (t ) = + 158 million credit card
1 + 18e −0.43t
holders where t is the number of years since
2000, 0 ≤ t ≤ 15 .

a. Describe the behavior of C over the intervals

0 < t < a and a < t < 10 using the terms
increasing or decreasing and concave up or
concave down. a

b. How does the behavior of C change at the point with input t = a ?

c. What is the mathematical name for the point with input t = a ?

d. Complete the tables, stopping when the end behavior can be estimated.
Show rounding to three decimal places in the table.

t→∞ C (t ) t → −∞ C (t )
10 –40
30 –80
90 –120
270
810

e. Using limit notation, describe the end behavior of C as t increases without bound and as
t decreases without bound.

f. Write the equations for the two horizontal asymptotes of C and draw them on the graph.

13
 1.2: Function Behavior and End Behavior Limits

Example 4:

Using limit notation, describe the end behavior of each function as x decreases without bound
and as x increases without bound. How many horizontal asymptotes does each function have?

lim f ( x) = ________; lim f ( x) = ________ lim f ( x) = ________; lim f ( x) = ________

x →−∞ x →∞ x →−∞ x →∞
Number of horizontal asymptotes: Number of horizontal asymptotes:

lim f ( x) = ________; lim f ( x) = ________ lim f ( x) = ________

x →−∞ x →∞ x→ ∞
Number of horizontal asymptotes: Number of horizontal asymptotes:

lim f ( x) = ________; lim f ( x) = ________ lim f ( x) = ________; lim f ( x) = ________

x →−∞ x →∞ x →−∞ x →∞

Number of horizontal asymptotes: Number of horizontal asymptotes:

14
 1.3: Limits and Continuity

Section 1.3: Limits and Continuity

For function f defined on an interval containing a constant c (except possibly at c

itself), if f ( x ) approaches the number L1 as x approaches c from the left, then the left-
hand limit of f is L1 and is written lim− f ( x) = L1 .
x→ c

Similarly, if f ( x ) approaches the number L2 as x approaches c from the right, then the
right-hand limit of f is L2 and is written lim+ f ( x) = L2 .
x→ c

The limit of f as x approaches c exists if and only if lim− f ( x) = lim+ f ( x) = L . It

x→ c x→ c

is written lim f ( x) = L . Otherwise, the limit of f as x approaches c does not exist.

x→c

If lim− f ( x) = ∞ or − ∞ or lim+ f ( x) = ∞ or − ∞ , then the graph of f has a vertical

x→ c x→ c

asymptote at x = c .

Example 1:
x 2 − 4 x + 1 for x ≠ 1
Use the graph of f ( x) =
3 for x = 1
shown to the right to find the following.

a. f (1) = b. lim− f ( x) = c. lim+ f ( x) = d. lim f ( x) =

x →1 x →1 x →1

x → 1− f ( x) x → 1+ f ( x)

0.9 -1.79 1.1 -2.19

0.99 -1.9799 1.01 -2.0199
0.999 -1.99799 1.001 -2.001999
0.9999 -1.99979999 1.0001 -2.00019999

15
 1.3: Limits and Continuity

Example 2: (CC5e pp. 23, 26)

Use the graph of f shown to the right to find

the following.

a. f (3) = ________ lim f ( x) = ________

x →3 −

lim f ( x) = ______ lim f ( x ) = ________

x →3 + x →3

b. f (4) = _________ lim f ( x) = ______

x→4 −

lim f ( x) = _______ lim f ( x ) = _______

x→4 + x→4

Example 3:

Use the graph of g shown to the right to find

the following.
a. g (2) = ________ lim g ( x) = ________
x→2 −

lim g ( x) = ______ lim g ( x) = ________

x→2 + x→2

b. The graph shows a vertical asymptote. Write

its equation.

16
 1.3: Limits and Continuity

A function f is continuous at input c if and only if the following three conditions are
satisfied:

(1) f ( c ) exists
and (2) lim f ( x) exists
x→ c

and (3) lim f ( x) = f (c)

x→ c

A function f is continuous on an open interval if all three conditions are met for
every input value in the interval.

A function is continuous everywhere if it meets all three conditions for every possible
input value. Such a function is called a continuous function.

Example 4:

a. Answer the following questions about function f in example 1 to determine whether f is

continuous at x = 1 .

Does f (1) exist? Does lim f ( x) exist? Does lim f ( x) = f (1) ?

x →1 x →1

Is f continuous at x = 1 ?

Why or why not?

b. Answer the following questions about function f in example 2 to determine whether f is

continuous at x = 3 .

Does f (3) exist? Does lim f ( x) exist?

x→3

Is f continuous at x = 3 ?

Why or why not?

17
 1.3: Limits and Continuity

c. Answer the following questions about function f in example 2 to determine whether f is

continuous at x = 4 .

