Mitigating Smog, a New Challenge to Pakistan,

And
The Applications of Bio-receptive Materials; Moss Concrete
An Architect’s Perspective

Abstract
Air is a fundamental requirement for human survival with an average person taking
approximately 22, 000 breaths daily. We cannot survive without breathing and need
air to breathe in which is a symbol of life for every age of life. From November to
February, the people of South Asia observe and feel the pollution of the air, called
SMOG. Among the multiple reasons for the increase of smog, the construction
industry is one of those which lonely is responsible for 8% of global CO₂ emissions
making it a significant contributor to urban air quality degradation.
To build healthy urban livings is among the greatest challenges in the developing
countries. Apart from technological advancements, the urban centers in the low- and
middle-income countries of the southern global are deteriorating, resulting in an
increase in urban health issues. Pakistan, a country with a rich cultural heritage and
natural beauty, now faces a stark environmental challenge. Major cities like Lahore,
Karachi, and Islamabad are often shrouded in smog. Every winter in Pakistan, the
urban areas face the worse smog that comes with a greater intensity having serious
impacts on the physical health and psychological issues among all age groups. The
health of the ecosystems is also worsening, asking for the integration of more green
spaces in our urban built fabric. This introduction delves into the multifaceted
problem of air pollution in Pakistan, setting the stage for a detailed exploration of its
causes, impacts, and potential solutions.
This research paper aims to highlight the use and application of new construction
materials with case studies, to help combat and eradicate the smog issues to build
healthy and eco-friendly environments for next generations to come. One solution
stands out as bio-receptive concrete called Moss Concrete. The incorporation of
moss with concrete will make it, a natural, eco-friendly bio-receptive construction
material to create self-sustaining, living walls and having a potential of purifying the
air by absorbing additional CO₂ emissions present in the atmosphere without
requiring any additional systems or maintenance.

Keywords: Smog, Bio-receptive Materials, Moss Concrete, Living Wall Systems,

Effects and Concerns, Geographical factors,

Introduction
Smog in Pakistan and in the neighboring regions, is becoming one of the greatest
risks to economy, environment and health. The major cities of these countries are
being declared the worst in the world for their Air Quality Index, AQI. The industrial
revolution, rapid urbanization of the human settlements and current technological
advancements are considered as the key factors for the spread the smog. the world.
The people living in these cities face adverse environmental and health effects.
People of all ages are affected due to these concerns. The worst affected are the
children with developing lungs and geriatric patients with chronic respiratory
diseases, impacting hospital and healthcare facilities with an increase in number of
patients visiting emergency departments. The education sector is another due to
students’ absentees. The significant impact this smog has recently been seen in

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Lahore, where all economic activities were put to halt, hindering the normal
functioning of a society.

Figure 1: Air Pollution Hotspots of Punjab, 2023 showing Lahore, Multan, Gujranwala, Faisalabad,
Rawalpindi, Sahiwal, and DG Khan as the most polluted cities in Punjab.
Image Source: The Urban Unit, 2023

Smog and what is it made of?

In early 1900s1, the world became familiar with the word Smog, an air pollutant which
is the mixture of smoke and fog. It is primarily formed through complex chemical
reactions between various pollutants present at the base of ozone layer. The mixture
of the gases with residues and water vapors that are executed daily frame Exhaust
cloud. The increase of poisons in climate is another reason for this Exhaust Cloud, a
phenomenon caused by the consumption of coal, commonly used in industries and
fossil fuels for the running of our vehicles.
“The primary wellsprings of these forerunners are poisons which are discharged
from gas, diesel motors, modern plant and other warming exercises. It is frequently
caused by high temperatures, substantial traffic and other temperature sources or
dampness, these are couple of fundamental factors behind the expanding of brown
haze issues. Wind speed is low amid the winter season because of this reason
smoke and haze are stagnating at one place which are primary drivers of making
exhaust clouds and turn out to be extremely destructive for the general population
on ground level. It irritates nature and our perceivability locale. Brown haze just
relies upon temperature because of the temperature reversal wind or air can't move
upwards and remain on ground level which serves to from exhaust cloud.” 2.

