CVE342- ENGINEERING GEOLOGY II NOTE FOUR

VENUE: Civil Engineering 400L Class (Structural Lab)

Date: 17/07/2022
MAPS
4.0 Introduction: Maps are representations of the earth’s surface as if seen from above. They are
compiled for a variety of purposes depending upon the desired features represented. Two main
factors affect map design.

- The first is the user requirements with the attendant decisions on map content and details.
- The second is content arrangement involving the map scale, colour and standard of
treatment, symbolization, legibility, aesthetic consideration and traditional practice.

The range of maps available in many countries is enormous. These maps come under broad classes
aeronautically (worldwide and national), regional or district maps, population maps, geological
maps, topographical and soil maps; Maps are also classified according to the content, the scale and
derivation (maps derived from other maps).

On the basis of content we have topographic maps, vegetation, geologic, soil, weather maps, etc.
This classification clearly reflects the primary purpose which the maps serve. The object of our
present study is topographic and geological maps.

4.1 Map Scale

The scale of a map is the ratio of the size of representation on the map to the size of the same
object on the ground. Map scales are given as a fraction e.g., 1000, as a linear or bar scale, or as a
statement e.g., 1cm to 1km. Most maps carry bar or linear scales on one or more margins. Based
on their scales, maps are classified as small-scale maps which can be represented as 1:1000 000 or
smaller, and large scale maps which have a representative scale of 1: 50 000 and larger. Maps in
the intermediate field constitute medium scale maps. The scale of a map say y is smaller than the
scale of another Y if X’s scale denominator is larger; e.g 1:1000 000 is a smaller scale than 1:100
000. The scale used in architectural drawings is about 1:50. For most engineering purposes
however, medium scale maps are used.

4.2 Symbolization

Map symbols are graphic language of maps and charts. With origin in similar pictogram map
symbols have developed through generations of cartographers to the standard conventions
currently in use. Colour is one of the common basis of classifying symbols. Blue is generally used
for water features or hydrography, brown for relief, green for vegetation and similar features, red
for special information and black for names and culture.

Works of man including houses, cities, roads, footpaths etc. There are variations however,
particularly in special purpose maps like soil and geological maps. Usually, legends are provided
for less obvious symbols used in many occasions.

4.3 Limitations of Maps

All maps suffer one form of limitation or another. These limitations include but not limited to:

1) All maps are generalization compiled to meet certain user requirements. Those selected to meet
such requirements are often exaggerated in relation to other details.

2) Reduced-scale maps can show positions of small objects satisfactorily but the size of such a
representation can only be shown if greatly exaggerated.

3) Limitations in drawing and printing maps of whatever scale render it almost impossible for
maps to be accurate to more than 1/4mm in locating positions. It is almost not possible to make a
legible pencil mark less than 1/4mm in width. Two points about 10km apart cannot be shown on
a 1:25000000 sale map of Africa without distortion. A thin line representing the River Niger on
such a map would scale to at least 6km in width.

4) On maps of the earth, curved surfaces are depicted on flat surfaces. This cannot be done without
distorting the distances between points or the angles between intersecting lines. Most maps are
compromises between these effects.

4.4 Types of Maps

Several types of maps exists. The maps are relevant to explaining certain features on the earth’s
surface. In no specific order, these maps include:

a) Topographic Maps:

Topographic maps show the positions, elevations, relations, the sizes and shapes of the various
features of the earth’s surface. The features include hills and mountains, valleys and gullies,
streams and rivers as well as culture, cities, roads, footpaths, houses, etc. They are essential to plan
field investigations and as a basis for constructing other types of maps. The common elements of
a topographic map include elevation, relief, height, contours bench marks and map scale. Some
are defined as shown below:

i) Elevation or altitude: The elevation of a point is the vertical distance between a point and a
datum plane- which usually taken from the mean sea level.

ii) Height: The height is the difference in elevation between a feature and its immediate
surroundings.

iii) Relief: This is the difference in elevation between the lowest and the highest point in an area.

iv) Bench Mark: The bench mark is a point on the earth’s surface of known elevation and
accurately determined position. It serves as a starting or reference point in surveying properties.

v) Contours: A contour is a line on a map connecting all points of equal elevation or altitude.

vi) Contour Interval: This is the difference in elevation between two successive contour lines.