Does f (4) exist? Does lim f ( x) exist? Does lim f ( x) = f (4) ?

x→ 4 x→ 4

Is f continuous at x = 4 ?

Why or why not?

d. Answer the following questions about function g in example 3 to determine whether g is

continuous at x = 2 .

Does g (2) exist?

Is g continuous at x = 2 ?

Why or why not?

Example 5: (CC5e p. 30, Activities 5 and 6)

Graphically estimate the values for the function f.

a. f (6) =_________ lim f ( x) =________
x →6 −

lim f ( x) =_______ lim f ( x) =_______

x→ 6 + x→ 6

Explain why f is not continuous at x = 6 .

b. f (0) =________ lim f ( x) =_______

x →0 −

lim f ( x) =______ lim f ( x) = ______

x →0 + x →0

Explain why f is not continuous at x = 0 ._____________________________________

18
 1.3: Limits and Continuity

Limits – Algebraically (Optional)

Limit Rules
The limit of a constant is that constant.
The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits.
The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the
function.
If f is a polynomial function and c is a real number, then lim f ( x) = f (c) .
x→ c

The limit of a product is the product of the limits.

The limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits.
If f is a rational function and c is a valid input of f , then lim f ( x) = f (c) .
x→ c

If the numerator and denominator of a rational function share a common factor,

then the new function obtained by algebraically cancelling the common factor has
all limits identical to the original function.

Example 6:
(5 + x )
2
− 52
Algebraically determine lim
x→ 0 x

Example 7: (CC5e p. 29)

x 2 + 2 for x < 4
Given d ( x) =
−3 x + 2 for x ≥ 4
Use the definition of a continuous function to determine whether d is continuous at x = 4 .

Example 8: (CC5e p. 29)

x2 + 2 for x < 4
Given f ( x) =
−3 x + 30 for x ≥ 4
Use the definition of a continuous function to determine whether f is continuous at x = 4 .

19
 1.4: Linear Functions and Models

Section 1.4: Linear Functions and Models

A completely defined model is a statement that describes the relationship between

an output variable and an input variable in context. It includes the following:
• an equation
• an output description, with units
• an input description, with units
• an input data range to describe the interval of data used to find the model

Extrapolation refers to the use of a model to predict an output value for an input
value that is outside the input data range used to obtain the model.

Interpolation refers to the use of a model to predict an output value for an input
value that is within the input data range used to obtain the model.

A Linear Function has an equation of the form f ( x) = ax + b . Its graph is a line,

with slope a. It has a y-intercept, or initial value, f (0) = b .

A linear function has a constant slope and therefore has a constant rate of change.

A sentence of interpretation for the slope of a line uses ordinary conversational

language to answer the questions:
What? refers to the output description for the function
Increased(es) or Decreased(es)?
By how much? refers to the slope, including slope units
When? refers to the domain of the function

20
 1.4: Linear Functions and Models

Example 1: (CC5e p. 36)

r(t) dollars
The linear function r (t ) , giving the resale value of a car
t years after it is purchased, is represented graphically in the
figure to the right.

a. Write a sentence of interpretation for the initial value.

t years since purchase

b. Write a sentence of interpretation for the point at which the output is 0.

c. Find the slope of the line and write a sentence of interpretation.

d. Write an equation for r (t ) .

e. Write a completely defined linear model for r (t ) .

21
 1.4: Linear Functions and Models

Since a linear function has constant rate of change, a linear function should be
considered in modeling a set of data that displays constant (or nearly constant) first
differences. First differences are found by subtracting the output values between
successive evenly spaced input values. For successive data points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) ,
the first difference is y2 − y1 .

Example 2: (CC5e p. 39-40)

Retail sales in kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity to commercial consumers are shown in both
the table and scatter plot.

Retail Sales, in
Year
Quadrillion kWh
2003 1.20
2004 1.23
2005 1.27
2006 1.30
2007 1.33
2008 1.35

a. View a scatter plot of the data.

Entering data:
Enter the data from the table
into lists L1 and L2.

• STAT returns options for editing

data in lists L1 and L2.
• 1 (or ENTER) chooses 1: Edit
enabling data entry/editing

• If there is data in L1 or L2, use

the arrows to move the cursor to
L1 and then hit CLEAR ENTER
to clear the list.

22
 1.4: Linear Functions and Models

• 2003 enters 2003 as the first input in L1

• ENTER (or ) moves the cursor
to enter 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
• moves the cursor to L2 where
output values are entered
• 1.2 1.23 1.27 1.3 1.33 1.35

Graphing a scatter plot of the data:

• Use 2ND Y= [STAT PLOT]

ENTER to verify that 1: Plot1 is
set up as shown in the near right
screen
• Plot1 is On
• A scatter plot is shown
• Xlist = L1 (2nd 1) and Ylist = L2
(2nd 2)
• The large Mark is selected
• Make any necessary changes by placing the cursor over the item you wish to select and
hit ENTER. The selected item should them be highlighted.