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Figure 2: Accumulation of Smog and the Atmospheric Layer
Image Source, Caltech Science Exchange, Pasadena, California.

Depending on the origin and characteristics, smog is mainly of two types,

 Sulfurous Smog, and
 Photochemical Smog.
Sulfurous smog, alternatively known as London smog, is usually seen in the winter,
caused by the use of sulfur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal. Smog primarily
affects those regions that are away from the equator. Coal burning, accumulation of
particulate matter from industrial activities and drop in temperature are sources of
this type of air pollution. Sulfurous smog is characterized by a high concentration of
sulfur dioxides, nitrogen dioxides, and dust.
Photochemical smog, also known as Los Angeles smog, is mostly formed when
the atmospheric temperature reaches its extremes during summer months. Los
Angeles smog consists mainly of carbon oxides, nitrogen oxides, and
hydrocarbons. Unlike sulfurous smog, photochemical smog originates from exhaust
fumes and industrial emissions.
Smog has harmful impacts on human health and the environment. It typically
appears as a brownish or grayish haze, especially in urban areas usually close to
water reservoirs and open lands. In cities like Lahore, Pakistan, smog becomes
particularly noticeable when weather conditions trap the pollution near the ground,
making it more harmful.

Smog and Lahore- Once a Garden City

Lahore, once renowned as the "City of Gardens" for its rich greenery and vivid
landscapes, now faces a periodic environmental crisis, severe smog which is
transforming its skies into a grey, suffocating blanket that’s becoming a threat to
resident’s health, economy, and daily life. Unlike the natural fog, which comprises of
water droplets, smog is a noxious mixture of smoke, fog, and other air-pollutants
from vehicle emissions, industrial activities, and seasonal crops burning. During the
winter months, this toxic haze blankets Lahore, which poses a serious health risk
that demands immediate action from both local authorities and citizens.

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Figure 3: Lahore crippled by hazy smog at the start of winter, November 2024
Image Source, The NEWS International

Over the past six years, Lahore has consistently ranked among the top 15 most
polluted cities in the world. In recent years, the Air Quality Index (AQI) has
surpassed the hazardous limits and sometimes has even crossed 300-400 AQI far
above the safe level, the Punjab Environmental Quality Standards and World Health
Organization (WHO) has set due to this air pollution of Lahore.3

Figure 4: AQI data, Lahore from January 2019 to August 2024.

Image Source, US Consulate Lahore Air Quality Monitoring Data from BAM-1020 installed at Shimla
Hill Lahore

And this AQI is still deteriorating with the increase in Lahore’s population. According
to the 2023 census, Lahore's population has increased to over 13 million, with an
annual growth rate of 3.41%, further damaging the city's infrastructure and resulting
in an increase in vehicle and industrial emissions.
“The primary contributor to Lahore's smog is the city's location near the Ravi River,
which creates a microclimate conducive to fog formation. This natural tendency

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combines with high levels of pollutants from industry, vehicle emissions, and
seasonal crop burning, resulting in a thick, hazardous haze. This smog sharply
reduces visibility, causing accidents, delays, and severe disruptions to daily life.”4.

Figure 5: Lahore and its Geographical Location.

Image Source: www.worldmap1.com

Lahore sees its worst smog from October to February and reaches its peak in the
months of November and December. During these months, cooler temperatures,
along with temperature inversions, trap pollutants close to the lower levels of the
earth surface. The crops burning in the surrounding agricultural regions, increase in
vehicle and industrial emissions coupled with the lack of wind movements prevents
the dispersion of pollutants, and worsening air quality.

Fig
ure 6: Smog in Lahore is typically at its worst from October to February, with the peak months being
November and December. Image Source, The Urban Unit, Punjab.