Fig 4.1 Topographic map

4.4.1 Contour Patterns and Land Forms

Contour patterns are indicative of the various landforms of an area. There are certain features
associated with contour patterns. For example, uniformly spaced contours depict a uniform slope,
closely spaced contour lines represent steep slope or a cliff. Please note the contour lines do not
cross one another, but they may touch. Vertical faces are shown where contour lines touch.
However, a gentle slope is implied where the contours are spread far apart. Also, contour line close
within the limits of a map indicate a hill or a ridge and contours of a valley have a point of their V
outline pointing toward contours of higher values.

4.4.2 Contours and Contour Intervals

The principal characteristics of contour lines are of the horizontal distance between contour lines
are inversely proportional to the slope. This means that on steep slope, the contours cluster much
closer together and as contours represent level lines, they are perpendicular to the lines of steepest
slope. Hence contour are perpendicular to ridges and valley lines where they cross such lines. Two
factors that mainly affect the choice of contour intervals are i) the purpose and the scale of the map
and the character of the terrain represented and ii) the desired accuracy of elevation and map
legibility. For large scale maps of flat terrain, the interval may be as small as 15cm. On special
maps for large structures, intervals of about 5cm are used regardless of relief. The use of this small
intervals stem from the fact that a detailed knowledge of minor variation in relief of the site is very
essential, for example the location and size of boulders are important in determining the amount
and kind of striping for a structure. For small scale maps of rough country, the interval may be 15
– 50cm or more as the case may be. For maps of intermediate scale (about 1:200) such as most
engineering studies, the interval is usually between 60 – 150cm.

4.4.3 Topographic Profile

A profile is a cross section of the earth’s surface along such a line that requires that the surface
feature is to be shown. The main features on a profile include hills, valleys, streams etc. Reliefs
are shown 5 to 10 times exaggerated depending on the nature of the terrain represented.
Topographic profiles are generally drawn on graph paper. The profile for drawing it is as follows:

a) Choose a vertical scale sufficient enough to bring out the features intended to be shown. The
map scale is the horizontal scales used in the profile drawing.
b) Select a base line on the graph paper. This is taken to represent the mean sea level or any other
ordinance datum.

c) On the graph paper, number each successive fourth or fifth line above the chosen base in
accordance with the vertical scale.

d) Place the edge of the graph paper along the profile line

e) With the vertically ruled lines on the graph paper as a guide, plot the elevation of each contour
that crosses and where it crosses the profile line.

f) Connect the points freely using hand. This is required cross section.

f) State the vertical exaggeration used and give the title of the profile.

b) Geologic Maps:
Geological maps are in their simplest depiction/portrayals of the distribution of geological
materials and material features at the earth’s surface. Simply put, geologic maps show where
various rock units and structures lie at the earth’s surface. Such a picture of aerial distributions is
itself highly useful, but the real power of geological maps arise from the further interpretations
that can be made from them – into three-dimensions below the ground and back into geological
times. Due to this breath of possibilities, geological maps are fundamental tool of both academic
and applied geologist, and government of most developed countries of the world underwrite a
national body responsible for the geological surveying of the nation. Such surveys are now greatly
being aided by new possibilities such as GIS, spatial database, digital imagery which are applied
to geological map methods. Fundamental map principles are however not changing.

bi) Geological maps and their nature:

