SILVICULTURE

It is also defined as the art and science of cultivating forest crops or that branch of forestry
which deals with the establishment, development care and regeneration of stands. The
subject of Silvicultural practice consists of the various treatments of forest stands that may
be applied to maintain and enhance their productivity. The duties of the forester with respect
to Silviculture are to analyze the natural and economic factors of significance on each stand
under his care and to derive and apply treatment most appropriate to the objective of
management. Silviculture occupies a position in forestry that is comparable or analogous to
that of agronomy in agriculture. This is because it is concerned with the technical details of
crop production. It is an applied science that rest ultimately upon this more fundamental
natural and social sciences.

In Silviculture, information of forest crops and technical procedures are developed for the
scientific tending and reproducing of these crops. In a broad sense we thus have both the
principles and practice of Silviculture. The principle provides the scientific basis, while the
practice is the application of the scientific basis. The principles of Silviculture are concerned
with the interpretation of forest vegetation as influenced by the environments which consist
of actors of the habitat such as climate, soil and biotic factors. It views the forest as a complex
structure with different biological units. It provides knowledge with the law governing
production, on the capacity of forest stand and basis for little management around at forest
development.

Establishment and management techniques of forest plantations

1. Introduction

To appreciate the need for forest plantations in arid zones, the roles played by these
plantations must be defined. Quite often, there are a number of roles (such as timber,
fuelwood or fodder production) which, through careful planning, can be combined to achieve
multiple benefits. This section describes the techniques for the establishment and
management of forest plantations.

2. Site reconnaissance

The more information there is available about the site conditions in the area being
considered for tree and shrub planting, the better are the chances of selecting the tree and
shrub species best suited to the area. Information most commonly included in site
reconnaissance is:

- Climate - temperature, rainfall (amount and distribution), relative humidity, and wind.

- Soil - depth of soil and its capacity to retain moisture, texture, structure, parent material,
pH, degree of compaction, and drainage.

- Topography - important for its modifying effects on both climate and soil.

- Vegetation - composition and ecological characteristics of natural and (when present)

introduced vegetation. On areas which have not been degraded by man, the vegetation can
provide an indication of the site. Unfortunately, over much of the arid world, the vegetation
has been so disturbed that it is no longer a reliable indicator of potential planting sites; in
these situations, site selection should be based on soil surveys.

- Other biotic factors - past history and present land use influences on the site, including fire,
domestic livestock and wild animals, insects and diseases.

- Watertable levels - knowledge about the depth and variation of the watertable levels in the
wet and dry seasons is valuable and can be crucial in determining the tree and shrub species
that can be grown. Watertable levels can be estimated from observations in wells or by
borings made for this purpose.

- Availability of supplementary water sources - ponds, lakes, streams, and other water
sources.
- Distance from nursery.

Apart from the above biophysical information, socio-economic factors also play an important
role. Among these factors are:

- The availability of labour.

- Motivation of the local population.

- The distance of the forest plantation to the market and consumer centers.

- Land ownership and tenure.

3. Selection of the planting site

Where to plant is generally a collective decision made by policy makers, foresters, and the
planting crews, based on information obtained in the site reconnaissance. The key is to select
the site that, when planted, will lead to the establishment of a successful forest plantation.
Often, the choice of the planting site is limited to lands which are not suited for agriculture
or livestock production; when this is the case, the site reconnaissance information gains
importance.

4. Species selection

When the best possible information has been collected on the characteristics of the site to be
planted, the next step is the selection of the tree or shrub species to plant. The aim is to
choose species which are suited to the site, will remain healthy throughout the anticipated
rotation, will produce acceptable growth and yield, and will meet the objectives of the
plantation (fuelwood production, protection, etc.).

5. Preparation of the planting site

When the tree or shrub seedlings arrive from the nursery, the site should have been
prepared to ensure that planting can proceed without delay. Arid zone conditions frequently
demand more intensive and thorough site preparation than is necessary for planting
programs in moister climates.

