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Calculus
6th Edition Single & Multivariable

Hughes-Hallett Gleason McCallum et al.

vi Preface

• Class Worksheets allow instructors to engage students in individual or group class-work. Samples are
available in the Instructor’s Manual, and all are on the web at www.wiley.com/college/hughes-hallett.
• Updated Data and Models. For example, Section 11.7 follows the current debate on Peak Oil Produc-
tion, underscoring the importance of mathematics in understanding the world’s economic and social
problems.
• Projects at the end of each chapter provide opportunities for a sustained investigation, often using skills
from different parts of the course.
• Drill Exercises build student skill and confidence.
• Online Problems available in WileyPLUS or WeBWorK, for example. Many problems are randomized,
providing students with expanded opportunities for practice with immediate feedback.

Symbolic Manipulation and Technology

To use calculus effectively, students need skill in both symbolic manipulation and the use of technology. The
balance between the two may vary, depending on the needs of the students and the wishes of the instructor.
The book is adaptable to many different combinations.
The book does not require any specific software or technology. It has been used with graphing calcula-
tors, graphing software, and computer algebra systems. Any technology with the ability to graph functions
and perform numerical integration will suffice. Students are expected to use their own judgment to determine
where technology is useful.

Content
This content represents our vision of how calculus can be taught. It is flexible enough to accommodate
individual course needs and requirements. Topics can easily be added or deleted, or the order changed.
Changes to the text in the Sixth Edition are in italics. In all chapters, many new problems were added
and others were updated.
Chapter 1: A Library of Functions
This chapter introduces all the elementary functions to be used in the book. Although the functions are
probably familiar, the graphical, numerical, verbal, and modeling approach to them may be new. We introduce
exponential functions at the earliest possible stage, since they are fundamental to the understanding of real-
world processes. The chapter concludes with a section on limits, allowing for a discussion of continuity at
a point and on an interval. The section on limits is flexible enough to allow for a brief introduction before
derivatives or for a more extensive treatment.
Chapter 2: Key Concept: The Derivative
The purpose of this chapter is to give the student a practical understanding of the definition of the deriva-
tive and its interpretation as an instantaneous rate of change. The power rule is introduced; other rules are
introduced in Chapter 3.
Chapter 3: Short-Cuts to Differentiation
The derivatives of all the functions in Chapter 1 are introduced, as well as the rules for differentiating prod-
ucts; quotients; and composite, inverse, hyperbolic, and implicitly defined functions.
Chapter 4: Using the Derivative
The aim of this chapter is to enable the student to use the derivative in solving problems, including opti-
mization, graphing, rates, parametric equations, and indeterminate forms. It is not necessary to cover all the
sections in this chapter.
To increase access to optimization, many sections of this chapter have been streamlined. Optimization
and Modeling are now in Section 4.3, followed by Families of Functions and Modeling in Section 4.4. Upper
and lower bounds have been moved to Section 4.2, and geometric optimization is now combined with Opti-
mization and Modeling. Section 4.8 on Parametric Equations is linked to Appendix D, allowing discussion
of velocity as a vector.
 Preface vii

Chapter 5: Key Concept: The Definite Integral

The purpose of this chapter is to give the student a practical understanding of the definite integral as a limit
of Riemann sums and to bring out the connection between the derivative and the definite integral in the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
Section 5.3 now includes the application of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to the computation of
definite integrals. The use of integrals to find averages is now in Section 5.4.

Chapter 6: Constructing Antiderivatives

This chapter focuses on going backward from a derivative to the original function, first graphically and
numerically, then analytically. It introduces the Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and the concept
of a differential equation.
Section 6.3 on Differential Equations and Motion contains the material from the former Section 6.5.

Chapter 7: Integration
This chapter includes several techniques of integration, including substitution, parts, partial fractions, and
trigonometric substitutions; others are included in the table of integrals. There are discussions of numerical
methods and of improper integrals.
Section 7.4 now includes the use of triangles to help students visualize a trigonometric substitution. The
two former sections on numerical methods have been combined into Section 7.5.

Chapter 8: Using the Definite Integral

This chapter emphasizes the idea of subdividing a quantity to produce Riemann sums which, in the limit,
yield a definite integral. It shows how the integral is used in geometry, physics, economics, and probability;
polar coordinates are introduced. It is not necessary to cover all the sections in this chapter.

Chapter 9: Sequences and Series

This chapter focuses on sequences, series of constants, and convergence. It includes the integral, ratio, com-
parison, limit comparison, and alternating series tests. It also introduces geometric series and general power
series, including their intervals of convergence.

