Computer Network (BCS603)

Unit-1 Introductory Concepts

& Physical Layer

Edushine Classes

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 What is Computer Network :

• A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices—such as computers,
smartphones, printers, and servers—that communicate and share resources with each
other. These connections can be established through physical cables (like Ethernet) or
wireless signals (such as Wi-Fi). The primary purpose of a computer network is to
enable data exchange and resource sharing among multiple devices.
• Computer Network means where no of computers are connected to each other.
• Two Computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange
information.

Now let discuss first basic terminology which you should know before studying Computer
Network 

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 Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks

1. Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are connected
together to enable communication and data exchange.
2. Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can include
computers, Servers, Printers, Router, and other devices.
3. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is
transmitted over a network. Examples of protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP
4. Topology: Network topology refers to the arrangement of various elements (links,
nodes, etc.) in a computer network. It defines how different devices (like computers,
printers, and servers) are connected and how data flows between them.
5. Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give permission to take
Network Capacity and Functionality on lease from the Provider. Service Provider
Networks include Wireless Communications, Data Carriers, etc.

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6. IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned to every

device on a network. IP addresses are used to identify devices and enable
communication between them.
7. DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to translate human-
readable domain names (such as www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers can
understand.
8. Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control incoming
and outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect networks from unauthorized
access and other security threats.

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 Goals of Computer Networks:

i. Resource Sharing: Enable multiple users to access shared resources like files,
printers, and internet connections.
ii. Reliability: Provide backup systems and alternative pathways to ensure continuous
operation even if one part fails.
iii. Scalability: Allow the network to grow by adding new devices without significant
changes to the existing setup.
iv. Cost Efficiency: Share resources to reduce the need for individual equipment,
lowering overall costs.
v. Communication: Facilitate various forms of communication, such as emails, instant
messaging, and video conferencing.

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 Applications of Computer Networks:

i. Business Applications:
i. Email and Instant Messaging: Quick communication among employees.
ii. Shared Databases: Access to centralized information for all team members.
iii. Remote Work: Employees can work from anywhere by accessing the company's
network.
ii. Home Applications:
i. Internet Access: Connect multiple devices to the internet simultaneously.
ii. File Sharing: Share photos, videos, and documents between family members.
iii. Smart Home Devices: Control devices security cameras remotely.
iii. Educational Applications:
i. Online Learning Platforms: Attend virtual classes and access course materials.
ii. Research Collaboration: Share data and work together on projects in real-time.

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iii. Access to Digital Libraries: Utilize e-books, journals, and educational videos.
iv. Healthcare Applications:
i. Telemedicine: Consult with doctors via video calls.
ii. Electronic Health Records (EHRs): Access and update patient records in a
centralized system.
v. Entertainment Applications:
i. Streaming Services: Watch movies and listen to music online.
ii. Online Gaming: Play games with others over the internet.
iii. Social Networking: Connect with friends and family through platforms like
Facebook and Twitter.

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 Different Categories of Network

Networks are classified based on their size,
coverage area, and purpose. Here’s a simple
explanation of each type:

1. Personal Area 2. Local Area 3. Campus Area 4. Metropolitan 5. Wide

Network(PAN) Network(LAN) Network(CAN) Area Network Area
(MAN) Network

Now let discuss in detail -

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1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

• Definition: A small network used for personal devices like mobile phones, laptops,
and smartwatches.
• Range: About 1 to 100 meters.
• Example: Bluetooth connections, wireless mouse & keyboard, or a hotspot
created by a mobile phone.
• Best For: Personal use in a small area.
• Speed : Very High
• Cost : Lower Cost

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2. Local Area Network (LAN)

• Definition: A network that connects computers and devices within a limited area
like a home, office, or school.
• Range: Up to a few kilometers.
• Example: Computers in a school lab connected through LAN, an office network.
• Best For: Organizations, schools, and small businesses.
• Speed : Very High
• Cost : Lower in Cost

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3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

• Definition: A network that connects multiple LANs within a campus, such as a
university or company campus.
• Range: Covers a larger area than LAN but is smaller than MAN.(1-5KM)
• Example: A university with different departments having interconnected networks.
• Best For: Educational institutes, large offices, and company campuses.
• Speed : Average
• Cost : Little high

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4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

• Definition: A network that covers a city or a large town. It connects multiple LANs
and CANs.
• Range: Up to 50 km.
• Example: Internet services provided by telecom companies in a city.
• Best For: Government agencies, large businesses, or city-wide internet providers.
• Speed : Slow
• Cost : High

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5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

• Definition: A large network that covers a country or even the entire world.
• Range: Unlimited (Global reach).
• Example: The Internet, bank networks across different countries.
• Best For: International businesses, online services, and global communication.
• Speed : Slow
• Cost : Very High LAN1 LAN3

WAN

LAN2 LAN4

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 Organization of the Internet :