5.1 Objectives of site preparation

Among the objectives of site preparation in arid zones are to:

- Remove competing vegetation from the site.

- Create conditions that will enable the soil to catch and absorb as much rainfall as possible.
Surface runoff should be reduced to increase the moisture in the soil.

- Provide good rooting conditions for the planting, including a sufficient volume of rootable
soil. Hardpans must be eliminated.

- Create conditions where danger from fire and pests is minimized.

5.2 Methods of site preparation

In general, preparation of the site by hand is possible and economical only for relatively
small-scale projects, where the labour of clearing the competing vegetation and working the
soil is not too time-consuming. Under certain conditions, animal-drawn ploughs and
harrows can also be economical for small-scale operations.

Mechanical soil preparation, used increasingly in large-scale planting programmes, has

become a common practice in many areas; often, this is because the supply of labour and the
time available for ground preparation are too limited to permit large-scale projects to be
undertaken by hand. Some operations, such as deep subsoiling and the breaking up of
hardpans, can only be done by machines.

Whatever method of site preparation is used, a planting pit (of an appropriate size) should
be prepared. The objective of creating planting pits is to aerate and loosen the soil in which
the plants will grow.
6. Time of planting

The planting season generally coincides with the rainy season; usually, planting is started as
soon as a specified quantity of rain has fallen. Planting can also be initiated when the soil is
wet to a specified depth (approximately 20 centimeters).

Do not start planting too soon or too late otherwise, the plants will lose the maximum benefit
of rains after planting; this can be a serious matter where the rainfall is low and erratic.

7. Planting of containerized stock

Planting of containerized stock is usually done in holes that are large enough to take the
containers or the root-balls when the plants are removed from the containers. It is essential
that the surrounding soil is firmed down around the plant immediately after planting to
avoid the formation of air gaps which can lead to root desiccation.

A good practice for the preparation of planting holes is to surround the planting pit with a
small ridge (15 to 20 centimeters in height) of soil, to obtain a small basin (about 80
centimeters in diameter); this is especially helpful when the plants are watered individually
after planting. The small prepared basin can also be covered with a plastic sheet (held in
place on the ground with stones or earth), with an opening in the center for the plant, as
illustrated in Figure 4.8. The plastic sheet impedes evaporation of ground water from the
planting hole; also, dew collects on its surface and runs to the central opening of the sheet to
irrigate the roots. Through conservation of soil moisture, plastic films facilitate more rapid
establishment and growth of trees and shrubs during the initial, and most critical years.
Another benefit of opaque plastic films is that they inhibit weed growth by reducing light
penetration. With the suppression of weeds in the immediate vicinity of the plants, labour
also can be saved.

Figure 4.8 A planting hole with plastic apron to impede evaporation of ground water.
A threat to newly-planted trees in arid zones is the high rate of transpiration. Unless the
plants can establish themselves quickly and compensate for the transpiration by taking
water through their root systems, they will wilt soon after planting. This explains why even
a single watering immediately after planting can be useful. In general, containerized
seedlings have a distinct advantage over barerooted seedlings, in that the earthball
surrounding the roots provides protection during transport and enables the plant to
establish itself quickly and easily.

The restriction of lateral root extension, a result of using containers, can cause root
malformation, coiling, and spiralling (Figure 4.9). In extreme cases, the coiling can lead to
strangulation of the roots and the death of the plant (Figure 4.10). In other situations, it may
reduce wind-firmness or lead to stunted growth. Unfortunately, the symptoms may not
become apparent until 4 to 5 years after planting.
To reduce the damage of root malformation in containerized plants, a common practice is to
remove the container from the soil cylinder before planting and make two or three vertical
incisions to a depth of one centimeter with a knife to cut "strangler" roots. As a further
precaution, the bottom 0.5 to 1 centimeter of the soil cylinder can be sliced off. Care must be
used to ensure that the soil does not disintegrate and expose the roots to desiccation.