Chapter 10: Approximating Functions

This chapter introduces Taylor Series and Fourier Series using the idea of approximating functions by simpler
functions.

Chapter 11: Differential Equations

This chapter introduces differential equations. The emphasis is on qualitative solutions, modeling, and inter-
pretation.
Section 11.7 on Logistic Models (formerly on population models) has been rewritten around the thought-
provoking predictions of peak oil production. This section encourages students to use the skills learned
earlier in the course to analyze a problem of global importance. Sections 11.10 and 11.11 on Second Order
Differential Equations are now on the web at www.wiley.com/college/hughes-hallett.

Chapter 12: Functions of Several Variables

This chapter introduces functions of many variables from several points of view, using surface graphs, con-
tour diagrams, and tables. We assume throughout that functions of two or more variables are defined on
regions with piecewise smooth boundaries. We conclude with a section on continuity.

Chapter 13: A Fundamental Tool: Vectors

This chapter introduces vectors geometrically and algebraically and discusses the dot and cross product.
viii Preface

Chapter 14: Differentiating Functions of Several Variables

Partial derivatives, directional derivatives, gradients, and local linearity are introduced. The chapter also
discusses higher order partial derivatives, quadratic Taylor approximations, and differentiability.

Chapter 15: Optimization

The ideas of the previous chapter are applied to optimization problems, both constrained and unconstrained.

Chapter 16: Integrating Functions of Several Variables

This chapter discusses double and triple integrals in Cartesian, polar, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.
The former Section 16.7 has been moved to the new Chapter 21.

Chapter 17: Parameterization and Vector Fields

This chapter discusses parameterized curves and motion, vector fields and flowlines.
The former Section 17.5 has been moved to the new Chapter 21.

Chapter 18: Line Integrals

This chapter introduces line integrals and shows how to calculate them using parameterizations. Conservative
fields, gradient fields, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus for Line Integrals, and Green’s Theorem are
discussed.

Chapter 19: Flux Integrals and Divergence

This chapter introduces flux integrals and shows how to calculate them over surface graphs, portions of
cylinders, and portions of spheres. The divergence is introduced and its relationship to flux integrals discussed
in the Divergence Theorem.
This new chapter combines Sections 19.1 and 19.2 with Sections 20.1 and 20.2 from the fifth edition

Chapter 20: The Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

The purpose of this chapter is to give students a practical understanding of the curl and of Stokes’ Theorem
and to lay out the relationship between the theorems of vector calculus.
This chapter consists of Sections 20.3–20.5 from the fifth edition.

Chapter 21: Parameters, Coordinates, and Integrals

This new chapter covers parameterized surfaces, the change of variable formula in a double or triple integral,
and flux though a parameterized surface.

Appendices
There are appendices on roots, accuracy, and bounds; complex numbers; Newton’s Method; and determi-
nants.

Projects
There are new projects in Chapter 12: “Heathrow”; Chapter 19: “Solid Angle”; and Chapter 20: “Magnetic
field generated by a current in a wire”.

Choice of Paths: Lean or Expanded

For those who prefer the lean topic list of earlier editions, we have kept clear the main conceptual paths. For
example,
• The Key Concept chapters on the derivative and the definite integral (Chapters 2 and 5) can be covered
at the outset of the course, right after Chapter 1.
 Preface ix

• Limits and Continuity (Sections 1.7 and 1.8) can be covered in depth before the introduction of the
derivative (Sections 2.1 and 2.2), or after.
• Approximating Functions Using Series (Chapter 10) can be covered before, or without, Chapter 9.
• In Chapter 4 (Using the Derivative), instructors can select freely from Sections 4.3–4.8.
• Chapter 8 (Using the Definite Integral) contains a wide range of applications. Instructors can select one
or two to do in detail.

Supplementary Materials and Additional Resources

Supplements for the instructor can be obtained online at the book companion site or by contacting your Wiley
representative. The following supplementary materials are available for this edition:
• Instructor’s Manual containing teaching tips, calculator programs, overhead transparency masters,
sample worksheets, and sample syllabi.
• Computerized Test Bank, comprised of nearly 7,000 questions, mostly algorithmically-generated, which
allows for multiple versions of a single test or quiz.
• Instructor’s Solution Manual with complete solutions to all problems.
• Student Solution Manual with complete solutions to half the odd-numbered problems.
• Additional Material, elaborating specially marked points in the text and password-protected electronic
versions of the instructor ancillaries, can be found on the web at www.wiley.com/college/hughes-hallett.

ConcepTests
ConcepTests, modeled on the pioneering work of Harvard physicist Eric Mazur, are questions designed to
promote active learning during class, particularly (but not exclusively) in large lectures. Our evaluation data
show students taught with ConcepTests outperformed students taught by traditional lecture methods 73%
versus 17% on conceptual questions, and 63% versus 54% on computational problems.