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Figure 7: Crop Residue Burning, A cause of increase in Air Pollution.
Image Source, www.eco-business.com

Smog, its impact on environment, economy, and health on Lahore

Smog has far-reaching and alarming consequences for the people of Lahore. With
every passing year, there is an increase in road accidents claiming numerous lives
due to poor visibility caused by smog. It also disturbs air and rail travel, causing
economic losses and significant inconvenience for passengers. Respiratory issues,
asthma and bronchitis, are worsened due to prolonged exposure to smog in every
age group, especially the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing health issues.

Figure 8: Incremental Increase in Patients due to Smog.

Image Source, Punjab Environment Protection Department 2024

The environmental impact of Lahore’s smog is equally troubling. The diminished

sunlight impedes crop growth, threatening agricultural productivity and the
livelihoods of farmers. Moreover, the increased moisture and pollution in the smog
accelerate the deterioration of infrastructure, resulting in damage to buildings and
roads.
“Environmental lawyer Rafay Alam told DW that increased pressure from citizens on
the government is due to growing awareness that pollution is "a human rights
violation" because "people are dying from the air they breathe."5

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Figure 9: Effects of Smog on Public Health.
Image Source, The Energy and Resource Institute, India

Smog also has a serious impact on the economics of Lahore. The city faces
lockdowns during peak smog days, resulting in losses of billions of rupees. There’s a
reduced economic and declined tourism activity during these days. The hazardous
weather also affects small businesses and daily-wage workers due to the slowdown
of the economy.
“The economic impact is equally severe, with the World Bank estimating that air
pollution costs Pakistan approximately 6% of its gross domestic product (GDP) or
over $22 billion each year.”6.

Is Smog a Seasonal Issue?

Considering smog, a seasonal issue is an interesting misconception. Not only does
Lahore generate the same number of emissions throughout the year, also it’s
increasing with every passing year. With less air speed, smog becomes visible in the
winters as the pollutants don’t rise due to increase in moisture and gather in the
lower layers of the airspace. Its formation gets facilitated by the winter weather and
lack of rainfall.

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Figure 10: Smog choking lives in Pakistan.
Image Source, www.pakistantoday.com

While the winter season in cities like Lahore experiences severe air pollution, the
dynamics in Southern Pakistan, particularly in cities like Karachi, exhibit a different
pattern. This variation is due to the region’s distinct climatic, geographical, and socio-
economic factors.
In contrast to Lahore, Karachi’s air pollution levels tend to escalate during the
summer months. The following are the key factors that contribute to this:
 Karachi, being located on the coastal region results in high humidity, which,
when combined with the summer heat, leads to the formation of ground-level
ozone, a harmful pollutant.
 The urban heat island effect is worsened by dense development and a lack of
green spaces, which increases temperatures and intensifies air pollution.
 As a major industrial hub, Karachi experiences significant emissions from
industrial activities, particularly during the summer.
 Additionally, the high demand for energy for cooling in the hot months results
in increased emissions from power plants. The monsoon season further
complicates air quality, bringing dust and particulate matter while worsening
traffic congestion, which increases vehicular emissions.
 The ongoing urban expansion and associated activities contribute to air
pollution throughout the year.

Reasons and Sources of PM2.5 Air-Pollution in Pakistan

Air pollution which becomes SMOG in winters in Pakistan, is driven by several
interconnected factors. One major contributor is the continuous rise in pollution
levels, as various sources consistently release harmful emissions into the
atmosphere. Globalization has exacerbated the problem with increased industrial
activity and transportation contributing significantly to air pollution. Rapid
urbanization also plays a key role, as the expansion of cities brings higher levels of
emissions from both residential and industrial areas. The widespread use of heavy
transport, such as trucks and buses, further intensifies the pollution. A significant
portion of air pollution is released into the environment through the burning of fuels
such as coal, petroleum, wood, and others. Vehicles, including cars, trucks, and

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trains, that run on gasoline and diesel are major contributors to air pollution by
emitting harmful gases like carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides. Industries and
factories also play a key role, releasing various pollutants from manufacturing
processes into the atmosphere. The power sector, particularly power plants that burn
fossil fuels like coal and natural gas to generate electricity, is another significant
source of air pollution. Finally, engines that experience incomplete combustion, such
as those found in older vehicles or poorly maintained machinery, release higher
levels of harmful pollutants. Collectively, these activities degrade air quality and
contribute to the growing environmental and health challenges related to air
pollution.