• Y= to verify that the Y list is

empty (or that any equations are
turned off) and Plot1 is turned on.

Note: Plot1 can be turned off and on by placing the cursor on Plot1 and hitting ENTER. If there
are equations in the Y= list that should not be graphed with the scatter plot, turn the equations off
by placing the cursor on each corresponding = and hit ENTER to turn off each equation.

• ZOOM 9 [ZOOMSTAT] to view

the scatter plot.

b. Calculate first differences in the data and discuss the amount of concavity suggested by the
scatter plot. Verify that it is reasonable to use a linear function to model the data.

Year 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Retail Sales, in 1.20 1.23 1.27 1.30 1.33 1.35
Quadrillion kWh
First differences 1.23 - 1.20
= 0.03

23
 1.4: Linear Functions and Models

c. Find a linear function r (t ) that best fits the data. View the graph of the linear function and
the scatter plot at the same time on your calculator. Write a completely defined linear model.
Round coefficients to three decimal places.

Finding and storing a linear function to model data:

• STAT [CALC] to 4 [LinReg]
ENTER returns LinReg(ax+b) on
the Home Screen.
• VARS [Y-VARS] 1 or ENTER
[Function] 1 or ENTER [Y1]
selects Y1 as the storage position
for the equation.
• ENTER
The equation form as well as the
values for the parameters appear
on the Home Screen and are pasted
into Y1.
• Y= to verify the unrounded model
is stored in Y1.
• ZOOM 9 [ZOOMSTAT] shows the
graph of the function with the
scatter plot.

OR
For TI calculators with Stat Wizard ON:
• STAT [CALC] to 4 [LinReg]
ENTER returns the LinReg(ax+b)
Stat Wizard screen.
• Xlist: 2nd 1 [L1]
Ylist: 2nd 2 [L2]
Store ReqEQ:
• VARS [Y-VARS] 1 or ENTER
[Function] 1 or ENTER [Y1]
selects Y1 as the storage position
for the equation.
Put the cursor on Calculate and hit
ENTER. The equation form as
well as the values for the
parameters appear on the Home
Screen and are pasted into Y1.

24
 1.4: Linear Functions and Models

• Y= to verify the unrounded model

is stored in Y1.
• ZOOM 9 [ZOOMSTAT] shows the
graph of the function with the
scatter plot.

Note: Although equations are generally reported to three decimal places, it’s important to use
all of the digits found by the calculator when working with a regression equation in a model, to
reduce the possibility of round-off error as a result of intermediate rounding. The unrounded
equation should always be stored in the Y= list whenever a regression equation is found.

d. Write a sentence of interpretation for the slope of the linear model.

e. According to the model (the unrounded function in Y1), what were retail sales of electricity to
commercial customers in 2002? Include units with the answer. Does this use interpolation or
extrapolation?

f. According to the model, what were retail sales of electricity to commercial customers in 2005?
Include units with the answer. Does this use interpolation or extrapolation?

g. According to the model, in what year did retail sales first exceed 1.4 quadrillion kWh?

h. Align the data in the table so that t is the number of years since 2000. Find a linear function
to model the aligned data (paste it into Y2). Write a completely defined linear model for the
aligned data.

25
 1.4: Linear Functions and Models

Aligning data:

• STAT ENTER to edit L1

• Highlight L1
• Complete the equation to read
L1= 2nd 1 [L1] – 2000
• ENTER

• STAT [CALC] to 4
[LinReg(ax+b)] VARS
[Y-VARS] ENTER [Function]
2 [Y2] to find a linear function and
paste it in Y2.

• Y= to verify both functions are stored

in Y1 and Y2

OR
• STAT [CALC] to 4
[LinReg(ax+b)]
• Xlist: 2nd 1 [L1]
Ylist: 2nd 2 [L2]
Store ReqEQ:
VARS [Y-VARS] ENTER
[Function] 2 [Y2]
Cursor on Calculate and hit ENTER
to find a linear function and paste it
in Y2.
• Y= to verify both functions are stored
in Y1 and Y2

i. Compare the linear function in part h to the linear function in part c. Compare the input
description and input data range for the models in parts h and c.

j. According to the model in part h (the unrounded function in Y2), what were retail sales of
electricity to commercial customers in 2002? Is this the same result as in part e?