In geological maps the distribution of the rock types are plotted into some kind of topographic map
as base. Scales vary from very small (e.g 1: 1000 000) or less, through medium scales (e.g 1:100
000) to large scale (e.g 1: 25 000). Small scale maps generally summarize the geology of the entire
region, while large scale maps show particular areas in reasonable details. Still larger scale maps
e.g 1: 500 or even greater are used for specific areas of commercial activities. Small scale maps
necessarily have to neglect topographic relief, but larger scale topographic contours can be shown
and the interaction between the physiography of the land surface and the underlying geology can
be important in 3-dimensional interpretations. The distribution plots are necessarily being linked
into Digital Elevation Models, toward visualization of the interplay between geology and
topographic relief. Usually, geological ornaments/colour and symbols are used to show various
materials’ extent of aerial distribution in the case of black and white maps. These aid distinctions
of materials. Majority of geological maps are liths-stratigraphic as the subdivisions are based on
the type of geomaterials and their stratigraphic positions. The various divisions of material types
are conventionally arranged in the map key in order of their genesis, upwards from oldest to
youngest. On medium and large scale maps, each division is commonly referred to as a map “unit”
or “formation”. Small scale maps commonly portray division based on the geologic period in
which the material is formed. Some more specialized geological maps may show subdivisions
according to the fossils contained in deposits or some other particular characteristics.

Sometimes, it is conventional to make a major distinction between solid bedrock and any
overlying, unlithified geological materials. Some geological maps ignore the latter except where
they are especially significant. Maps showing overlaying, unlithified deposits are known as
superficial, superficial Quaternary or drift maps.

bii) Interpretation of Geological maps:

Many of the applications of geological maps involve dealing with information in 3-D. New IT
techniques are becoming available to facilitate this but much work still relies on interpreting the
3-D from flat maps – the sheet of paper or computer screen. Geological maps of various scale and
type are available. The maps are prepared primarily to show the distribution and boundaries of the
lithological units and the structural details of an area. The compiled on topographic maps as base
and are generally accompanied my vertical sections – projections of the geology to limited depths.
Besides, geologic maps show the relative ages of the rock units in an area. The amount of details
on a geologic map depends on the purpose for which the map is prepared. However, geologic maps
generally show the rock or soil type in an area, the geologic structures, the depth and characteristics
of overburden as well as the strike and dip attitude of strata.

4.4.4 Outcrop Patterns and Contour Outlines:

The map patterns and outcropping beds, their attitude and contour outlines bear some useful
relationships. These are depicted in the diagram below and described as follows:

a) If the outcrop of the rock cross the contours and is sinuous (having curves in alternate directions)
in their course, they must be inclined to the horizontal or they must dip.
b) Where the outcrop pattern is parallel or about parallel to the contours, is horizontal or near
horizontal.

c) If the outcrop patterns cut across contours and are parallel or about so, a vertical bed is implied.

d) Where the dip directions of a set of strata are not given but their relative ages are, the dip is in
the direction of the younger strata. The converse is also true.

4.5 Types of Geologic Maps:

There are basically two types of geologic maps namely surface and subsurface maps. Surface maps
are compiled from surface geologic data. They are further classified as aerial maps and surficial
maps. Aerial maps show earth’s surface as it would appear in absence of overburden i.e the maps
show the solid geology of the area represented. Such a map for instance, would show the
distribution of pre-Pleistocene materials beneath the soil cover. This is called the bedrock map.

Surficial maps show the type and distribution of surface materials- both soils and outcrops as they
occur in the field. Examples include construction materials or aggregate resources inventory maps
and Quaternary maps. The latter show the nature of unconsolidated surficial deposits often with
detailed information regarding their genesis, grain size and characteristic landforms, surface maps.
Surface maps are prepared from data and information obtained from boring, well logs, geophysical
surveys and extrapolation of surface data.