Figure 11: Sources of PM2.5 Air Pollution.

Image Source, The Urban Unit, Punjab 2023

Additionally, the country’s hot climate and abundant sunshine promote the formation
of ground-level ozone, which worsens air quality. The use of inefficient and polluting
brick kilns adds another layer to the pollution issue. Moreover, the lack of sufficient
green spaces in urban areas means fewer plants are available to absorb and filter
out harmful pollutants. As Pakistan’s population continues to grow, so do the
demands for resources, leading to increased consumption and further environmental
strain. Refine and rewrite Additionally, the use of fireplaces, especially in residential
areas, contributes to both indoor and outdoor air pollution by emitting particulate
matter and carbon dioxide.

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Figure 12: Sources of PM 2.5 Air-Pollution in Pakistan
Image Source, IQAIR

Geographical Factors that Impact on Smog

Geographical factors have a significant role in the formation, spread, and severity of
smog in various regions. Cities located in valleys or basins, such as Los Angeles 7
and Mexico City8, are particularly vulnerable to smog due to surrounding mountains
that trap pollutants, preventing them from dispersing. In contrast, areas with flat
terrain are less prone to smog, as pollutants can disperse more freely without
physical barriers. Climate also affects smog levels, with temperature inversions 9
being a key factor. When a layer of warm air traps cooler air, these inversions occur
at the surface, leading to higher concentrations of pollutants, and are common in
cities like Los Angeles 10, Mexico City11, and Beijing12. Additionally, cities with more
sunny days, particularly in warmer climates, are more likely to experience
photochemical smog13, as sunlight is necessary for the formation of ground-level
ozone. Wind patterns14 also influence smog accumulation; cities with low or calm
winds, such as Lahore15, are prone to smog buildup because pollutants are not
dispersed. In contrast, prevailing winds can carry pollutants from industrial or urban
areas, spreading them over wider regions and worsening air quality. Coastal cities or
those having close proximity to water bodies 16 experience variations in smog levels
due to sea breezes, which can either bring clean air or carry pollutants from nearby
industrial zones. Lastly, altitude17 can also affect smog levels, with higher-altitude
cities experiencing less smog because pollutants tend to stay closer to the ground.
Cities situated at altitudes above 1500 meters have lower atmospheric pressures,
which can contribute to reduced visibility near industrial areas. Understanding these
geographical factors is essential for developing effective strategies to combat smog
in different regions.

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Figure 13: Comparison of average temperatures of Beijing, Lahore, Los Angeles and Mexico City
Data Source: www.weatherspark.com

This temperature graph compares the yearly climate patterns of Beijing, Lahore, Los
Angeles, and Mexico City. Los Angeles stands out with the most stable
temperatures, staying between 55-70°F year-round. In contrast, Lahore and Beijing
experience extreme variations, Lahore reaches above 100°F in summer and Beijing
drops below 20°F in winter. Mexico City maintains moderate temperatures between
55-75°F throughout the year. All cities follow typical seasonal patterns with summer
peaks around July-August and winter lows in January.

Figure 14: Comparison of average wind speed of Beijing, Lahore, Los Angeles and Mexico City
Data Source: www.weatherspark.com

This wind speed graph compares annual patterns across Beijing, Lahore, Los
Angeles, and Mexico City. Los Angeles and Beijing show the most variation, with Los
Angeles reaching peak winds of nearly 9 mph in winter and Beijing peaking in spring.

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Mexico City maintains the lowest average wind speeds around 4-5 mph, while
Lahore stays steady at 5-6 mph throughout the year. Unlike temperature patterns,
which show dramatic seasonal changes, wind speeds remain relatively moderate
across all cities, generally staying within a range of 4-9 mph.