The Internet is a global network that connects millions of computers, devices, and users
worldwide. It is structured in a way that ensures smooth communication between
different systems. Let's break it down into different layers of organization:
1. Internet Service Providers (ISPs) - The Backbone –
• Think of ISPs as companies that sell internet connections to people.
Just like electricity providers give you power at home, ISPs give you the Internet.
Examples: Jio, Airtel, BSNL, ACT Fibernet
🔹 Types of ISPs:
i. Global ISPs (Tier 1) → Connect entire countries (Example: Tata Communications)
ii. Regional ISPs (Tier 2) → Connect big cities or regions (Example: Airtel, BSNL)
iii. Local ISPs (Tier 3) → Provide internet to homes (Example: ACT, Hathway)

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2. Internet Exchange Points (IXPs) - The Connection Points

• IXPs are places where different ISPs connect to exchange data.
• They help in faster data transfer between networks.
• Example: DE-CIX Mumbai (One of India's largest IXPs).
• If Amazon wants to send a package to a Flipkart warehouse, they can meet at a
central hub to exchange goods instead of taking long routes.
• Similarly, ISPs use IXPs to send data quickly instead of taking long paths across the
world.
3. Servers & Data Centers - Store Information
• Websites, emails, and apps are stored in servers inside large data centers.
• Example: Google Cloud, Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure.

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4. Domain Name System (DNS) - The Address Book of the Internet

• Every website has an IP address, but humans use easy names like google.com.
• DNS converts domain names into IP addresses.
• Example: When you type www.youtube.com, DNS finds the correct server and
connects you.
5. End Users - You & Me
• We connect to the internet using phones, laptops, or smart devices.
• The data we send (like messages, videos, or web searches) travels through routers,
ISPs, and servers before reaching the destination.

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 How the Internet Works? (Simple Example)

• You type www.facebook.com in your browser.
• Your request goes to your ISP.
• DNS finds Facebook’s server.
• Data travels through different networks and reaches the Facebook
server.
• Facebook sends back the webpage to your device.
• You see Facebook on your screen! 🎉

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 Network Structure & Architecture :

 What is Network Architecture?
• Network architecture is the design or structure of a computer network that defines
how devices (computers, routers, servers) communicate with each other.
• Think of it as a blueprint for building a network, just like an architect makes a
blueprint for a house.
 Types of Network Architecture
There are two main types of network architecture:
1. Client-Server Architecture -
📌 Definition: In this model, one central computer (server) manages and provides
services to multiple user computers (clients).

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📌 How it Works:
• The server stores data, applications, and resources.
• Clients (users) send requests to the server for data or services.
• The server processes the request and sends back the response.

📌 Example:
• Google Search – When you search something on Google, your computer
(client) sends a request to Google's server, and the server gives you search
results.
• Banking System – ATMs (clients) connect to a central bank server.

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📌 Advantages:
✔ Centralized control (easy to manage).
✔ High security.
✔ Efficient for large organizations.

📌 Disadvantages:
❌ Expensive to set up.
❌ If the server fails, all clients are affected.

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2. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture

📌 Definition: In this model, all computers are equal and can act as both a client and a
server.
📌 How it Works:
• Any computer in the network can share data and resources directly with another.
• No need for a central server.

📌 Example:
• Torrent Downloads – When you download a file using torrents, you are getting data
from many users (peers), not a single server.
• Bluetooth File Sharing – When you send files between two phones using Bluetooth.

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📌 Advantages:
✔ Cheap and easy to set up.
✔ No dependency on a single server.

📌 Disadvantages:
❌ Less security.
❌ Slower for large networks.

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 Other Important Network Architectures

3. Hybrid Architecture (Combination of Client-Server & P2P)
• Some networks use both models together for better performance.
• Example: Online gaming (players communicate directly, but the game server
manages the main data).

4. Cloud-Based Architecture
• Data and applications are stored in the cloud (online) instead of physical servers.
• Example: Google Drive, Dropbox, AWS (Amazon Web Services).

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 Need for Layered Architecture & Layering Principle :

 What is Layered Architecture?
Layered architecture is a design approach in networking where the communication
process is divided into multiple layers. Each layer has a specific role and works with
the layers above and below it.
Example:
Think of a postal system:
1. You write a letter (message).
2. You put it in an envelope (formatting).
3. The post office sorts and delivers it (routing).
4. The receiver opens and reads it (receiving data).
Similarly, in a computer network, data passes through different layers before reaching
its destination.

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 Why Do We Need Layered Architecture?

✅ 1. Simplifies Network Design
Breaking the communication into smaller manageable parts makes it easier to
design and understand.
✅ 2. Standardization (Easy Communication)
Different companies (Cisco, Microsoft, Google) follow the same layered model,
making their networks work together smoothly.
✅ 3. Easier Troubleshooting (Finding Errors)
If a network has a problem, we can check one layer at a time instead of the whole
system.
✅ 4. Flexible Upgrades & Modifications
We can improve one layer (like security or speed) without changing the entire
system.

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✅ 5. Reusability
Common functions like error checking can be used at different layers, reducing extra
work.
 What is the Layering Principle?
The layering principle means that:
1. Each layer should do only one specific job (e.g., sending data, error checking).
2. Each layer should communicate only with the layers directly above or below it.
3. Each layer should be independent, so changes in one layer don’t affect others.
Example:
Think of a burger 🍔:
• Bottom bun (Layer 1) → Holds everything together.
• Patty (Layer 2) → Provides main content.
• Cheese & veggies (Layer 3) → Adds extra features.

