KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF SELECTED PROTECTED

SPRINGS IN NAMANYONYI SUB-COUNTY MBALE CITY

BY

BISASO DERICK JOHN

20/U/BMD/8679/PD

A RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR DEGREE IN
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF
KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

February, 2024
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 showing origin of spring water..........................................................................................8

Figure 2 showing the location of Namanyonyi sub-county in Mbale city....................................17
Figure 3 The map of the study area showing sampling locations along the selected Protected
springs in Namanyonyi sub-county Mbale city.............................................................................17
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics of
water. (Cordy et al., 2014). It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements
of one or more biotic species and or to any human need or purpose. It is most frequently used by
reference to a set of standards against which compliance, generally achieved through treatment
of the water can be assessed. Water is the most essential element for the existence of life on
Earth. Springs are the underground water which finds an opening to the land surface and merges,
sometimes as just a trickle, maybe only after a rain, and sometimes continuous flow (UNICEF
2018).

Access to safe water and sanitation is a basic human right as recognized by the United Nations
General Assembly in 2010 (World Health Organization , 2010). In 2015, it was estimated that
663 million people worldwide still use unimproved water sources, including unprotected wells,
springs and surface water. Nearly half of all people using unimproved drinking water sources
live in sub-Saharan Africa; while one-fifth live in Southern Asia (WHO, 2018). Three out of 10
people lack safely managed water services (UNICEF 2018).

Globally, people all around the globe are under terrible threat due to water pollution resulting
from anthropogenic activities such as dumping of human and animal wastes and Agricultural
runoff. Therefore, monitoring of the quality of water for drinking should be done at regular time
interval to protect the population from infection with water borne diseases. (Walekhwa, et al,
2022). Water quality has become a global concern because it does not only threaten human
livelihoods but is also a driver to climate change due to alterations in the hydrological cycle.
(Silva, et al, 2019).

FAO (2019) noted that the contamination of water supplies from both natural and anthropogenic
sources has impacted on the health and economic status of populations. Human activities cause
pollutants such as nutrients, trace/heavy metals, pesticides and herbicides to enter aquatic
ecosystems. These anthropogenic activities continuously increase the amount of pollutants in the
environment, especially in aquatic ecosystems. Thus, water contamination is growing at an

4
alarming rate and has become an important worldwide problem (Malik et al., 2020). In rural and
peri-urban African areas, where the most common type of sanitation is the pit latrines, this poses
a great risk on the microbial quality of underground water. Therefore, domestic water quality
monitoring and testing is of paramount importance both in the developed and developing world
(Lobina, 2015).

In Uganda, good domestic water supply to Uganda’s teeming populace is a perennial problem
that has defied solution. As such, it has often attracted rhetorical commentaries with little or no
practical solutions. Therefore, great concern must be given to the quality of domestic water as it
is very critical for the overall socio-economic development of any society and, should engage the
attention of individuals, groups, government and non-governmental organizations (Ahmed,
2016). Despite the government inability to provide water for the citizens, teeming population of
less privilege ones makes use of spring water as it is the main source of drinking water in the
area (Onuoha, 2021).

Groundwater quality in a region is largely determined by both natural processes (dissolution and
precipitation of minerals, groundwater velocity, quality of recharge waters and interaction with
other types of water aquifers) and anthropogenic activities (Devic et al. 2014). With the
increasing population pressure and rising demand for food and other services in Uganda has
increased demand for water (Rodak & Silliman, 2017). This has increased reliance on
groundwater resources thereby creating challenges among which are the provisions of adequate
quantity and quality of water (WWDR, 2011).

Generally, spring water quality varies from place to place, sometimes depending on seasonal
changes, the types of soils, rocks and surfaces through which it moves. Naturally occurring
contaminants are present in the rocks and sediments (Raphael, 2018) In addition; human
activities can alter the natural composition of borehole through the disposal or dissemination of
chemicals and microbial matter on the land surface and into soils, or through injection of wastes
directly into groundwater. Also, Industrial discharges, urban activities, agriculture activities such
as Pesticides and fertilizers applied to lawns and crops can accumulate and migrate to the water
tables thus affecting both the and microbial and chemical quality of water and in most cases
heavy metal pollution. (Chimphamba, et al, 2014).

5
Namanyonyi protected springs are best natural underground water, and trans-boundary in nature
with size of a mid-sized water source of 2,232 km 2 experiencing a mean annual temperature of
about 27.9˚C having water being utilized by most of the people in the area. This study is
therefore very crucial at the moment because of the rapid increase in the number of the springs
constituting a substantial source of drinking water for public consumption in urban and peri-
urban areas like Namanyonyi. The consumers are however not aware of such concern as they do
not know, rather do not really care for since the spring water appears clean and clear to their
eyes. Worse still, many of these springs were constructed without due consideration to the
locations of waste dumping sites, which could make the water more susceptible to contamination
through leaching and percolation.