Figure 15: Comparison of average monthly rainfall of Beijing, Lahore, Los Angeles and Mexico City
Data Source: www.weatherspark.com

This precipitation graph shows distinct rainfall patterns. Mexico City experiences the
longest rainy season from June to September, with rainfall reaching 5.4 inches.
Lahore and Beijing share similar monsoon patterns, both peaking in July at about 5.5
inches. Los Angeles displays a completely different pattern with winter rains
(December-February) peaking at 3.4 inches, while remaining extremely dry during
summer months.
Findings on Geographical Factors Impacting Smog
These climatic data and geographical factors help explain these cities’ vulnerability
to smog; Los Angeles, USA, has a basin-like topography, which, when combined
with temperature inversions, limited rainfall and emissions from vehicles, create its
persistent smog problems. Beijing, China, is surrounded by mountains on three sides
experiences winter temperature inversions that trap pollutants, though its spring
winds and summer monsoons provide periodic reliefs, leading to severe smog
events. Mexico City’s consistent but low winds combined with its high-altitude basin
faces year-round smog challenges due to industrial emissions and vehicle exhausts
despite summer rains. Lahore, Pakistan, is situated in the Indo-Gangetic Plain,
bordered by the Himalayas to the north and the Thar Desert to the south. This valley-
like setting, steady winds and dry winters contribute to severe smog accumulation
and become a cause for pollutants to become trapped, preventing their effective
dispersion.18
These cities illustrate how geographical features, such as topography and natural
climate factors, can exacerbate smog challenges and negatively affect air quality.

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SMOG Around the World
Smog is not a new issue and the cities like London, Beijing, and Mexico City have
long struggled with it. London’s historic smog events, Beijing’s pollution from
industrialization, and Mexico City’s trapped pollutants due to its geography all
demonstrate the global challenge of air quality. Similarly, Lahore faces its own smog
crisis, driven by industrial emissions, vehicular pollution, and crop burning. Here are
the examples of these cities how they have tried to mitigate the curse of Smog.

The Great Smog of London

In 1952 from December 05-09, the city of London was covered by the deadly smog
for five days produced by the combination of industrial pollution and worst weather
conditions. The smoke and fog brought London to a near halt and resulted in
thousands of deaths. The prompt reaction was, Parliament passed the Clean Air Act,
four years later that marked as a turning point in the history of eco-sustainability. 19
The local municipality of London has implemented several key measures to improve
air quality. These include identifying pollution sources, reducing emissions from road
traffic and air travel, promoting sustainable building practices, and minimizing
pollution from industry and construction. The city also emphasizes leading by
example, with active involvement from boroughs, businesses, and individual
Londoners in supporting air quality initiatives.20

Figure 16: London during Smog days.

Image Source leaf by Greenly https://greenly.earth/en-us/leaf-media

Beijing Smog, 2013

Beijing has struggled with severe smog and air pollution for many years, but 2013
was particularly notorious. In that year, Beijing's air quality reached alarming levels,
with an average PM2.5 concentration of 101.56 micrograms per cubic meter21,
which is significantly higher than the World Health Organization's recommended safe
limit.

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Figure 17: Smog in Beijing
Image Source https://sustainablemobility.iclei.org/air-pollution-beijing/

Smog in Beijing is caused by several factors, including coal burning whose

emissions have harmful pollutants like particulate matter, nitrogen oxides and sulfur
dioxide. Vehicle emissions significantly contribute to the pollution, as the number of
vehicles on the road continues to rise. Industrial activities, such as those from
cement factories and steel mills; also release large amounts of pollutants.
Additionally, the city's rapid urbanization and construction generates considerable
dust, further worsening air quality. These combined sources of pollution make smog
a persistent issue in Beijing.
Smog in Beijing has serious health, economic, and environmental impacts. It
contributes to respiratory issues like asthma and lung cancer, while also reducing
visibility, which disrupts transportation. Economically, smog harms tourism,
commerce, and industry, leading to financial losses. Environmentally, it damages
crops, forests, and water bodies, threatening both biodiversity and agricultural
productivity. These effects underscore the urgent need for effective pollution control
measures in the city.
Several measures to combat air pollution were taken by Beijing city government that
include the Clean Air Action Plan 22 to reduce coal use and promote clean energy,
stricter emission standards for vehicles and industries, and increased reliance on
renewable energy. Public awareness campaigns also aim to educate citizens about
smog and encourage support for these efforts.