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• Top bun (Layer 4) → Completes the burger.

Each layer has a specific role and works together without mixing functions.

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 Protocol and Standard in Computer Networks :

In computer networks, protocols and standards help devices communicate with each
other smoothly.
🔹 What is a Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that defines how data should be sent and received in a
network.
📌 Why is a protocol needed?
• Just like people follow rules in a conversation (e.g., one speaks, the other listens),
computers need rules to communicate.
• Different devices (like a laptop, mobile, and server) can understand each other only if
they follow the same protocol.

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🔹 What is a Standard?
A standard is a set of guidelines created by organizations to ensure that different
devices and networks work together.
📌 Why are standards needed?
• If every company used its own networking rules, their devices wouldn’t work with
others.
• Standards ensure that all devices, software, and networks can communicate
📌 Example: properly.
• Your Wi-Fi router follows
IEEE 802.11 standards, so any
laptop or phone can connect
to it.
• Websites follow TCP/IP
standards, so they work on all
browsers and devices.

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 OSI Model : (V.V.V.V.VIMP)(Conceptual Model)
• OSI Stands for Open Systems Interconnection Model, it has been developed by
Standard organization ISO(international Organisation for standardization) in
the year 19884
• The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a framework that helps
us understand how data moves in a network. It divides the network
communication into 7 layers, where each layer has a specific job.

Think of it like sending a parcel by courier:

1. You pack the item (data formatting).
2. You write the address (source & destination).
3. The courier transports it safely (network transmission).
4. The receiver unpacks the item (data retrieval).

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 Understanding OSI Model with an Example:

Example: Sending a WhatsApp Message
Let's say you send a "Hello" message on WhatsApp from your phone (Client) to your
friend's phone (Server). The OSI model explains how this message travels through
different layers.
1. Application Layer (You type the message)
• You open WhatsApp and type “Hello” in the chat.
• WhatsApp is an application that allows communication.
• The layer that users interact with (like websites, emails, chat apps).
• Sends and receives files, emails, and messages.
• 📌 Protocols Used:
• HTTP/HTTPS - Websites.
• FTP - File transfer.
• SMTP/POP3/IMAP - Emails.

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2. Presentation Layer (Message gets formatted)

• WhatsApp converts "Hello" into a format (encryption, compression,
encoding).
• Ensures that the receiver understands the data format.
• Converts data into a format that both sender and receiver can understand.
• The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required
format to transmit over the network.

• Example Protocols: JPEG, MP3, MP4, SSL/TLS encryption, File compression.

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3. Session Layer (Maintains the connection)

• A session (connection) is created between you and your friend.
• Ensures smooth communication.
• Establishes, manages, and ends communication sessions.
• Keeps track of multiple conversations happening at the same time.
• Ensures that data is exchanged only when both sender and receiver are ready.
• Example Protocols: NetBIOS, RPC.
🔹 How it works?
When you log in to a website, the session layer maintains your connection until
you log out or close the browser.
🔹 Examples:
Online banking sessions, Video calls, Remote desktop access.

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4. Transport Layer (Breaks message into small packets)

• The message "Hello" is broken into small packets and assigned numbers.
• Ensures reliable delivery and reassembles packets at the receiver’s end.
• Example Protocols: TCP (reliable), UDP (faster but no reliability).
 At Sender’s Side:
• The message "Hello" is broken into small packets for easy transmission.
• Each packet is assigned a number so they can be reassembled correctly.
• If TCP is used: It ensures all packets arrive safely.
• If UDP is used: It sends packets quickly but doesn’t check if all arrived.
 At Receiver’s Side:
• All the packets are reassembled in the correct order to form the original message.
• If a packet is missing, TCP requests a retransmission.
• Example Protocols: TCP (reliable), UDP (faster but no reliability).

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5. Network Layer (Finds the best path to the receiver)

• Adds the IP addresses (your phone’s IP and your friend’s phone’s IP).
• Finds the best route to deliver the message.
• Finds the best path for data to travel.
• Uses IP addresses (like home addresses) to identify the sender & receiver.
• 📌 Example in Real Life: A Google Maps route finds the best way to reach your
destination. When you search Google, your request travels across many networks
using routers.
• 📌 Protocols Used: IP (Internet Protocol) - Assigns addresses (IPv4, IPv6). ICMP -
Helps check if a connection is working (Ping command).
• Example Protocols: IP, ICMP, ARP.
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6. Data Link Layer (Adds MAC Address & Error Checking)

• Adds MAC (Physical) address of your device and your friend's device.
• Checks for errors in transmission.
📌 Example in Real Life:
• You send a letter to a building, but it needs to go to the right apartment (MAC
address = apartment number).
• Your Wi-Fi routersends data to the correct device (laptop, phone).
📌 Technologies Used:
• Ethernet, Wi-Fi, MAC Addresses

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7. Physical Layer (Data travels as signals)

• Converts data into electrical signals (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cable) and sends them
through the network.
• The data physically travels to your friend’s phone.
• Sends data as signals through wires, fiber optics, or Wi-Fi.
• It’slike sending a message through a wire or air.
• 📌 Example in Real Life:
• When you send a letter, the postman carries it (like signals carrying data).
• A Wi-Fi router sending internet signals.
• 📌 Technologies Used:
• Ethernet cables, Fiber optics, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi.