Faculty Resource Network

A peer-to-peer network of academic faculty dedicated to the effective use of technology in the classroom,
this group can help you apply innovative classroom techniques and implement specific software packages.
Visit www.facultyresourcenetwork.com or speak to your Wiley representative.

WileyPLUS
WileyPLUS, Wiley’s digital learning environment, is loaded with all of the supplements above, and also
features:
• Online version of the text, featuring hyperlinks to referenced content, applets, and supplements.
• Homework management tools, which enable the instructor to assign questions easily and grade them
automatically, using a rich set of options and controls.
• QuickStart pre-designed reading and homework assignments. Use them as-is or customize them to fit
the needs of your classroom.
• Guided Online (GO) Exercises, which prompt students to build solutions step by step. Rather than simply
grading an exercise answer as wrong, GO problems show students precisely where they are making a
mistake.
• Animated applets, which can be used in class to present and explore key ideas graphically and dynamically—
especially useful for display of three-dimensional graphs in multivariable calculus.
• Algebra & Trigonometry Refresher material, which provide students with an opportunity to brush up on
material necessary to master Calculus, as well as to determine areas that require further review.
• Graphing Calculator Manual, to help students get the most out of their graphing calculators, and to show
how they can apply the numerical and graphing functions of their calculators to their study of calculus.
x Preface

AP Teacher’s Guide
The AP Guide, written by experienced AP teachers, provides day-by-day syllabi for AB and BC Calculus,
sample multiple choice questions, a listing of the past 25 years of AP free-response questions by chapter of
the text, teaching tips, and labs to encourage student exploration of concepts.

Acknowledgements
First and foremost, we want to express our appreciation to the National Science Foundation for their faith
in our ability to produce a revitalized calculus curriculum and, in particular, to our program officers, Louise
Raphael, John Kenelly, John Bradley, and James Lightbourne. We also want to thank the members of our
Advisory Board, Benita Albert, Lida Barrett, Simon Bernau, Robert Davis, M. Lavinia DeConge-Watson,
John Dossey, Ron Douglas, Eli Fromm, William Haver, Seymour Parter, John Prados, and Stephen Rodi.
In addition, a host of other people around the country and abroad deserve our thanks for their contribu-
tions to shaping this edition. They include: Huriye Arikan, Ruth Baruth, Paul Blanchard, Lewis Blake, David
Bressoud, Stephen Boyd, Lucille Buonocore, Jo Cannon, Ray Cannon, Phil Cheifetz, Scott Clark, Jailing
Dai, Ann Davidian, Tom Dick, Srdjan Divac, Tevian Dray, Steven Dunbar, David Durlach, John Eggers,
Wade Ellis, Johann Engelbrecht, Brad Ernst, Sunny Fawcett, Paul Feehan, Sol Friedberg, Melanie Fulton,
Tom Gearhart, David Glickenstein, Chris Goff, Sheldon P. Gordon, Salim Haı̈dar, Elizabeth Hentges, Rob
Indik, Adrian Iovita, David Jackson, Sue Jensen, Alex Kasman, Matthias Kawski, Mike Klucznik, Donna
Krawczyk, Stephane Lafortune, Andrew Lawrence, Carl Leinert, Andrew Looms, Bin Lu, Alex Mallozzi,
Corinne Manogue, Jay Martin, Eric Mazur, Abby McCallum, Dan McGee, Ansie Meiring, Lang Moore,
Jerry Morris, Hideo Nagahashi, Kartikeya Nagendra, Alan Newell, Steve Olson, John Orr, Arnie Ostebee,
Andrew Pasquale, Wayne Raskind, Maria Robinson, Laurie Rosatone, Ayse Sahin, Nataliya Sandler, Ken
Santor, Anne Scanlan-Rohrer, Ellen Schmierer, Michael Sherman, Pat Shure, Scott Pilzer, David Smith,
Ernie Solheid, Misha Stepanov, Steve Strogatz, Peter Taylor, Dinesh Thakur, Sally Thomas, Joe Thrash,
Alan Tucker, Doug Ulmer, Ignatios Vakalis, Bill Vélez, Joe Vignolini, Stan Wagon, Hannah Winkler, Debra
Wood, Aaron Wootton, Deane Yang, Bruce Yoshiwara, Kathy Yoshiwara, and Paul Zorn.
Reports from the following reviewers were most helpful for the fifth edition:
Lewis Blake, Patrice Conrath, Christopher Ennis, John Eggers, Paul DeLand, Dana Fine, Dave Folk,
Elizabeth Hodes, Richard Jenson, Emelie Kenney, Michael Kinter, Douglas Lapp, Glenn Ledder, Eric Mar-
land, Cindy Moss, Michael Naylor, Genevra Neumann, Dennis Piontkowski, Robert Reed, Laurence Small,
Ed Soares, Diana Staats, Kurt Verdeber, Elizabeth Wilcox, and Deborah Yoklic.
Reports from the following reviewers were most helpful for the sixth edition:
Barbara Armenta, James Baglama, Jon Clauss, Ann Darke, Marcel Finan, Dana Fine, Michael Huber,
Greg Marks, Wes Ostertag, Ben Smith, Mark Turner, Aaron Weinberg, and Jianying Zhang.