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Figure 18: Average annual PM2.5 air pollution levels in Beijing, China between 2013 and 2023
Image Source: https://www.statista.com/statistics/report-content/statistic/690823

Mexico City, Mexico

The Mexico City metropolitan area, a home to over 21 million people, faces air
pollution that can have negative long-term impacts for its residents. Severe smog
problems in Mexico City emerged in the 1980s and became particularly acute during
the early 1990s. The situation became so severe that by 1992, the United Nations
declared Mexico City the world's most polluted city 23. The city gained notoriety for its
"black birds" days when pollution was so thick that birds would fall from the sky.
Smog in Mexico City is caused by several factors, including emissions from many
vehicles, industrial activities, and waste burning, which release harmful pollutants
into the air. The city is located in a valley surrounded by mountains and exacerbates
the situation by trapping these pollutants and preventing them from dispersing,
making air quality a persistent challenge.

Figure 19: Mexico under SMOG cover.

Image Source https://dialogue.earth/en/pollution/8786-how-mexico-city-slashed-air-pollution-levels-
by-half/
Smog in Mexico City causes serious health issues, including respiratory problems
like asthma and lung cancer. It also reduces visibility, disrupts transportation and

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daily life. Economically, smog leads to losses in tourism, commerce, and industry,
while environmentally; it harms crops, forests, and water bodies, affecting
biodiversity and agriculture.
The Mexican government has taken several steps to address air pollution in Mexico
City, including the "Hoy No Circula"(No-Drive Days) 24 programs first introduced in
1989, which limits vehicle emissions, and stricter emission standards for vehicles
and industries. Investments in public transportation, such as expanding the metro
system in 2005, and efforts to increase green spaces have also been prioritized to
help reduce pollution and improve air quality. These measures aim to create a
healthier environment for residents.

Figure 20: Promoting bicycles to reduce Smog, Mexico.

Image Source https://borgenproject.org/innovations-improving-air-quality-in-mexico-city/

While Mexico City has made progress in reducing smog, challenges persist. The city
still experiences frequent smog episodes, particularly during the winter months.

Smog Mitigation and the Architects’ Responses

By 2050, more than 68% of the global population will reside in urban areas,
increasing the urban population by 2.5 billion.25 Without intervention; this urban
growth will reduce green spaces, leading to issues like biodiversity loss, heat
stress, and worsening air quality, impacting both ecology and public’s mental and
physical health. To reduce these problems, the addition of green spaces becomes
essential which is not always possible at ground levels due to spatial constraints,
industrialization and urban sprawl around the globe.
Architects and urban planners are playing their role by addressing air pollution
through innovative design strategies. This includes integrating green
infrastructure, developing pollution-absorbing materials, creating sustainable
urban spaces, and implementing advanced filtration technologies. The goal is to
mitigate global environmental challenges by reimagining-built environments to
reduce emissions and improve air quality.
To address the need for green spaces, urban designers, planners and the
inhabitants of cities are increasingly incorporating green roofs 26 and façades into
buildings. While these solutions offer various benefits, they require separate systems