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 Simple Trick to Remember OSI Model Layers

• "Aaj fir se tumne dudh piya"
🔹 Physical
🔹 Data Link
🔹 Network
🔹 Transport
🔹 Session
🔹 Presentation
🔹 Application

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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite : (Practical Model)

The TCP/IP Protocol Suite is a set of rules (protocols) that help computers and devices
communicate over the internet. It is the foundation of how data is sent and received
across networks like the internet.

 What is TCP/IP?
• TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.
• It is a collection of communication rules that allow devices to send and receive data
smoothly.
• It ensures that the data sent from one device reaches the correct destination
without errors. It is simpler than the OSI Model and has only 4 layers instead of 7.

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1. Application Layer (User Interaction Layer)

• This is the topmost layer where users interact with applications like WhatsApp,
Google, and Email.
• It helps software applications communicate with the network.
• Example: When you send a message on WhatsApp, this layer prepares the data.
💡 Common Protocols:
• HTTP/HTTPS → Used for web browsing.
• FTP → Used for file transfers.
• SMTP → Used for sending emails.
• POP3/IMAP → Used for receiving emails.

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2. Transport Layer (Reliable Data Transfer)

• This layer ensures that data is delivered correctly and without errors.
• It breaks large messages into smaller packets before sending them.
• It reassembles the packets at the receiver’s end.
💡 Main Protocols:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) → Reliable, ensures all packets are received
correctly.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol) → Faster, but does not guarantee packet delivery.
• ✅ Example: When you download a file, TCP ensures the whole file is received
correctly.

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3. Internet Layer (Finding the Best Path)

• This layer decides the best route for data to travel from the sender to the receiver.
• It adds IP addresses to identify the sender and receiver.
💡 Main Protocols:
• IP (Internet Protocol) → Assigns addresses to devices.
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) → Used for error reporting.
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) → Translates IP addresses into MAC addresses.
• ✅ Example: When you type "www.google.com," the Internet Layer helps find the
fastest path to reach Google's servers.

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4. Network Access Layer (Sending Data Physically)

• This is the lowest layer, responsible for transmitting data through physical cables or
wireless signals.
• It converts data into electrical signals, radio waves, or light signals.
💡 Common Protocols & Technologies:
• Ethernet → Used in wired networks.
• Wi-Fi → Used in wireless networks.
• PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) → Used for direct communication between two
devices.
• ✅ Example: When you connect to Wi-Fi, this layer manages the physical connection.

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 How TCP/IP Works with an Example (Sending a WhatsApp Message)

📲 You send a "Hello" message on WhatsApp:
1.Application Layer: WhatsApp prepares the message.
2.Transport Layer: The message is broken into small packets.
3.Internet Layer: Each packet is assigned an IP address and sent through the network.
4.Network Access Layer: The packets travel through Wi-Fi or mobile data.
📥 Your friend receives the message:
1.Network Access Layer: The message arrives via Wi-Fi/mobile data.
2.Internet Layer: The message finds your friend’s IP address.
3.Transport Layer: The packets are reassembled into the original message.
4.Application Layer: WhatsApp displays "Hello" on your friend’s screen.

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Internet layer

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 Computer Network (BCS603)
 Network Devices and Components of a Network :
A network is a group of connected computers and devices that share information.
To make this connection work, we need different network devices that help in
sending, receiving, and managing data.
1. Network Devices (Hardware Components)
These are physical devices that help in communication within a network.
i. Router :
A router is a device that helps connect multiple networks, such as your home Wi-
Fi and the internet.
👉 Imagine a router as a traffic police officer who directs cars (data) to the
correct road (device). It ensures that data from the internet reaches the right
device, whether it’s your mobile phone, laptop, or smart TV.
Without a router, your devices wouldn’t know where to send or receive internet
data.
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 Computer Network (BCS603)

Example: Your home Wi-Fi router connects your mobile phone to the internet.

2. Switch – The Manager of Local Networks 🏢

A switch is used inside a network (like an office or home) to connect multiple devices.
👉 Think of a switch like a telephone operator in an office. When an employee wants
to call another employee, the operator connects them directly instead of disturbing
everyone.
• A switch sends data only to the intended device, making communication faster and
more secure.
• Example: In an office, a switch connects all computers, allowing them to share files
without using the internet.

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3. Hub – The Loudspeaker of a Network 📢

A hub is similar to a switch but less advanced.
👉 Imagine a hub as a loudspeaker in a room. If one person speaks, everyone hears
it—even if the message is meant for only one person.
• A hub sends data to all devices in a network, even if only one device needs it.
• Disadvantage: This makes the network slower and less secure.
• Example: Small offices used hubs in older networks, but today, switches are
preferred.
4. Modem – The Internet Connector 🌍
A modem connects your home or office to the internet.
👉 Think of a modem as a translator that helps two people who speak different
languages communicate.