8. Spacing of plantings

By observing trees and shrubs growing under natural conditions, it is often found that plants
grow widely apart in low rainfall areas. Therefore, wide spacing of plantings in arid zones
generally should be practiced to avoid competition for soil moisture.

Actual spacing varies with species, site, and the purpose of the forest plantation. In fuelwood
plantations, for example, one might prefer closer spacings than employed in other kinds of
plantations. Seldom can a spacing of less than 3 x 3 meters be applied, however.
9. Maintenance of the plantation

Once a plantation has been established, the work should not be considered finished. It will
be necessary, for example, to protect the plantation against weather, fire, insects and fungi,
and animals. A variety of cultural treatments also may be required to meet the purpose of
the plantation.

9.1 Protection

Weather Phenomena: the occurrence of damaging weather phenomena is usually

unpredictable. Little can be done to protect forest plantations against the damage caused by
weather, except to grow tree and shrub species known to be resistant to the detrimental
effects of local weather patterns, or locating the stands of trees or shrubs in sheltered areas.
Some tree and shrub species are more windfirm than others, or are less prone to crowns and
branches breaking off in high winds. Other species are more tolerant to salt spray and,
therefore, can be used for planting in belts along exposed seaward flanks to give protection
to other less tolerant species forming the main plantation. Thin-barked species are more
susceptible to damage and to subsequent attacks by insects or fungi than are other species.

Fire: damage by fire imposes a serious threat to plantations. The fire risk is generally high in
the dryer climatic regions; but, even in relatively moist or high rainfall areas, there may be
warm and dry spells when the fire risk is high. Fire risk should be a major consideration from
the early stages of plantation development.

Fires can originate from natural causes, such as lightning, but many occur as a result of the
activities of man. Plantation fires can start from fires spreading from farmland on the
perimeter, from the activities of hunters, or from burning by herdsman to improve livestock
grazing. There have been instances of deliberate burning to create employment (in the fire
suppression and subsequent replanting) or to show disapproval of forest policies. It is not
possible to prevent a climatic build-up of fire hazard conditions, but much can be done to
minimize the risk of fire through public education and involving local people in forestry.

A main principle in protecting forest plantations against fire is that, where there is
insufficient combustible material to allow a ground fire to develop, there is little or no fire
risk. Dangerous and damaging plantation fires can only develop when fire is able to occur at
ground level.

In many parts of the world, annual or periodic burning of vegetation is commonly practiced
to improve grazing conditions, to reduce the build-up of fuels, or to improve soil fertility
through accumulation of ash.

Insects and fungi: most insects and fungi are selective of the host species. In their natural
environment, trees and shrubs normally attain a state of equilibrium with indigenous pests.
However, when exotic trees and shrubs are planted, exotic pests can also be introduced.
Quite often, these exotic pests readily adapt themselves to the conditions of their new
habitat. In general, the risk of damage from pests is higher when the plants are
physiologically weakened from planting on unsuitable sites, improper site preparation,
inefficient planting, adverse climatic conditions, or neglect of weeding and other
maintenance operations. But even healthy trees and shrubs are attacked at times. For many
insects and fungi, no control measures are available; when this is the case, the best
precaution is to plant tree and shrub species or varieties known to be resistant to the pests.

The main precautions to be taken in guarding against possible future damage from insects
and fungi are to plant tree or shrub species that are suitable to the climatic and soil
conditions of the site, and to make surveys of indigenous pests to ensure that none are among
the known forms to which the selected species is susceptible; but this is seldom easy,
especially in view of the gaps in available knowledge on site requirements and susceptibility
of exotic species to insects and fungi. To obtain this needed information, carefully controlled
experiments should be initiated before developing large-scale planting programs.

Care taken in establishment and maintenance operations during the early years of a
plantation (resulting in healthy vigorous young trees or shrubs) can help to make a
plantation more resistant to insects and fungi. However, when evidence of pest attack
appears, it should be investigated promptly and the cause identified.