26
 1.4: Linear Functions and Models

Example 3: (CC5e p. 45, Activity 25)

The table shows the number of people in North Business Email

America who use email as a part of their jobs. Year Users, in
millions
a. Find a function to model the number of 2005 125.2
business email users, aligning the data to the 2006 128.7
number of years since 2005. Write a 2007 132.4
completely defined model.
2008 136.0
2009 139.8
2010 143.6

b. What is the constant rate of change of the number of North American business email
users indicated by the model? Include units with the answer.

c. Use the (unrounded) model to estimate the number of North American business email users
in 2013.

d. Is the estimate in part c found by interpolation or extrapolation?

27
 1.4: Linear Functions and Models

Example 4: (CC5e p. 43, Activity 15)

The figure shows a linear function f used to model

industrial carbon dioxide emissions.
a. Estimate the slope of the graph.

b. Report the slope in a sentence of interpretation.

c. Are emissions increasing, decreasing, or constant? How is this reflected in the value of
the slope?

Trouble-shooting: Restoring a missing column on the list screen

If delete DEL, rather than CLEAR, is selected to remove data from one of the lists, the entire
list will be deleted.
If the lists are incomplete (as in the near
right screen shot), restore all lists:
• STAT

• 5 selects 5: SetUpEditor

• ENTER

• STAT ENTER shows the

complete set of lists

28
 1.5: Exponential Functions and Models

Section 1.5: Exponential Functions and Models

An exponential function has an equation of the form f ( x) = ab x , with initial value a

and constant multiplier b.

Percentage change between two points of a function f ( x) is calculated as

f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 )
100% where ( x1 , f ( x1 ) ) and ( x2 , f ( x2 ) ) are two points on the function.
f ( x1 )
An exponential function has a constant percentage change. This constant percentage
change over a single unit input interval is equal to ( b − 1) ⋅ 100% .

The graph of an exponential function f ( x) = ab x has one concavity, determined by the

sign of a:

• for a > 0 , f is concave up • for a < 0 , f is concave down

The graph of an exponential function f ( x) = ab x has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.

The values of b and a determine the end behavior of f , as x increases without bound:

• for 0 < b < 1 , lim f ( x) = 0

x →∞

if a > 0, then lim f ( x) = ∞

x →∞
• for b > 1,
if a < 0, then lim f ( x) = −∞
x →∞

29
 1.5: Exponential Functions and Models

Example 1:

a. Label each of the following graphs as either increasing or decreasing and as either concave
up or concave down. Complete the limit statements that describe the end behavior.

b. Find the following for the function f ( x) = 3(2 x ) .

• a= b= (Note that b > 1 .)

• percentage change =

• Does graph I or graph II look like the graph of f ( x) = 3(2 x ) ?

This is an example of exponential growth.

c. Find the following for the function f ( x) = 3(0.35 x ) .

• a= b= (Note that 0 < b < 1 .)

• percentage change =

• Does graph I or graph II look like the graph of f ( x) = 3(0.35 x ) ?

This is an example of exponential decay.

I. II.

Increasing or decreasing? Increasing or decreasing?

Concave up or concave down? Concave up or concave down?

lim f ( x) = ________; lim f ( x) = ________ lim f ( x) = ________; lim f ( x) = ________

x→ − ∞ x →∞ x→ − ∞ x →∞

30
 1.5: Exponential Functions and Models

Example 2: (CC5e p. 49)

Apple introduced the iPod in 2001. iPod sales were 7.68 million units in 2006 and increased
approximately 9.1% each year between 2006 and 2008.
a. Why is an exponential model appropriate to describe iPod sales between 2006 and 2008?

b. Find an exponential model of the form f ( x ) = ab x for iPod sales between 2006 and 2008.
Align the input data to the number of years since 2006. (Aligned input is generally
necessary for exponential models.)
• a = ________________b = __

____
__________
• model:

c. Use the model to estimate iPod sales in 2010.

d. Was interpolation or extrapolation used to answer part c? Explain.

31
 1.5: Exponential Functions and Models

Example 3: (CC5e p. 54)

According to the Social Security Advisory Board, the number of workers per beneficiary of
the Social Security program was 3.3 in 1996 and is projected to decline by 1.45% each year
through 2030.
a. Find a model for the number of workers per beneficiary from 1996 through 2030.

b. What does the model predict that the number of workers per beneficiary will be in 2030?

Example 4: (CC5e p. 51)

Over the past 30 years, wind power has been harnessed by wind turbines to produce a low-cost,
green alternative for electricity generation. The table gives the cumulative capacity in thousand
megawatts (MW) for wind power worldwide.

Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Wind Power
1.9 2.2 2.6 3.2 4 5 6 8 10
thousand MW
Year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Wind Power
13 18 24 31 40 47 59 75 94
thousand MW

a. Verify that the figure to the right shows a

scatter plot of the data.

b. How does the end behavior and suggested

concavity of the scatter plot indicate that an
exponential function is appropriate for the
wind power capacity data?
• end behavior

• concavity

32
 1.5: Exponential Functions and Models

c. Align the data so that x = 0 in 1990 and find an exponential function to model the data in
the table. Write a completely defined model.