Deborah Hughes-Hallett Brigitte Lahme Cody L. Patterson

Andrew M. Gleason Patti Frazer Lock Douglas Quinney
William G. McCallum David O. Lomen Karen Rhea
Eric Connally David Lovelock Adam Spiegler
Daniel E. Flath Guadalupe I. Lozano Jeff Tecosky-Feldman
Selin Kalaycıoğlu Brad G. Osgood Thomas W. Tucker
 Preface xi

To Students: How to Learn from this Book

• This book may be different from other math textbooks that you have used, so it may be helpful to know
about some of the differences in advance. This book emphasizes at every stage the meaning (in practical,
graphical or numerical terms) of the symbols you are using. There is much less emphasis on “plug-and-
chug” and using formulas, and much more emphasis on the interpretation of these formulas than you
may expect. You will often be asked to explain your ideas in words or to explain an answer using graphs.
• The book contains the main ideas of calculus in plain English. Your success in using this book will
depend on your reading, questioning, and thinking hard about the ideas presented. Although you may
not have done this with other books, you should plan on reading the text in detail, not just the worked
examples.
• There are very few examples in the text that are exactly like the homework problems. This means that
you can’t just look at a homework problem and search for a similar–looking “worked out” example.
Success with the homework will come by grappling with the ideas of calculus.
• Many of the problems that we have included in the book are open-ended. This means that there may be
more than one approach and more than one solution, depending on your analysis. Many times, solving a
problem relies on common sense ideas that are not stated in the problem but which you will know from
everyday life.
• Some problems in this book assume that you have access to a graphing calculator or computer. There
are many situations where you may not be able to find an exact solution to a problem, but you can use a
calculator or computer to get a reasonable approximation.
• This book attempts to give equal weight to four methods for describing functions: graphical (a picture),
numerical (a table of values) algebraic (a formula), and verbal. Sometimes you may find it easier to
translate a problem given in one form into another. The best idea is to be flexible about your approach:
if one way of looking at a problem doesn’t work, try another.
• Students using this book have found discussing these problems in small groups very helpful. There are a
great many problems which are not cut-and-dried; it can help to attack them with the other perspectives
your colleagues can provide. If group work is not feasible, see if your instructor can organize a discussion
session in which additional problems can be worked on.
• You are probably wondering what you’ll get from the book. The answer is, if you put in a solid effort,
you will get a real understanding of one of the most important accomplishments of the millennium—
calculus—as well as a real sense of the power of mathematics in the age of technology.
xii Preface

CONTENTS

1 A LIBRARY OF FUNCTIONS 1

1.1 FUNCTIONS AND CHANGE 2

1.2 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 12
1.3 NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD 21
1.4 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 29
1.5 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 36
1.6 POWERS, POLYNOMIALS, AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 45
1.7 INTRODUCTION TO CONTINUITY 53
1.8 LIMITS 57
REVIEW PROBLEMS 68
PROJECTS 73

2 KEY CONCEPT: THE DERIVATIVE 75

2.1 HOW DO WE MEASURE SPEED? 76

2.2 THE DERIVATIVE AT A POINT 83
2.3 THE DERIVATIVE FUNCTION 90
2.4 INTERPRETATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 98
2.5 THE SECOND DERIVATIVE 104
2.6 DIFFERENTIABILITY 111
REVIEW PROBLEMS 116
PROJECTS 122

3 SHORT-CUTS TO DIFFERENTIATION 123

3.1 POWERS AND POLYNOMIALS 124

3.2 THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION 132
3.3 THE PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT RULES 136
3.4 THE CHAIN RULE 142
3.5 THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 149
3.6 THE CHAIN RULE AND INVERSE FUNCTIONS 156
3.7 IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS 162
 Preface xiii