Various control measures are available; these may be silvicultural (for example thinning and
mixed cropping), chemical (spraying herbicides, pesticides), biological (introducing the
pest’s natural enemy), or mechanical (physically removing and destroying the pests or by
eliminating the alternative hosts).

Wild animals: damage to forest plantations by wild animals mainly takes the form of tree
browsing or de-barking. In general, there are three orders of wild animals responsible for
damage: rodents (rats, mice, and moles and squirrels); lagomophs (hares and rabbits); and
artiodactyls (deer, antelopes, pigs and buffaloes). The principal methods of controlling
damage by wild animals involves the use of fences, hedges or ditches, trapping and removal,
and poison baits.
Domestic animals: in some countries, grazing or browsing by sheep, goats and cattle can be
a menace to young plantations. At times, hedges and fences are used to prevent intrusion by
domestic animals. Where fencing costs are high, trespass by livestock can be controlled by
guards.

9.2 Cultural treatments

Cultural operations are required to promote the conditions that are favorable to the survival
and subsequent growth and yield of the trees or shrubs in the plantation. In most forest
plantations, cultural operations are concerned with preventing the trees and shrubs from
being suppressed by competing vegetation; quite often, this treatment is called weeding.
Other cultural treatments are thinning to achieve a desired spacing among the trees or
shrubs, and the periodic watering of the plants.

Weeding: Weeding is a cultural operation that eliminates or suppresses undesirable

vegetation which, if no action were taken, would impair the growth of the plantation crop.
This undesirable vegetation competes with trees and shrubs for light, water, and nutrients;
weeding increases the availability of all or the most critical of these elements to the trees and
shrubs. A primary objective of weeding is to promote growth and development of the
plantation crop, while keeping the costs of the operation within acceptable limits.

The methods of weeding involve either suppression or elimination of the competing

vegetation. Suppression of weeds consists of physically beating down or crushing them, or
cutting the weeds back at or above ground level. Weed elimination can be achieved by killing
the weeds, destroying the whole plant either by cultivation or by the use of chemicals.
Weeding may be total or partial.
Pruning (cutting off the branches).
Thinning: thinning of forest plantations, particularly those established for wood production,
may be required to obtain the desired spacing between the trees. In general, this spacing is
a compromise between a "wide" spacing to reduce planting costs and inter-tree competition
in times of drought, and a "close" spacing to attain early canopy closure, the suppression of
weeds, the reduction of weeding costs, and natural pruning of branches through shading.

In "first-rotation" forest plantations, the thinning objective is frequently to adjust the initial
spacing among plants, so that the size and type of tree or shrub required is attained on a
short rotation, without secondary thinning treatments. Where a tree or shrub of larger size
and higher quality is required, closer than final spacing is often prescribed in an initial
thinning; usually, some form of secondary thinning is necessary as a subsequent treatment.
The element of selection in thinning should ensure that the increment growth of the final
crop is concentrated on the best stems.

Regardless of the purpose of the thinning operation, it should follow closely the timing and
spacing requirements that are outlined in a prescribed thinning schedule for the area.

Watering: often, forest plantations in arid regions need at least periodic watering during the
first growing season to obtain a satisfactory survival rate. Watering should begin after the
cessation of rains, when the moisture content of the soil has fallen to near the wilting
coefficient; then watering should be repeated at intervals until the onset of the next rainy
season. Before each watering, the area around the tree should be cleared of weeds, and a
shallow basin should be made around the stem of each tree or shrub to collect as much water
as possible.

Watering can be an expensive operation, especially on terrain too steep or too rough for the
passage of tank vehicles. Pack animals may be required to carry drums of water to the
plantation site. Watering can be uneconomic for large forest plantations, particularly when
the source of water is a long distance from the plantation, but it may be justified in the case
of small plantations or for establishing roadside avenues.