Finding, storing, and viewing an exponential function:

• With the data in L1 and L2,

STAT [CALC] to 0 [ExpReg]
ENTER returns ExpReg on the
Home Screen. VARS [Y-VARS]
1 [Function] 1 [Y1] returns Y1
ENTER finds and stores the function

OR

STAT [CALC] to 0 [ExpReg]

ENTER returns the ExpReg Screen
Xlist: 2nd 1 [L1]
Ylist: 2nd 2 [L2]
Store RegEQ: VARS [Y-VARS]
1 [Function] 1 [Y1]
Move cursor to Calculate and hit
ENTER

• Y= to verify the unrounded model

is stored in Y1.

• View the function and the scatter

plot at the same time: ZOOM 9
[ZoomStat]

d. What is the percentage change for the exponential function?

33
 1.5: Exponential Functions and Models

Since an exponential function has constant percentage change, an exponential function

should be considered in modeling a set of data that displays constant (or nearly constant)
percentage change. For successive evenly spaced data points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) ,
y2 − y1
percentage change is calculated by ⋅100% .
y1

Example 5: (CC5e p. 49)

The data in the table represent the estimated population of northern Canadian cod over a specific
range.

Decades
0 1 2 3 4
(since 1963)
Population
(billions) 1.72 0.63 0.24 0.085 0.032
0.63 − 1.72
⋅100
Percentage Change 1.72 -61.905 -64.583 -62.353
= -63.372

a. Do the percentage changes appear to be nearly constant?

b. Discuss the end behavior and concavity of the scatter plot.

c. Write a completely defined model for the data.

d. Find the percentage change of the exponential model.

________________________________________________________________.

34
 1.5: Exponential Functions and Models

Example 6: (CC5e p. 55, Activity 21)

The data in the table gives the percentage of MySpace users who are a certain age.
Age (years) 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
Female (percent) 9.6 7.8 6.1 5.1 4.3 3.8 2.4 2.1 1.2 1.1

a. Align the input data to the number of years after 17. Write an exponential model for the
female MySpace user data.

b. Use the model found in part a to find the constant percentage change in the percentage of
female MySpace users.

c. What percentage of female MySpace users are 18 years old? 20 years old? Are these
answers found using extrapolation or interpolation?

35
 1.6: Models in Finance

Section 1.6: Models in Finance

The future value of an investment (or a loan) is given by F (t ) , where t represents the
amount of time since the investment was made (or the loan was taken), in years.
P represents the present value (called the principal of an investment, or face value of
a loan). The decimal form r of the annual percentage rate (APR) is called the
nominal rate of interest.

Simple Interest

• The simple interest, I, accumulated after t years at an interest rate r (in decimal
form) on a present value of P dollars is calculated as
I(t) = P r t dollars
• The future value in t years, is obtained by adding the interest to the present value
Fs (t ) = P + Prt = P (1 + rt ) dollars

Compound Interest Investments (n times per year)

• Compounding of interest occurs when interest is earned (or charged) on previous

interest.

• The future value in t years of an investment (or loan) with present value of P
nt
r
dollars is calculated as Fc (t ) = P 1 + dollars, where n is the number of
n
compoundings per year, nt is the total number of compounding periods in
t years and r is the nominal rate of interest (in decimal form).

Continuously Compound Interest Investments

• Continuous compound interest occurs when the number of compoundings in a

year, n, is allowed to increase without bound.

• When interest is compounded continuously, the future value in t years of an

investment (or loan) with present value of P dollars is Fc (t ) = Pe r t dollars, where
r is the nominal rate of interest (in decimal form) compounded continuously.

36
 1.6: Models in Finance

Example 1:

Suppose $1,000 is invested at 4.2% APR.

a. What is the (future) value of the investment after 19 months, if interest is compounded
quarterly?

i. Choose the appropriate interest formula to use in this situation: simple interest,
compound interest n times per year, or continuously compound interest.

ii. Write the formula for F (t ) , using the given information.

• P= r= n=

• F (t ) =

iii. The shaded cells in the table show the months in which interest is calculated when
compounding quarterly. To find the value of the investment after 19 months, one
must evaluate the function after _________________ months.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Find the future value of the investment after 19 months.

b. What is the (future) value of the investment after 19 months, if interest is compounded
continuously?

i. Choose the appropriate interest formula to use in this situation: simple interest,
compound interest n times per year, or continuously compound interest.

ii. Write the formula for F (t ) , using the given information.

• P= r=

• F (t ) =

iii. Find the value of the investment after 19 months.