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• Your computer understands digital signals (0s and 1s), but telephone lines use
analog signals.
• A modem converts digital signals into analog signals (so they can travel through
telephone lines) and vice versa.
• Example: Your internet provider (like Jio, Airtel) gives you a modem to connect to the
internet.
5. Network Interface Card (NIC) – The Passport to a Network 🛂
A NIC (Network Adapter) is a small component inside a computer that allows it to
connect to a network.
👉 Think of a NIC as a passport that lets a person enter another country. Without a
passport, you cannot travel internationally. Similarly, without a NIC, a computer cannot
connect to a network.

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 Computer Network (BCS603)

• Every device, like laptops, desktops, and mobile phones, has a NIC to connect to Wi-
Fi or wired internet.
• Example: Your laptop’s Wi-Fi adapter is a type of NIC.
6. Access Point (AP) – The Wi-Fi Booster 📶
An Access Point (AP) helps extend Wi-Fi signals in large areas.
👉 Imagine an Access Point as a speaker in a big hall. If the main speaker’s voice is too
low for people sitting far away, additional speakers help everyone hear clearly.
• If your Wi-Fi signal is weak in one room, an Access Point boosts the signal to reach
that area.
• Example: Hotels, shopping malls, and big offices use Access Points to provide
internet in every corner.

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7. Repeater – The Signal Strengthener 🔁

A Repeater is used to strengthen weak network signals.
👉 Think of a Repeater as a relay runner in a long marathon. If the first runner gets
tired, the second runner continues the race, ensuring the baton reaches the finish
line.
• If your Wi-Fi signal becomes weak in distant rooms, a Repeater amplifies the
signal to keep it strong.
• Example: Used in large buildings to extend internet coverage.
8. Gateway – The Bridge Between Different Networks 🌉
A Gateway connects different types of networks, ensuring they can communicate
properly.
👉 Think of a Gateway as a tourist guide who helps visitors understand a new
culture and language.
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• If two different networks use different communication methods, a Gateway acts as a

translator, helping them communicate.
• Example: A company’s internal network and an external cloud system use a Gateway
to exchange data.

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 Components of a Network (Basic Elements in Any Network)

Now that we understand the devices used in a network, let’s look at the basic
components that make a network function properly.
1. Sender (The Person Sending the Message)
• The sender is the device that sends data.
• Example: Your phone when you send a WhatsApp message.
2. Receiver (The Person Receiving the Message)
• The receiver is the device that receives data.
• Example: Your friend’s phone when they receive the WhatsApp message.
3. Transmission Media (The Path for Data Travel)
• This is the medium through which data travels.
• It can be wired (cables like Ethernet, fiber optics) or wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
mobile networks).

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4. Network Protocols (The Language of Communication)

• Protocols are rules that decide how data is sent and received in a network.
• Examples:
• TCP/IP – Used for the internet.
• HTTP/HTTPS – Used for websites.
• FTP – Used for file transfers.
5. Server (The Data Provider)
• A server is a powerful computer that stores and manages network data.
• Example: Google’s servers store Gmail and YouTube videos.
6. Client (The User’s Device)
• A client is a device that requests data from a server.
• Example: Your laptop when browsing Google.

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Computer Network (BCS603)
 Computer Network (BCS603)

 Understanding Topology and Network Topology

When we talk about "topology," we mean how things are arranged or structured. This
concept applies to many things, like how houses are arranged in a city, how desks are
arranged in a classroom, or how roads are connected in a city.
Now, when we apply this concept to computer networks, we get Network Topology,
which means how computers and devices are connected in a network.
 What is Network Topology?
👉 Network topology is the way computers and devices are connected in a network.
Different network topologies exist, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
Some networks are simple (like home Wi-Fi), while others are complex (like internet
service provider networks).
Let’s now learn about the types of network topology in detail with easy examples.

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 Types of Network Topology

1.Bus 2. Ring 3. Star 4. Mesh 5. Hybrid 6. Tree

1.Bus Topology :
In bus Topology one single bus acts as a Single communication Channel & all the
devices are connected to this cable.

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 Advantages :
• Easy to add/Remove Node in a network.
• Requires only Cable
• It is less expensive
• It Broadcast the message to each device which are connected through
the cable
• It is easy to maintain
• In case of any computer failure other computer will not be affected

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 Disadvantages :
• If Cable is fail then the entire network will be failed.
• The message is Brodcasts so we can’t send private messages.
• It takes more time to pass the message from one place to another
place.
• The length of Cable is limited.
• In this topology data is transmitted only one direction.

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Nodes

Nodes Nodes

Nodes Nodes

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2. Ring Topology :
It is Called Ring Topology because it forms a ring. In this Topology each node is Strongly
Connected with its adjacent node.
 Advantages :
• It Forms a Strong Network.
• Each an every node can share data with another node connected through ring
topology.
• Transmission rate of data is very high.
• The data send through this topology will be brodcasts.
 Disadvantages :
• It is very difficult task to add some other nodes in network.
• If we want to send data from source to destination machine then data will be passed
to all other nodes.

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 Computer Network (BCS603)
• Single Point of Failure, that means if a node goes down entire network
goes down.
• It is very difficult to recover the ring topology if any particular machine is
not working properly.
• We can’t send private Messages.