3.8 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 165

3.9 LINEAR APPROXIMATION AND THE DERIVATIVE 169
3.10 THEOREMS ABOUT DIFFERENTIABLE FUNCTIONS 175
REVIEW PROBLEMS 180
PROJECTS 184

4 USING THE DERIVATIVE 185

4.1 USING FIRST AND SECOND DERIVATIVES 186

4.2 OPTIMIZATION 196
4.3 OPTIMIZATION AND MODELING 205
4.4 FAMILIES OF FUNCTIONS AND MODELING 216
4.5 APPLICATIONS TO MARGINALITY 224
4.6 RATES AND RELATED RATES 233
4.7 L’HOPITAL’S RULE, GROWTH, AND DOMINANCE 242
4.8 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS 249
REVIEW PROBLEMS 260
PROJECTS 267

5 KEY CONCEPT: THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 271

5.1 HOW DO WE MEASURE DISTANCE TRAVELED? 272

5.2 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 281
5.3 THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM AND INTERPRETATIONS 289
5.4 THEOREMS ABOUT DEFINITE INTEGRALS 298
REVIEW PROBLEMS 309
PROJECTS 316

6 CONSTRUCTING ANTIDERIVATIVES 319

6.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES GRAPHICALLY AND NUMERICALLY 320

6.2 CONSTRUCTING ANTIDERIVATIVES ANALYTICALLY 326
6.3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND MOTION 332
6.4 SECOND FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 340
REVIEW PROBLEMS 345
PROJECTS 350
xiv Preface

7 INTEGRATION 353

7.1 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION 354

7.2 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 364
7.3 TABLES OF INTEGRALS 371
7.4 ALGEBRAIC IDENTITIES AND TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTIONS 376
7.5 NUMERICAL METHODS FOR DEFINITE INTEGRALS 387
7.6 IMPROPER INTEGRALS 395
7.7 COMPARISON OF IMPROPER INTEGRALS 403
REVIEW PROBLEMS 408
PROJECTS 412

8 USING THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 413

8.1 AREAS AND VOLUMES 414

8.2 APPLICATIONS TO GEOMETRY 422
8.3 AREA AND ARC LENGTH IN POLAR COORDINATES 431
8.4 DENSITY AND CENTER OF MASS 439
8.5 APPLICATIONS TO PHYSICS 449
8.6 APPLICATIONS TO ECONOMICS 459
8.7 DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS 466
8.8 PROBABILITY, MEAN, AND MEDIAN 473
REVIEW PROBLEMS 481
PROJECTS 486

9 SEQUENCES AND SERIES 491

9.1 SEQUENCES 492

9.2 GEOMETRIC SERIES 498
9.3 CONVERGENCE OF SERIES 505
9.4 TESTS FOR CONVERGENCE 512
9.5 POWER SERIES AND INTERVAL OF CONVERGENCE 521
REVIEW PROBLEMS 529
PROJECTS 533

10 APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS USING SERIES 537

10.1 TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS 538

10.2 TAYLOR SERIES 546
 Preface xv

10.3 FINDING AND USING TAYLOR SERIES 552

10.4 THE ERROR IN TAYLOR POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATIONS 560
10.5 FOURIER SERIES 565
REVIEW PROBLEMS 578
PROJECTS 582

11 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 585

11.1 WHAT IS A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION? 586

11.2 SLOPE FIELDS 591
11.3 EULER’S METHOD 599
11.4 SEPARATION OF VARIABLES 604
11.5 GROWTH AND DECAY 609
11.6 APPLICATIONS AND MODELING 620
11.7 THE LOGISTIC MODEL 629
11.8 SYSTEMS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 639
11.9 ANALYZING THE PHASE PLANE 649
REVIEW PROBLEMS 655
PROJECTS 661

12 FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 665

12.1 FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES 666

12.2 GRAPHS AND SURFACES 674
12.3 CONTOUR DIAGRAMS 681
12.4 LINEAR FUNCTIONS 694
12.5 FUNCTIONS OF THREE VARIABLES 700
12.6 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 705
REVIEW PROBLEMS 710
PROJECTS 714

13 A FUNDAMENTAL TOOL: VECTORS 717

13.1 DISPLACEMENT VECTORS 718

13.2 VECTORS IN GENERAL 726
13.3 THE DOT PRODUCT 734
xvi Preface

13.4 THE CROSS PRODUCT 744

REVIEW PROBLEMS 752
PROJECTS 755

14 DIFFERENTIATING FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 757

14.1 THE PARTIAL DERIVATIVE 758

14.2 COMPUTING PARTIAL DERIVATIVES ALGEBRAICALLY 766
14.3 LOCAL LINEARITY AND THE DIFFERENTIAL 771
14.4 GRADIENTS AND DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES IN THE PLANE 779
14.5 GRADIENTS AND DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES IN SPACE 789
14.6 THE CHAIN RULE 796
14.7 SECOND-ORDER PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 806
14.8 DIFFERENTIABILITY 815
REVIEW PROBLEMS 822
PROJECTS 827