37
 1.6: Models in Finance

Example 2:

Suppose $1,000 is invested at 4.2% APR.

a. Find the time it takes the investment to double, if interest is compounded quarterly.

i. Write an equation to be solved for t.

ii. Solve the above equation using the calculator’s Math Solver or the calculator’s Table.
To interpret the result, consider the months in which compounding occurs. Answer by
stating the number of years and months it takes the investment to reach double its present
value.

Using the solver to find the doubling time of an investment:

• Y= 1000 (1 + .042 /4) ^ (4X) enters

the right side of the doubling time
equation for the investment into Y1
• MATH 0 [SOLVER] OR
MATH B [SOLVER]accesses the
Equation Solver
• Complete the equation to be solved
as 0 = Y1 – 2000
• Enter a guess for X, the number of
years it will take the investment to
double (any positive number will
work).
• With your cursor in the X = row,
hit ALPHA ENTER [SOLVE] to
solve.
• Don’t forget to consider how often
interest is compounded before
answering the question.

38
 1.6: Models in Finance

Using the table to find the doubling time of an investment:

• Y= 1000 (1 + .042 /4) ^ (4X) enters

the right side of the doubling time
equation for the investment into Y1

• 2ND WINDOW [TBLSET]

accesses the Table Setup; Use the
options as shown in the 2nd screen
shot (Note: ∆ Tbl = .25 because
interest is compounded quarterly)

• 2ND GRAPH [TABLE]

• Hold down to scroll down the X

column until the value in the Y1
column is at least 2000.

b. Find the time it takes the investment to double, if interest is compounded continuously.

i. Write an equation to be solved for t.

ii. Solve the equation using the calculator’s Math Solver. (The calculator’s TABLE is not
useful in this case.) Answer in years. Round the answer to three decimal places.

Annual percentage yield (APY) is the percentage change in the value of an investment
(or loan) over a one-year period. It is used to compare investments or loans.
The decimal form of the APY is called the effective rate of interest.

n
r
For compounding n times each year, APY = 1+ − 1 ⋅100% .
n
For compounding continuously, APY = ( e r − 1) ⋅100% .

39
 1.6: Models in Finance

Example 3:

Compare two investments, one offering 4.2% APR compounded quarterly, and another
offering 4.15% APR compounded continuously.

a. Find the APY of a $1000 investment with 4.2% APR compounded quarterly.

b. Find the APY of a $1000 investment, with 4.15% APR compounded continuously.

c. Which is the better investment?

d. Does the answer to part c change if the principal is $10,000? Why or why not?

Example 4: (CC5e p. 60)

An investment at 2.8% APR compounded quarterly has a future value of $5000 payable in five
years. Find the present value, the amount that must be invested into this account today to obtain
$5000 in 5 years.

a. Write the equation that can be used to solve for P.

b. Solve the equation using the calculator’s Math Solver. Include units with your answer.

40
 1.6: Models in Finance

Example 5: (CC5e p. 61)

Suppose $50,000 is invested at 5% APR. Find the value of the investment after 23 months in
various situations. Then find the time it takes the investment to double.

Compounding Formula Value Future Value Doubling

of t Time
Annually
___yrs___mos

Semiannually
___yrs___mos

Quarterly
___yrs___mos

Monthly
___yrs___mos

Continuously
_________ yrs

Example 6: (CC5e p.59)

A student borrows $1000 at an APR of 4% compounded monthly. What is the future value of
the loan if the borrower repays the loan after 1 year? 2 years? 3 years? 4 years? 5 years?

a. Write the formula for F (t ) , using the given information.

• P= r= n=

• F (t ) =

b. Find the future value of the loan at the various times indicated in the table.

Year 0 1 2 3 4 5

Value $1000

41
 1.6: Models in Finance

Example 7: (CC5e p. 61)

Which is better for a borrower, a loan with an APR of 7.2% compounded monthly or a loan with
an APY of 7.4%? Compare the effective rates for a one-year loan. Assume all other conditions
are equal.

APR APY
Loan 1
7.2% compounded monthly
Loan 2
------------ 7.4%

Example 8: (CC5e p. 63)

Consider two investment offers: an APR of 6.9% compounded quarterly (Investment A) or an

APR of 6.7% compounded monthly (Investment B).

a. Determine the better investment by calculating the effective rate (APY) for each.

• Investment A

• Investment B

b. Compare the time it will take an investment to double for each offer. Which investment
doubles more quickly and is therefore the better investment?

• Investment A

• Investment B

42
 1.7: Constructed Functions

Section 1.7: Constructed Functions

New functions can be formed by combining known functions using addition,

subtraction, multiplication, or division. A new function can also be formed using
function composition or by finding the inverse of a function.

Terms from Business and Economics:

• Total Cost = fixed costs + variable costs, where fixed costs are costs that do not
depend on the number of units produced and variable costs are costs that vary
according to the number of units produced. Cost (without a modifier) is assumed
to be Total Cost unless the context indicates otherwise.

total cost
• Average Cost =
number of items produced

selling price
• Revenue = ⋅ (number of units sold)
unit

• Profit = Revenue – Cost. (Equivalently, Revenue = Profit + Cost.)