In some instances, regular cultivation and weeding, especially during the first growing
season, are sufficient measures to conserve soil moisture for satisfactory survival of the
plants, eliminating the need for watering.

10. Harvesting operations

For forest plantations that are established for purposes of wood production, trees and
shrubs are harvested once they attain the "optimum size" for the wood product wanted.
From a biological standpoint, trees and shrubs should not be cut until they have at least
grown to the minimum size required for production utilization. Beyond attaining the
minimum size, the question of when to harvest must still be answered, however.

Quite often, the average annual growth rates of a forest plantation can be used as a guide in
determining when to harvest wood. In general, the average annual growth of trees and
shrubs increases slowly during the initial years of plantation establishment, reaches a
maximum, and then falls more gradually, as illustrated in Figure 4.11. Trees and shrubs
usually should not be allowed to grow beyond the point of maximum average annual growth,
which is the age of maximum productivity; foresters call this the "rotation" age of the forest
plantation.

To determine the average annual growth rate of a forest plantation at a point-in-time, the
volume and age of the trees or shrubs must be estimated; then the average annual growth
(at the specified point-in-time) is determined by dividing the standing volume by the
corresponding age. Again, careful measurements of volumes and known ages are necessary
for this determination.

Figure 4.11 Relationship between tree age and tree growth indicating the rotation age.

Economic considerations also help to determine when to harvest trees and shrubs for wood
products. When based solely on market factors, the time to harvest is when the profit is
maximized. Profit is maximized when the returns generated from harvesting and selling the
wood minus the costs of harvesting and (when required) processing the wood into the
desired products is the greatest.

The methods of felling trees and shrubs, cutting the stems and branchwood into the desired
lengths, and removing the wood from the plantation site should be chosen to minimize
degradation of the site. Axes, saws, wedges and sledges may be all that are necessary to fell
the trees and shrubs and cut them into the desired lengths. Power-chainsaws are used in
many instances; while their use makes harvesting easier, their high cost of operation can
make then uneconomical.

Once the trees and shrubs are felled and cut into desired lengths, they must be carried or
pulled to loading points for transport to processing sites or directly to a market place. When
stem lengths are too heavy to carry, a simple drag or sled can be employed to move them,
using an available power source, such as a domestic animal or a tractor. When residual trees
or shrubs are left in the forest plantation, the harvesting operation should be carried out to
prevent damage to this standing resource.

It is important that the methods of harvesting should be selected to "match" the skills of the
people who will harvest the trees or shrubs. Once again, advanced planning will be necessary
to ensure that the labour and required equipment will be available for use at the needed
time.

11. Highlights of section

In selecting appropriate tree and shrub species for plantations in arid zones, site condition
information (on climate, soils, topography, biotic factors, vegetation, and water table levels),
as well as knowledge of socio-economic factors, must be known. Once the site and species
have been selected for planting, fencing which marks boundaries and protects the trees and
shrubs should be erected, if required. For a successful tree or shrub crop, site preparation is
often necessary; site preparation may include removal of competing vegetation, enhancing
water catchment, reducing water runoff, providing good soil conditions, eliminating fire
hazards, and preparing the soil.

In general, planting coincides with the rainy season. After planting, use of opaque plastic
films can impede evaporation and inhibit weed growth around potted stock. The spacings of
the plantings should be wide enough to prevent competition for soil moisture, or when part
of management, to accommodate machinery used for irrigation.

Maintenance of forest plantations includes protecting the plants from detrimental climatic
conditions, fire, insects and fungi, and animals. Maintenance may include measures that are
silvicultural (such as well-timed and careful removal of damaged trees and shrubs), chemical
(with insecticides or fungicides), biological (with parasites), or mechanical (removing or
destroying pests, erecting fences, etc.). Because trespass by man can threaten the success of
a planting program, planning should also include methods of dealing with this potential
problem.

Cultural treatments to promote favorable growth conditions include weeding, thinning, and
watering. Harvesting operations, when required, should match the skills of the people who
will perform the tasks.