15 OPTIMIZATION: LOCAL AND GLOBAL EXTREMA 829

15.1 CRITICAL POINTS: LOCAL EXTREMA AND SADDLE POINTS 830

15.2 OPTIMIZATION 839
15.3 CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION: LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS 848
REVIEW PROBLEMS 860
PROJECTS 864

16 INTEGRATING FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 867

16.1 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL OF A FUNCTION OF TWO VARIABLES 868

16.2 ITERATED INTEGRALS 875
16.3 TRIPLE INTEGRALS 884
16.4 DOUBLE INTEGRALS IN POLAR COORDINATES 891
16.5 INTEGRALS IN CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL COORDINATES 896
16.6 APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION TO PROBABILITY 906
REVIEW PROBLEMS 911
PROJECTS 915
 Preface xvii

17 PARAMETERIZATION AND VECTOR FIELDS 917

17.1 PARAMETERIZED CURVES 918

17.2 MOTION, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION 927
17.3 VECTOR FIELDS 937
17.4 THE FLOW OF A VECTOR FIELD 943
REVIEW PROBLEMS 950
PROJECTS 953

18 LINE INTEGRALS 957

18.1 THE IDEA OF A LINE INTEGRAL 958

18.2 COMPUTING LINE INTEGRALS OVER PARAMETERIZED CURVES 967
18.3 GRADIENT FIELDS AND PATH-INDEPENDENT FIELDS 974
18.4 PATH-DEPENDENT VECTOR FIELDS AND GREEN’S THEOREM 985
REVIEW PROBLEMS 997
PROJECTS 1002

19 FLUX INTEGRALS AND DIVERGENCE 1005

19.1 THE IDEA OF A FLUX INTEGRAL 1006

19.2 FLUX INTEGRALS FOR GRAPHS, CYLINDERS, AND SPHERES 1016
19.3 THE DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FIELD 1025
19.4 THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM 1034
REVIEW PROBLEMS 1040
PROJECTS 1044

20 THE CURL AND STOKES’ THEOREM 1047

20.1 THE CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD 1048

20.2 STOKES’ THEOREM 1056
20.3 THE THREE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS 1062
REVIEW PROBLEMS 1067
PROJECTS 1071
xviii Preface

21 PARAMETERS, COORDINATES, AND INTEGRALS 1073

21.1 COORDINATES AND PARAMETERIZED SURFACES 1074

21.2 CHANGE OF COORDINATES IN A MULTIPLE INTEGRAL 1084
21.3 FLUX INTEGRALS OVER PARAMETERIZED SURFACES 1089
REVIEW PROBLEMS 1093
PROJECTS 1094

APPENDIX 1095

A ROOTS, ACCURACY, AND BOUNDS 1096

B COMPLEX NUMBERS 1104
C NEWTON’S METHOD 1111
D VECTORS IN THE PLANE 1114
E DETERMINANTS 1120

READY REFERENCE 1123

ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS 1141

INDEX 1205
 Chapter One

A LIBRARY OF Contents
1.1 Functions and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
FUNCTIONS The Rule of Four . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Examples of Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Linear Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Families of Linear Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Increasing versus Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . 6
Proportionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Elimination of a Drug from the Body . . . . . . . . 13
The General Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . 13
Half-Life and Doubling Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
The Family of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . 15
Exponential Functions with Base e . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3 New Functions from Old . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Shifts and Stretches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Composite Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Odd and Even Functions: Symmetry . . . . . . . . . 22
Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Logarithms to Base 10 and to Base e . . . . . . . . 29
Solving Equations Using Logarithms . . . . . . . . 31
1.5 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Radians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The Sine and Cosine Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
The Tangent Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
The Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . 40
1.6 Powers, Polynomials, and Rational Functions 45
Power Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Dominance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
© Patrick Zephyr/Patrick Zephyr Nature Photography

1.7 Introduction to Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Graphical Viewpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Numerical Viewpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.8 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
The Idea of a Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Definition of Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Definition of Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
REVIEW PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
PROJECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2 Chapter One A LIBRARY OF FUNCTIONS