• Break-even point is the point at which total cost is equal to total revenue, or the
point at which profit is zero.

43
 1.7: Constructed Functions

A new model may be created from existing models when the input and output units of the
functions in the existing models can be combined in such a way that the new function makes
sense.

Operation used to form new

First check: Then check:
function:
Addition
( f + g )( x) = f ( x) + g ( x) f ( x) and g ( x) must have If so, then f ( x) and
Subtraction identical input descriptions g ( x) must have
( f − g )( x) = f ( x) − g ( x) and units for x identical output units
Multiplication
f ( x) and g ( x) must have If so, then output
( f ⋅ g )( x) = f ( x) ⋅ g ( x) or
identical input descriptions units must be
Division compatible
and units for x
f ( x)
( f ÷ g )( x) = , g ( x) ≠ 0
g ( x)
Output description and units of
Composition*
(f g )( x) = f ( g ( x)) g ( x) must be identical to input
description and units of f ( x)
*Function composition is a method of constructing a new function by using the output of one
function as the input of a second function.

Example 1: (CC5e p. 66)

The number of student tickets sold for a home basketball game at State University is represented
by S ( w) tickets when w is the winning percentage of the team. The number of nonstudent
tickets sold for the same game is represented by N ( w) hundred tickets when the winning
percentage of the team is w .

a. Write the input units and description and output units of measure for functions S ( w) and
N ( w) .

Function S ( w) N ( w)
Input units and w= w=
description

Output units S= N=

b. Function addition requires the output units of the two functions be identical. Multiplying
by a factor of 100 changes the second function’s units to “tickets”.

N ( w) hundred tickets can be rewritten as _____ N ( w) tickets.

44
 1.7: Constructed Functions

c. A new function, T , giving total tickets sold for a home basketball game at State University is
modeled as:

T ( w) =___________________________ tickets gives the total number of tickets sold for a

home basketball game at State University, when w is _______________________________.

______________________________________________________________
d. Suppose more nonstudent tickets than student tickets are sold for a home basketball game at
State University. Find a new function, D , giving the number by which nonstudent tickets
exceeded student tickets sold, and use it to complete the model.
D( w) = ________________________________ tickets gives the number by which nonstudent

tickets exceeds student tickets sold, when w is _________________________________.

Example 2: (CC5e pp. 67-68)

Sales of 12-ounce bottles of sparkling water are modeled as D( x ) = 287.411(0.266 x ) million

bottles when the price is x dollars per bottle. Find and write a completely defined model for the
revenue from the sale of 12-ounce bottles of sparkling water.

a. To find a revenue equation, recall that revenue can be found by multiplying

( price, in dollars per item ) ⋅ ( number of items sold ) . Locate the variables for price and the
number of items sold in the given model to write the revenue equation:

Revenue = ( _____ ) ⋅ ( ______________ )

Output units for revenue can be found by multiplying units for price x , times output units
for number of items sold D( x) . Find the output units for revenue.

dollars
Revenue = x ⋅ ( D( x) million bottles ) = x ⋅ D( x) __________________ .
bottle

b. Write a completely defined model for the revenue from the sale of 12-ounce bottles of
sparkling water.

45
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
Mrs. Jesse M. Overton
Mrs. Fred Russell
Mrs. Laird Smith
Mrs. William H. Wemyss
Mrs. John Reid Woodward

ELECTED MAY, 1963

Mrs. A. MacDowell Smith, Regent

Mrs. William P. Cooper, First Vice-Regent
Mrs. E. W. Graham, Second Vice-Regent
Mrs. Roy C. Avery, Treasurer
Mrs. Horatio Buntin, Recording Secretary
Miss Martha Lindsey, Corresponding Secretary
Mrs. George M. Blackie
Miss Marian Craig
Mrs. Paul E. DeWitt
Mrs. Edgar M. Foster
Mrs. Henry Goodpasture
Mrs. Douglas Henry
Mrs. Marvin E. Holderness
Mrs. Gilbert S. Merritt
Mrs. Jesse M. Overton
Mrs. Fred Russell
Mrs. Laird Smith
Mrs. William H. Wemyss
Mrs. John Reid Woodward
Mrs. Douglas M. Wright