4.6 Attitude of Dipping Beds

Sedimentary rocks in particular are laid down horizontally. Deformations affecting the earth’s
crust bend and tilt the rocks away from the horizontal. The tilted stratum then acquires a strike and
dip. The strike is the compass direction of a line formed by intersection of the bed’s surface with
an imaginary horizontal plane. The strike, the dip direction and the dip angle define the attitude of
a tilted rock. Knowledge of the attitude of a bed is important in a number of engineering projects.
A miner investigating the worth of an iron deposit and the cost of the proposed mining venture
requires information on the strike and dip of the ore body. In open cut excavation mining, the
length of the stratum and the width of the ore on the surface as well as the dip determine the amount
of ore that can be taken out economically by surface mining. To the earthmover, dip-strike
information is essential in some aspects of work. For fragmenting rocks by ripping, the practice is
to avoid ripping at right angles to the strike and away from the dip direction. This is because ripper
points would slide along the inclined bedding and so would penetrate the layer effectively. It is
better to rip in the opposite direction or to rip parallel to the strike. While drilling vertical holes,
the drill steel is apt to be deflected and wedged in the partings of the bed if the dip is vertical or
nearly vertical. It is better to drill off the vertical at an angle to the plane of the dip. Drill holes in
deep tunnels are known to wander off the alignment sometimes by tens of meters. While loading
soft sedimentary rocks by scrapers without preliminary dipping, the problems with the cutting edge
of the loading equipment as it is forced into stratum are similar to those with the points of the
ripper.
4.6.1 Determining the strike and dip of a stratum

The attitude of a titled stratum can be determined by:

a) The use of strike lines directly on a geologic map.

b) Constructing strike lines directly from information from partial outcrops of a bed in at least
three locations and from borehole data.

4.6.2 Direct Use of Strike Lines

To determine the attitude of a bed from a given geologic map, the approach is as follows:

i) Find where the outcrop of the bed’s bounding surface and the land surface are at the same
elevation; i.e where the bed outcrop intersects a contour. Draw a straight line to join two of such
points. A line so drawn is a strike line and has an elevation value as that of the contours intersected.
Indicate this on the line.

ii) Find other points of intersection of the outcrop and a surface lower or higher than the points
previously found. Draw another line joining these points and indicate on it the elevation value.

iii) With the two strike and dip attributes of the dipping layer, the orientation of the line is the
strike line. The dip direction is the perpendicular to any of the two lines and is in the direction of
lower strike line elevation.

For the amount of dip, note that the ratio elevation difference between the two lines and their
horizontal distance of separation is the tangent of the dip angle, say β.

Thus, the dip angle P is given by the expression:

𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠

tan β =
ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠
----------------- (i)

For the horizontal distance of the two drawn strike lines, measure their separation on the map and
multiply this length by the map scale.

4.6.3 Three- Point Problem

To be able to determine the attitude of a dipping bed, the location and elevation of its face must be
known at a minimum of three points. This type of problem is known as three-point problem,
Information about the relative positions and the elevations required is obtained from partial
outcrops or from data from boreholes. The procedure is as follows:
a) Identify the lowest and the highest in elevation of the three points, say A, B, C. Join the two
points and divide this line into segments where n is given as:

𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠

n= - - - - - - - - - - - - (ii)
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙

b) Assign numerical values to the nodes of the segments. One of these nodes has the same elevation
as the intermediate of the three points A, B and C. Join the two points of equal elevation by a
straight line. This is a strike line on the surface of the titled bed, and has the altitude of the two
points. Draw other lines to pass through the nodes and other points. These lines should be as
parallel as possible to the first strike line. The strike and dip of the partial outcropping or non-
outcropping surface can be determined as described in the direct use of strike like above.

4.6.4 Uses of Geological Maps in Engineering

The small-scale geologic maps commonly available are intended to furnish a general picture of the
geology of the area. Whereas they usually include as well geologic structures, they are hardly of
sufficient accuracy to warrant their direct use in engineering. For instance, in designing a canal,
the engineer has to determine the unlined and lined segment of this structure. The available
geologic maps can give him information about the lithogic units and geologic structure traversed
by the canal. If he attempts to scale the corresponding lengths of the canal from information from
the map, he may run into serious error. However, route investigations for highways, railways,
canals, pipe lines and power lines rely heavily on the existing geologic maps and utilizes
inexpensive photos and geophysical methods. This is due mostly to the large/land extent of such
projects. The small-scale maps however, serve as a base for preparing large scale specialized maps
with specific details and application in certain fields of engineering.