1.1 FUNCTIONS AND CHANGE

In mathematics, a function is used to represent the dependence of one quantity upon another.
Let’s look at an example. Syracuse, New York has the highest annual snowfall of any US city
because of the “lake effect” snow coming from cold Northwest winds blowing over nearby Lake
Erie. Lake effect snowfall has been heavier over the last few decades; some have suggested this is
due to the warming of Lake Erie by climate change. In December 2010, Syracuse got 66.9 inches
of snow in one 12 day period, all of it from lake effect snow. See Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Daily snowfall in Syracuse, December 5–16, 2010

Date (December 2010) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Snowfall in inches 6.8 12.2 9.3 14.9 1.9 0.1 0.0 0.0 1.4 5.0 11.9 3.4

You may not have thought of something so unpredictable as daily snowfall as being a function,
but it is a function of date, because each day gives rise to one snowfall total. There is no formula
for the daily snowfall (otherwise we would not need a weather bureau), but nevertheless the daily
snowfall in Syracuse does satisfy the definition of a function: Each date, t, has a unique snowfall,
S, associated with it.
We define a function as follows:

A function is a rule that takes certain numbers as inputs and assigns to each a definite output
number. The set of all input numbers is called the domain of the function and the set of
resulting output numbers is called the range of the function.

The input is called the independent variable and the output is called the dependent variable. In
the snowfall example, the domain is the set of December dates {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16}
and the range is the set of daily snowfalls {0.0, 0.1, 1.4, 1.9, 3.4, 5.0, 6.8, 9.3, 11.9, 12.2, 14.9}. We
call the function f and write S = f (t). Notice that a function may have identical outputs for differ-
ent inputs (December 11 and 12, for example).
Some quantities, such as date, are discrete, meaning they take only certain isolated values (dates
must be integers). Other quantities, such as time, are continuous as they can be any number. For a
continuous variable, domains and ranges are often written using interval notation:
The set of numbers t such that a ≤ t ≤ b is called a closed interval and written [a, b].
The set of numbers t such that a < t < b is called an open interval and written (a, b).

The Rule of Four: Tables, Graphs, Formulas, and Words

Functions can be represented by tables, graphs, formulas, and descriptions in words. For example,
the function giving the daily snowfall in Syracuse can be represented by the graph in Figure 1.1, as
well as by Table 1.1.
S (inches)
15
12
9
6
3
t (date)
6 8 10 12 14 16

Figure 1.1: Syracuse snowfall, December, 2010

As another example of a function, consider the snow tree cricket. Surprisingly enough, all such
crickets chirp at essentially the same rate if they are at the same temperature. That means that the
 1.1 FUNCTIONS AND CHANGE 3

chirp rate is a function of temperature. In other words, if we know the temperature, we can determine
the chirp rate. Even more surprisingly, the chirp rate, C, in chirps per minute, increases steadily with
the temperature, T , in degrees Fahrenheit, and can be computed by the formula
C = 4T − 160
to a fair degree of accuracy. We write C = f (T ) to express the fact that we think of C as a function
of T and that we have named this function f . The graph of this function is in Figure 1.2.
C (chirps per minute)
400
300

200 C = 4T − 160
100

T ( ◦ F)
40 100 140
Figure 1.2: Cricket chirp rate versus temperature

Examples of Domain and Range

If the domain of a function is not specified, we usually take it to be the largest possible set of
real numbers. For example, we usually think of the domain of the function f (x) = x2 as all real
numbers. However, the domain of the function g(x) = 1/x is all real numbers except zero, since
we cannot divide by zero.
Sometimes we restrict the domain to be smaller than the largest possible set of real numbers.
For example, if the function f (x) = x2 is used to represent the area of a square of side x, we restrict
the domain to nonnegative values of x.

Example 1 The function C = f (T ) gives chirp rate as a function of temperature. We restrict this function to
temperatures for which the predicted chirp rate is positive, and up to the highest temperature ever
recorded at a weather station, 136◦ F. What is the domain of this function f ?
Solution If we consider the equation
C = 4T − 160
simply as a mathematical relationship between two variables C and T , any T value is possible.
However, if we think of it as a relationship between cricket chirps and temperature, then C cannot
be less than 0. Since C = 0 leads to 0 = 4T − 160, and so T = 40◦ F, we see that T cannot be less
than 40◦ F. (See Figure 1.2.) In addition, we are told that the function is not defined for temperatures
above 136◦. Thus, for the function C = f (T ) we have
Domain = All T values between 40◦ F and 136◦ F
= All T values with 40 ≤ T ≤ 136
= [40, 136].