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3. Star Topology :
In Star topology all the nodes are connected with a central device Called HUB. And
The sharing of data is only possible through HUB.
 Advantages :
• It brodcasts the messages.
• It is less expensive due to less cable.
• Easy to connect new nodes without affecting rest of network.
• If one node failed then it would not be failure of entire network.
 Disadvantages :
In start topology We must required a network device like – Switch, HUB etc.
• If two nodes want to share data then it is only possible through HUB.
• If HUB is failed then entire network in failed
• We can’t send Private Data.

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 Computer Network (BCS603)

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 Computer Network (BCS603)

4. Mesh Topology :
In this topology each an every Computer is directly connected with each other, So
we can directly send the data to the destination machine without going to
intermediate machine.
 Advantages :
• It is Vey good topology because we can send Private messages.
• All nodes are directly associated with another node so it Provide point to point
connection.
• Unlike ring topology if a particular machine is failed then entire network will not be
failed.
• Multiple Device can send or receive data Simultaneously.

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 Computer Network (BCS603)

 Disadvantages :
• It is very difficult to add some new node because each an every Computer directly
connected with another one.
• If a particular machine not working then, we can’t send or receive data from the
failure machine.

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 Computer Network (BCS603)

5. Hybrid Topology :
Combination of various different topology is called hybrid topology.

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 Types of Connections in Computer Networks :

In computer networks, devices (like computers, routers, and servers) connect to
share data. These connections can be categorized into two main types:
1. Wired Connections
2. Wireless Connections
3. Wired Connections 🖥 ️🔌
In wired connections, devices are connected using physical cables. These cables carry
signals and provide a stable and fast network connection.
Types of Wired Connections
🔹 Twisted Pair Cable
• Used in LAN networks (Local Area Networks).
• Made of two twisted copper wires to reduce signal interference.
• Example: Ethernet cables used in offices and homes.

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🔹 Coaxial Cable
• Used in cable TV and older networks.
• Contains a copper core with shielding to prevent interference.
• Example: Used in cable broadband connections.
🔹 Fiber Optic Cable
• Uses light signals instead of electrical signals.
• Very fast and long-distance data transmission.
• Example: Used in high-speed internet connections like JioFiber.

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 Computer Network (BCS603)
2. Wireless Connections 📡 📶
In wireless connections, data is transmitted without cables using radio waves or
infrared signals.
Types of Wireless Connections
🔹 Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)
• Used in homes, offices, and public places.
• Connects devices like laptops, smartphones, and smart TVs.
🔹 Bluetooth
• Used for short-range connections.
• Example: Wireless headphones, keyboards, and file transfers between mobile
devices.
🔹 Infrared (IR)
• Used in remote controls (TV, AC remotes).
• Works only within a short range and requires direct line of sight.
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🔹 Satellite Communication
• Used for global communication via satellites.
• Example: GPS, satellite internet like Starlink.
🔹 Mobile Networks (3G, 4G, 5G)
• Used in smartphones for internet and calling.
• 5G is the fastest and supports IoT devices.

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 Computer Network (BCS603)

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 What is Transmission Media? :

Transmission media is the path or channel through which data (information) travels
from one device to another. It is like a road that connects computers, phones, or any
other network devices.
For example, when you send a message on WhatsApp, the message travels through a
transmission medium (like Wi-Fi, mobile network, or cables) to reach your friend.
 Types of Transmission Media
Transmission media is divided into two categories:
1. Wired (Guided) Media – Uses physical cables.
2. Wireless (Unguided) Media – Uses air, radio waves, or light.

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Transmission Media

Wired(Guided) Wireless(Unguided)

Twisted pair Co-Axial Cable Optical Fibre cable Radio waves Microwaves Microwaves

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1. Wired Transmission Media (Guided Media) 🔌

➡ Data moves through a physical cable.
➡ Provides a fast and stable connection.
In wired media, data travels through physical cables, just like electricity travels through
wires.
Types of Wired Transmission Media
📍 1. Twisted Pair Cable
• 👉 It consists of two copper wires twisted together to reduce signal loss.
👉 Used in telephone lines and LAN connections.
👉 Example: Like a landline phone cable.

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📍 2. Coaxial Cable
• Has a copper core and shielding to protect against interference.
• Used in cable TV and broadband internet.
👉 It has a central conductor, an insulating layer, and a metal shield.
👉 Used in TV cables, internet connections.
👉 Example: The cable used for DTH TV (Dish TV, Tata Sky).
• Example: Internet connections via cable modems.

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3. Fiber Optic Cable 💡

👉 It uses light signals instead of electricity for fast data transmission.
👉 Provides high speed and long-distance communication.
👉 Used in high-speed internet and telecom networks.
👉 Example: Airtel Fiber, Jio Fiber use fiber optic cables.

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2. Wireless Transmission Media (Unguided Media) 📡

➡ Data moves through air using waves or signals.
➡ Provides mobility but can be affected by interference.
In wireless media, data travels through air, space, or water using
electromagnetic waves.