64

Publications Sold By The Ladies’ Hermitage

Association
Guide Book (Catalogue, Historical Data, Pictures)
25 Cents
The Hermitage, Home of Old Hickory, $3.95
Stanley F. Horn
Andrew Jackson’s Hermitage, $1.50
Mary French Caldwell
The Battle of New Orleans, Its Real Meaning, 35 Cents
Reau E. Folk
Mr. Bancroft’s Oration on the death of Andrew Jackson
25 Cents
Preservation of the Hermitage, $2.00
Mrs. Mary C. Dorris
Rachel Jackson, 35 Cents
Mrs. Walter Stokes
Advice to Jackson from His Mother
illuminated, 25 Cents
Andrew Jackson, Man of Destiny, 10 Cents
William E. Beard
President’s Lady, $3.95
Irving Stone
Historical Homes of the Old South (Drawings)
75 Cents
The Hermitage, 50 Cents
Stanley F. Horn
Constitution of the United States, Declaration of Independence
Historical Facts and Data
30 Cents
Historic Documents; Declaration of Independence, Constitution of
United States, Bill of Rights, Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address
$1.00
Andrew Jackson and Freemasonry, By Dr. Paul E. DeWitt
25c
Various Postcards and Slides

FOR YOUNG READERS

Andrew Jackson, $2.50
Genevieve Foster
Rachel Jackson, Tennessee Girl, $1.95
Christine Noble Govan
The Jacksons of Tennessee, $2.95
Marguerite Vance
Andrew Jackson, The Fighting Frontiersman, $1.75
Frances Fitzpatrick Wright
Sam Houston, Fighter and Leader, $1.75
Frances Fitzpatrick Wright
Andrew Jackson, Frontier Statesman, $3.50
Clara Ingram Judson

65

Books and Pamphlets on Andrew Jackson

IN THE STATE LIBRARY DIVISION OF TENNESSEE STATE
LIBRARY AND ARCHIVES

Author Title Date of

Publication
Jackson, Andrew Correspondence, 7 vols., ed. by 1926-35
John S. Bassett
An American Officer Civil and Military History of 1825
Andrew Jackson
Bassett, John S. The Life of Andrew Jackson, 2 1911
vols.
Bowers, Claude G. Party Battles of the Jackson 1922
Period
Brady, Cyrus T. The True Andrew Jackson 1906
Brown, William G. Andrew Jackson 1900
Buell, Augustus G. History of Andrew Jackson 1904
Campbell, Tom W. Two Fighters and Two Fines 1941
Citizen of New York Memoirs of General Andrew 1845
Jackson
Cobbett, William Life of Andrew Jackson 1834
Colyar, Arthur St. C. Life and Times of Andrew 1904
Jackson
Dusenbery, Ben M. Monument to the Memory of 1845
Gen. Jackson
Eaton, John H. The Life of Andrew Jackson 1817
Frost, John Pictorial Life of Andrew Jackson 1847
Gentleman of the Some Account of Gen. Jackson 1828
Baltimore Bar
Goodwin, Philo A. Biography of Andrew Jackson 1832
Headley, Joel T. The Life of Andrew Jackson 1880
Heiskell, Saml. G. Andrew Jackson and Early 1920
Tenn. History, 3 vols.
James, Marquis Andrew Jackson, 2 vols. 1938
Jenkins, Jno. S. Life and Public Services of Gen. 1880
Andrew Jackson
Johnson, Gerald W. Andrew Jackson, An Epic in 1927
Homespun
Karsner, David Andrew Jackson, The Gentle 1929
Savage
Macdonald, Wm. Jacksonian Democracy, 1829- 1906
1837
Mayo, Robert Political Sketches of Eight Years 1839
in Washington
Nicolay, Helen Andrew Jackson, The Fighting 1929
President
Ogg, Frederic A. The Reign of Andrew Jackson 1921
Parton, James Life of Andrew Jackson, 2 vols. 1860
Peck, Charles H. The Jacksonian Epoch 1899
Rowland, Eron O. Andrew Jackson’s Campaign 1926
Against the British
Schlesinger, Arthur The Age of Jackson 1945
M.
Snelling, William J. A Brief, Impartial History by a 1831
Free Man
Sumner, William G. Andrew Jackson 1910
Syrett, Harold G. Andrew Jackson, His 1953
Contribution
Van Deusen, The Jacksonian Era, 1828-1848 1959
Glyndon
Waldo, Samuel P. Memoirs of Andrew Jackson 1819
Walker, Alexander Jackson and New Orleans 1856
Ward, John W. Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an 1955
Age

FOR YOUNG READERS

Coy, Harold Real Book About Andrew Jackson 1952

James, Bessie R. The Courageous Heart 1934
Judson, Clara I. Andrew Jackson 1954

In addition to the above, the State Library has many valuable,

rare, and out-of-print pamphlets on General Jackson.

Microfilms of Hermitage Letters and Documents are available at

Joint University Library.

66
Entrance to the Hermitage
 Transcriber’s Notes
Retained publication information from the printed edition: this
eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.
Added headings in the text to match the Table of Contents
Corrected a few palpable typos.
In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
_underscores_.
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