Example 2 Find the range of the function f , given the domain from Example 1. In other words, find all possible
values of the chirp rate, C, in the equation C = f (T ).
Solution Again, if we consider C = 4T − 160 simply as a mathematical relationship, its range is all real C
values. However, when thinking of the meaning of C = f (T ) for crickets, we see that the function
predicts cricket chirps per minute between 0 (at T = 40◦ F) and 384 (at T = 136◦ F). Hence,
Range = All C values from 0 to 384
= All C values with 0 ≤ C ≤ 384
= [0, 384].
4 Chapter One A LIBRARY OF FUNCTIONS

In using the temperature to predict the chirp rate, we thought of the temperature as the indepen-
dent variable and the chirp rate as the dependent variable. However, we could do this backward, and
calculate the temperature from the chirp rate. From this point of view, the temperature is dependent
on the chirp rate. Thus, which variable is dependent and which is independent may depend on your
viewpoint.

Linear Functions
The chirp-rate function, C = f (T ), is an example of a linear function. A function is linear if its
slope, or rate of change, is the same at every point. The rate of change of a function that is not linear
may vary from point to point.

Olympic and World Records

During the early years of the Olympics, the height of the men’s winning pole vault increased ap-
proximately 8 inches every four years. Table 1.2 shows that the height started at 130 inches in 1900,
and increased by the equivalent of 2 inches a year. So the height was a linear function of time from
1900 to 1912. If y is the winning height in inches and t is the number of years since 1900, we can
write
y = f (t) = 130 + 2t.
Since y = f (t) increases with t, we say that f is an increasing function. The coefficient 2 tells us
the rate, in inches per year, at which the height increases.
Table 1.2 Men’s Olympic pole vault winning height (approximate)

Year 1900 1904 1908 1912

Height (inches) 130 138 146 154

This rate of increase is the slope of the line in Figure 1.3. The slope is given by the ratio
Rise 146 − 138 8
Slope = = = = 2 inches/year.
Run 8−4 4
Calculating the slope (rise/run) using any other two points on the line gives the same value.
What about the constant 130? This represents the initial height in 1900, when t = 0. Geomet-
rically, 130 is the intercept on the vertical axis.
y (height in inches)
y = 130 + 2t
150

6
Rise = 8
140 ?
 -
Run = 4
130

t (years since 1900)

4 8 12

Figure 1.3: Olympic pole vault records

You may wonder whether the linear trend continues beyond 1912. Not surprisingly, it doesn’t
exactly. The formula y = 130+2t predicts that the height in the 2008 Olympics would be 346 inches
or 28 feet 10 inches, which is considerably higher than the actual value of 19 feet 6.65 inches. There
is clearly a danger in extrapolating too far from the given data. You should also observe that the data
in Table 1.2 is discrete, because it is given only at specific points (every four years). However, we
have treated the variable t as though it were continuous, because the function y = 130 + 2t makes
 1.1 FUNCTIONS AND CHANGE 5

sense for all values of t. The graph in Figure 1.3 is of the continuous function because it is a solid
line, rather than four separate points representing the years in which the Olympics were held.
As the pole vault heights have increased over the years, the time to run the mile has decreased.
If y is the world record time to run the mile, in seconds, and t is the number of years since 1900,
then records show that, approximately,
y = g(t) = 260 − 0.39t.
The 260 tells us that the world record was 260 seconds in 1900 (at t = 0). The slope, −0.39, tells
us that the world record decreased by about 0.39 seconds per year. We say that g is a decreasing
function.
Difference Quotients and Delta Notation
We use the symbol Δ (the Greek letter capital delta) to mean “change in,” so Δx means change in
x and Δy means change in y.
The slope of a linear function y = f (x) can be calculated from values of the function at two
points, given by x1 and x2 , using the formula

Rise Δy f (x2 ) − f (x1 )

m= = = .
Run Δx x2 − x1

The quantity (f (x2 ) − f (x1 ))/(x2 − x1 ) is called a difference quotient because it is the quotient of
two differences. (See Figure 1.4.) Since m = Δy/Δx, the units of m are y-units over x-units.
y y = f (x)

(x2 , f (x2 ))
6
Rise = f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
(x1 , f (x1 ))
?
 -
Run = x2 − x1

x
x1 x2
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
Figure 1.4: Difference quotient =
x2 − x1
Families of Linear Functions

A linear function has the form

y = f (x) = b + mx.

Its graph is a line such that

• m is the slope, or rate of change of y with respect to x.
• b is the vertical intercept, or value of y when x is zero.

Notice that if the slope, m, is zero, we have y = b, a horizontal line.

To recognize that a table of x and y values comes from a linear function, y = b + mx, look
for differences in y-values that are constant for equally spaced x-values.

Formulas such as f (x) = b + mx, in which the constants m and b can take on various values,
give a family of functions. All the functions in a family share certain properties—in this case, all the
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