Types of Wireless Transmission Media 📍

1. Radio Waves
👉 Used for long-distance communication like FM radio, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.
👉 Example: Listening to FM radio or using Wi-Fi on a mobile phone.•

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📍 2. Microwaves
• 👉 Used for long-distance communication without cables.
👉 Used in mobile networks and satellite communications.
👉 Example: Your mobile phone signal uses microwaves to connect to
towers.
• 📍 3. Infrared (IR) Waves
• Used for short-range communication.
• 👉 Used for short-distance communication like remote controls.
👉 Example: Your TV remote uses infrared to change channels.
• 📍 4. Satellite Communication
• Data is sent to a satellite in space and then sent back to earth.
• Used in GPS, satellite internet (Starlink), and weather forecasting.

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 What is Signal Transmission? :

Signal transmission means sending data or information from one device to another in
the form of signals. These signals can be in the form of electrical waves, light waves, or
radio waves and are used to communicate over a network.
📌 Example:
• When you talk on a mobile phone, your voice is converted into signals and sent to
the receiver.
• When you use Wi-Fi, data is transmitted using radio signals.
 How Can We Transmit a Digital Signal?
A digital signal is a type of signal that has only two values: 0s and 1s (binary format).
This type of signal is used in computers and digital devices for communication.
There are two main ways to transmit digital signals:

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1. Transmission Through Wired Media (Physical Connection)

Digital signals can be sent using wires or cables.
There are three main types:
✅ Twisted Pair Cable – Used in telephone lines and LAN networks.
✅ Coaxial Cable – Used in cable TV and internet connections.
✅ Fiber Optic Cable – Uses light signals, very fast, used in high-speed internet.

📌 Example: When you connect your computer to the internet using an Ethernet cable,
digital signals travel through the cable.

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2. Transmission Through Wireless Media (No Physical Connection)

Digital signals can also be transmitted without wires using different types of wireless
technology:
✅ Radio Waves – Used in Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and FM radio.
✅ Microwaves – Used in satellite communication and mobile networks.
✅ Infrared (IR) – Used in remote controls for TVs and ACs.

📌 Example: When you send a message on WhatsApp, the data is transmitted wirelessly
using radio waves through mobile towers.

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 What is Digital Encoding?

Digital Encoding is the process of converting data (text, images, sound, etc.) into
digital signals (0s and 1s) so that computers and digital devices can understand and
transmit the information.
📌 Example:
• When you type on a keyboard, each letter is converted into binary code (0s and 1s).
• When you send a message on WhatsApp, your text is encoded into a digital format
before being transmitted over the internet.
Why is Digital Encoding Needed?
🔹 Computers and digital devices only understand binary numbers (0s and 1s).
🔹 To store, process, and transmit data efficiently, we need to convert it into a digital
form.
🔹 Helps in error detection and correction, making communication more reliable.

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Sender Receiver

101010 101010
Encoders Decoder
Digital data Digital data
Digital Signal

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1. Unipolar Encoding
• Unipolar encoding is very simple and primitive.
• Unipolar encoding uses only one polarity.
• In unipolar encoding, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either
above or below.
Example - NRZ
1 0 1 1 0 1

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2. Polar Encoding :
• Polar encoding uses two voltage levels: one positive and one negative.
• By using both levels, in most polar encoding methods the average voltage
level on the line is reduced.
• NRZ encoding includes two methods: non return to zero, level (NRZ-L), and
non return to zero, invert (NRZ-I)
1 0 1 1 0 1

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3. Bipolar Encoding
👉 Uses three voltage levels: Positive (+V), Zero (0V), and Negative (-V).
👉 1s are sent alternately as +V and -V, while 0 is always 0V.
✅ Advantage: Reduces power usage and avoids signal loss.
❌ Disadvantage: More complex than Polar encoding.
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 Network Performance :
Network Performance means how well a computer network is working. It measures
how fast and efficiently data can be sent and received between devices.
 Factors Affecting Network Performance
1. Bandwidth (Speed of Data Transfer) - Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data
that can be transferred in one second, measured in Mbps (Megabits per second) or
Gbps (Gigabits per second).
Example: If you have a 100 Mbps internet connection, it means you can transfer 100
megabits of data every second.
Real-life Example:
• A higher bandwidth allows you to watch a 4K video on YouTube without buffering.
• A low bandwidth can make a video buffer a lot while playing.

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2. Latency (Delay in Data Transmission) - Latency is the time it takes for data to
travel from sender to receiver, measured in milliseconds (ms).
Example: A delay of 100 ms means it takes 100 milliseconds for a message to
reach the other person.
Real-life Example:
• In an online game, if there is high latency (like 300ms), the player’s actions
will be delayed.
• In video calls, high latency can cause a lag where one person speaks, but the
other hears it later.

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3. Throughput (Actual Data Speed You Get)

Throughput is the real speed of data transfer, which can be lower than bandwidth due
to network congestion or device limitations.
Example: If your internet plan is 100 Mbps, but due to congestion, you get 50 Mbps,
that is your actual throughput.
Real-life Example:
• You have a 1 Gbps fiber connection, but during peak hours, your internet slows
down.
• Downloading a file at 50 Mbps speed means you get 50 megabits per second in
real-time.