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for attachment, leading to higher construction and maintenance costs, as well as
increased structural demands on the buildings.
The world is advancing with innovative bio-receptive materials that transform
architectural surfaces into active environmental filtration systems to mitigate
urban air pollution. Bio-receptivity is defined as: “the aptitude of a material to be
colonized by one or several groups of living organisms without necessarily
undergoing any bio-deterioration.”27 These technologies integrate photocatalytic
surfaces like titanium dioxide coatings, green infrastructure such as living walls, and
advanced material technologies including bio-receptive concrete and algae-
integrated building envelopes. By using biological processes and nano-engineered
materials, these approaches actively break down pollutants, absorb carbon dioxide,
and filter particulate matter, offering a sophisticated architectural response without
the need for an extra technical system to urban environmental challenges.
In recent days, a new type of green building material is gaining popularity as bio-
receptive material. Moss concrete is an innovative bio-receptive material that
transforms traditional concrete into a living surface. By creating specialized
microstructures that support moss growth, it enables biological colonization while
maintaining structural integrity, offering environmental benefits like carbon absorption
and urban biodiversity enhancement.

Moss Concrete and how it is made

Concrete is a promising bio-receptive material due to its widespread use 28 and
similarity to natural stone, but standard concrete does not support biological growth
effectively. Therefore, a specialized mix must be developed for broader application in
construction.
Moss concrete, an innovative and environmentally sustainable solution, also known
as “living concrete” is a type of concrete that includes moss into its mixture to create
a natural, eco-friendly building material that results in the aesthetic appeal of
buildings. Moss Concrete combines the beauty of nature with the durability of
concrete. The concept originated from the idea of using natural materials in
construction to help improve sustainability and reduce environmental impact.
This idea of biological concrete is developed by Structural Technology Group of the
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya BarcelonaTech (UPC) 29, University in Spain30
and Delft University of Technology, Netherland 31 by growing moss and other
organisms such as lichen and fungi on the surface of structures to purify the air by
absorbing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
The construction process involves a base layer of conventional concrete followed by
a water proofing layer which acts as a barrier against the surface on which moss will
grow. The outer layer allows rainwater to penetrate that boosts the growth of the
biological organisms. The growth and survival of moss is dependent on the retained
water and salts. The waterproofing layer ensures that the moss and other organisms
do not damage the concrete structure and structural integrity of the building remains
maintained.

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Figure 21: Image showing growth of Moss in Concrete.
Image Source https://theplaidzebra.com/moss-growing-concrete-absorbs-co2-insulates-and-is-also-a-
vertical-garden/

The choice of moss is strategic due to its rhizoids, which are nondestructive and
function as adhesives. Unlike roots, rhizoids 32 don’t damage the substrate they grow
on, making moss an ideal plant for growing on concrete surfaces. Moreover, moss
has several environmental benefits. Excellent at retaining moisture and by absorbing
significant quantities of fine particulates, Moss can help improve air quality. It also
encourages biodiversity by providing a habitat for small insects.

Figure 22: Moss and how it looks like.

Image Source https://mossandstonegardens.com/blog/what-is-moss/

Moss naturally retains water, helping to reduce runoff during heavy rains. This can
prevent urban flooding while also cooling surfaces through evaporation during hot
weather, further mitigating climate extremes. “Any surface covered in moss becomes
a natural respiratory system for the city; holding up to 5 litres of water per square
metre to keep buildings cool, and sequestering C02 from the air.”33.

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Figure 23: Water Retention ability of Moss.
Image Source: https://nl.linkedin.com/posts/respyrecompany_greensolutions-mossmagic-
urbansustainability-activity-7272611111894450176-NfUI

Figure 24: Simulation of a vegetated facade at the Aeronautical Cultural Centre in El Prat de
Llobregat Image Source: www.dezeen.com

Factors Affecting growth of Moss Concrete

A humid and moist environment with a porous surface that can absorb and retain
water for a longer period is required to flourish the moss. A rough pored surface of
concrete can provide a suitable substrate for the attachment and growth of moss
spores.
“A study was conducted in 2018 in which different walling materials were compared
for the growth of moss, and it was found that the more the porosity of a material,
more will be the growth of moss”.34.
From freezing snowy mountains to scorching hot deserts, Mosses can grow in any
environment and have the ability to survive in extreme conditions. “Studies have
shown that the lowest temperature they can photosynthesis (turn energy from
sunlight into food) is around -15ºC and the highest is around 40ºC. Some mosses

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have even been known to survive temperature highs of 100ºC when dried out, and
lows of -272ºC. That's a resilient little plant right there”.35.