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4. Jitter (Variation in Latency)

Jitter is the variation in the delay (latency) of data packets reaching the destination. It
causes uneven network performance.
Example: If one data packet arrives in 20ms, the next in 50ms, and another in 30ms,
the delay is inconsistent, which is called jitter.
Real-life Example:
• During a Zoom call, if there is high jitter, you might see choppy video or hear
broken audio.
• Online gaming feels laggy when jitter is high, even if the internet is fast.

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5. Packet Loss (Missing Data Packets)

Packet loss happens when some data packets do not reach their destination, leading
to missing information.
Example: If you send 100 packets of data but only 90 arrive, there is a 10% packet
loss.
Real-life Example:
• In WhatsApp voice calls, when packet loss occurs, the voice cuts off for a few
seconds.
• In online meetings, if you see a frozen video or hear robotic audio, it is due to
packet loss.

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 How to Improve Network Performance?

✅ Increase Bandwidth → Upgrade to a faster internet connection.
✅ Reduce Latency → Use a wired connection (Ethernet) instead of Wi-Fi.
✅ Improve Throughput → Avoid using too many devices on the same network.
✅ Lower Jitter → Use high-quality routers and avoid using multiple applications at
once.
✅ Fix Packet Loss → Check for loose cables or switch to a stable network provider.

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 Transmission Impairment :
When data travels through a network (using cables or wireless signals), sometimes it
gets weak, distorted, or lost before reaching its destination. This problem is called
transmission impairment.
Types of Transmission Impairment:
1. Attenuation (Weakening of Signal)
• As the signal travels a long distance, it loses strength and becomes weak.
• Example: A phone call sounds low when the signal is weak.
• Solution: Use signal boosters or repeaters to strengthen the signal.
2. Distortion (Change in Shape of Signal)
• The signal changes its form while traveling due to different speeds of data waves.
• Example: A video call may have delayed audio and mismatched video.
• Solution: Use better transmission mediums like fiber optics.

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3. Noise (Unwanted Signals Mixing with Data)

• Extra electrical signals mix with the data, causing errors or unwanted changes.
• Example: A radio station picks up static noise when signals interfere.
• Solution: Use shielded cables and filters to reduce noise.

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 Switching & Switching Methods in Computer Networks :

Switching is the method used to send data from one device to another in a network. It
decides how data travels from the sender to the receiver. There are three main types
of switching methods:
1. Circuit Switching: (Phone Call)
A dedicated communication path is established between sender and receiver before
data transfer starts.
Example: Traditional telephone calls use circuit switching. Once a call is connected, a
dedicated path is created, and the whole conversation happens through that path.
✅ Advantage: Reliable, as the full path is reserved.
❌ Disadvantage: Wastes resources if the connection is idle.
Sender ----> Switch 1 ----> Switch 2 ----> Receiver
(A Fixed Path is Established Before Data Transfer)

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 Computer Network (BCS603)

❌ Disadvantages:
• Wastes resources because the connection remains even when no data is being sent.
• Not flexible if a network has many users.
2. Packet Switching(Like Sending Emails)
👉 Data is divided into small packets and sent through the best available route.
📌 Example:
• Imagine sending a WhatsApp message. Your message is broken into small parts
(packets), sent separately, and then reassembled at the receiver’s end.
• If one route is busy, the packets take different paths but still reach the destination.
✅ Advantages:
• Efficient use of network resources because no fixed path is needed.
• Faster transmission and easy to handle network failures.

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 Computer Network (BCS603)

❌ Disadvantages:
• Data packets can get delayed or lost if the network is busy.
• Sometimes, packets arrive out of order, so extra processing is needed to arrange
them. Sender ----> Packet 1 ----> Switch 1 ----> Receiver
----> Packet 2 ----> Switch 2 ----> Receiver
----> Packet 3 ----> Switch 3 ----> Receiver
(Packets take different routes but reach the same destination)

3. Message Switching(Like Post office)

👉 Entire messages are sent from one switch to another (store-and-forward method).
📌 Example:
• Think of email. When you send an email, it is stored in a mail server before being
forwarded to the recipient when they check their inbox.

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 Computer Network (BCS603)

✅ Advantages:
• No dedicated connection is required.
• Works well for large messages that don’t require instant delivery.

❌ Disadvantages:
• Slower than packet switching because each message is stored before being sent.
• Needs more storage space at intermediate nodes.

Sender ----> Switch 1 (Stores Message) ----> Switch 2 (Stores Message) ----> Receiver
(Message is stored and then forwarded to the next switch)

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 Computer Network (BCS603)

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 Computer Network (BCS603)
 What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is a method used in networking and communication to send multiple
signals (data) over a single communication channel at the same time. This helps in
saving bandwidth and improving efficiency.
📌 Example:
Think of a highway where multiple cars travel on the same road but in different lanes.
Similarly, multiplexing allows multiple data streams to travel through a single medium
without interference.
Why Do We Use Multiplexing?
i. Efficient Use of Resources – Instead of using separate channels for each signal, multiple signals
share one channel.
ii. Reduces Cost – Less hardware is needed because multiple users can share a single communication
medium.
iii. Increases Data Transfer Speed – More data can be transmitted in less time.
iv. Better Bandwidth Utilization – It prevents wastage of network capacity.

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 Computer Network (BCS603)

Thank You…

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