Figure 25: Experimentation of Moss Growth in Concrete by Respyre, Netherland.

Image Source: https://www.linkedin.com/posts/respyrecompany_mossconcrete-urbanjungle-
mosswall-activity-7112798362415820801-D_s8

Practical Applications of Moss Concrete

A living green wall in interior or external facade can be created by using Moss
concrete, where the growth of moss is supported by concrete. The water retention
quality of this dense leaf system of mosses also helps in temperature regulation
through evapotranspiration and the absorption quality can reduce the urban heat
island effects and noise pollution and can be applied along highways, railways, and
other noisy and highly air polluted urban areas.

Figure 26: Application of Moss Concrete. TU Delft Campus Building by Respyre

Image Source: https://www.brightvibes.com/the-power-of-moss-bio-receptive-concrete-can-help-
cities-breathe-again/

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Application of Moss Concrete around the World

Figure 27: Application of Moss Concrete at The Green Citer, Purmerend, Wheermolen-East
A renovation project that houses 144 units, BY Architects, 2023
Image Source: https://www.intermaris.nl/projecten/d-groene-citer/

Figure 28: Before the application of Moss Concrete. An Office cum Warehouse Building, Hoex Bouw
and Schelfhout Belgium Carrelages - Tegels.
Image Source: Respyre’s Post www.linkedin.com

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Figure 29: After the application of Moss Concrete. An Office cum Warehouse Building, Hoex Bouw
and Schelfhout Belgium Carrelages - Tegels.
Image Source: Respyre’s Post www.linkedin.com

Figure 30: Application of Moss Concrete by Respyre, Netherlands.

Image Source: Respyre’s Post www.linkedin.com

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Figure 31: A living Wall using in the Interior of an Office Building.
Image Source: www.decon.in

Figure 32: A City Tree in Paris, France by Green City solutions

Image Source: www.cnn.com

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Figure 33: A mossy “living wall”, London's Piccadilly Circus. Green City Solutions
Image Source: www.dezeen.com

Conclusions
This research paper explores the potential of a relatively new construction material,
Moss Concrete, as an innovative, sustainable solution, through its application
globally, to help mitigate smog and air pollutants in buildings and infrastructure,
especially in smog-prone areas. It is an economically workable option which can turn
gray concrete jungles into lush green landscapes to create healthier, eco-friendly
urban environments for the generations to come.
In tropical climates like Karachi and Islamabad, where humidity and moisture levels
are conducive to moss growth, this material can help provide both thermal regulation
and environmental purification. Additionally, its natural insulation properties can
make it an effective solution for maintaining ideal building temperatures by reducing
energy costs for heating and cooling annually.
While the government is making efforts to address smog, more significant measures
and public cooperation are needed. Architect’s regulatory bodies like PCATP and
IAP can arrange seminars and exhibitions to introduce this bio-receptive material
among the fellow community and public. The building regulatory authorities like LDA,
CDA, MDA, GDA, DHAs and others can amend their byelaws for the integration of
this material in the facades of high-rise public buildings, the way Singapore has
incorporated the provisions of vertical gardens in their buildings. With its aesthetic
appeal and eco-friendly qualities, Moss Concrete can become a popular and
sustainable design choice as the world is shifting towards greener and eco-friendly
more resilient urban habitats to increase diminishing local biodiversity, a service
nature is offering to society.
Along with this, changes in other areas are also needed. To mitigate Smog,
constructing anti-smog buildings is just not enough. It is also necessary to phase out
vehicles and industries to hybrid sources of energy to reduce their emissions.
Renewable energy is another resource. Wastes should be reduced, reused, recycled
and filters should be installed at emission sources the way Zig Zag systems are
adopted at brick kilns.

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