1.2 Problem Statement

Spring water quality has always been a very important aspect on the global scale and has
presented several implications for the in habitants of rural and urban areas. Today, spring water
is most vulnerable to pollution due to its easy accessibility for the disposal of pollutants and
wastewater (Jarvie et al., 2018). The rapid urbanization in developing countries like Uganda has
led to a massive increase in human settlements which is growing faster than the rate at which the
drainage network is being enhanced causing improper waste management which can pollute the
underground water sources yet there is over dependency on underground water sources like
springs in such areas (Onuoha, 2021).

Pollution of water sources has also been reported to be on the increase especially in the urban
water sources in Uganda. (Richard, et al, 2019) .This is evidenced by the increasing outbreaks of
waterborne diseases (diarrhea diseases and typhoid) in urban and peri-urban areas despite the
many improved water sources like springs that have been and continue to be constructed in these
areas. Namanyonyi, the study area is one such place that has been hit by these epidemics. The
fact that access to safe water is determined and evaluated using access to improved water
sources, developing countries have tended to put much focus and attention to constructing new
water sources than ensuring the sustainability of the existing ones particularly in terms of quality.

6
1.3 Objectives of the study

1.3.1 Main objective

To assess the water quality of selected protected springs in Namanyonyi Sub County.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

i. To determine the anthropogenic activities carried out around the protected springs in
Namanyonyi sub county
ii. To assess the physical-chemical parameters of water, including (pH, Temperature
Turbidity, TDS, Electrical conductivity, Nitrates and sulfates) from selected protected
springs in Namanyonyi Sub County.
iii. To assess the biological parameters (Total coliforms and Escherichia coli) of water from
selected protected springs in Namanyonyi Sub County.
1.4 Research Questions

1. What are the anthropogenic activities taking place around protected springs?
2. What is the physiochemical composition of selected water springs within the study area?
3. What is the concentration of biological parameters (Total coliforms and Escherichia coli)
of water from selected protected springs in Namanyonyi Sub County?
1.5 Scope of the study

The study will focus on determining anthropogenic activities around protected water springs.
Identification of anthropogenic activities will be by visual site visits, photographic interpretation
and oral interviews with residents around the study area. Water samples will be collected from
the selected springs and stored under insulted box then transported to Kyambogo University
chemistry laboratories for analysis.

The study will be carried out on protected springs in Namanyonyi Sub County.

Sampling, sample preparation, analysis, treatment, interpretation and report writing will last for
about two months.

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1.6 Significance of the study

Much work has been done on housing, hygiene and water quantity in Namanyonyi Sub County
areas of Mbale, with a little focus on water quality of these areas. It is of a great importance to
the health of the people as some of the pollutants are toxic and injurious to human health. The
significance of the research is to institutions for better government policies and the residents
cannot be underrated (consisting human consumption and domestic use). The study will benefit
the sub county, government and improve its rating among the residents since water service
provision and supply is one of their functions.

The results from this study will enhance community awareness about the quality of spring water
and will increase stakeholder involvement in the protection of the water resource to avoid
contamination. This will be through providing baseline data to environmental managers, water
and sanitation managers, governments and communities for monitoring water quality, restoring
ecosystems and to develop effective approaches and policies to improve domestic water quality
in Kampala district.

This research will contribute to MDG 7c by determining water quality parameters and
recommending for suitable action or creating awareness about water quality and water borne
diseases. This research will also identify areas of water stress where less water is available for
use, affecting the per capita consumption. The information from this research will be used to
guide government agencies, researchers and other development organizations like NGO’s to
develop strategies, policies and institutional infrastructures to provide quality and accessible
water resources to communities.

1.7 Justification

Water is an invaluable resource to man, essential for sustenance of life. It is a basic human need
to have good water quality. Traditionally hydrology has been interested purely in the amount of
water in an area: water quantity, however, an important challenge to hydrology is the availability
of water for human consumption, and domestic uses. Therefore, the research study of water
quality of spring water sources is of great important as the availability of water in area of
Namanyonyi Sub County.

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 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2 Water

Water is a renewable resource in many parts of the world, water resources like boreholes have
become so depleted or contaminated that they are unable to meet ever-increasing (Afolabi, et al,
2021) According to report in 2014 by United Nations, Nigeria was ranked the fifth dirtiest
country in the world. 1.8 billion people globally use source of drinking water that is feacally
contaminated. Some 2.4 billion people lack access to basic sanitation services, such as toilets or
latrines. Water scarcity affects more than 40 percent of the global population and is projected to
rise. (Afolabi, et al, 2021)

In another review by (Adeyemi, et al, 2019) , Water is essential for growing food, household
uses including drinking, cooling, sanitation, as a critical input into industry, for tourism and
cultural purposes, and for its role in sustaining the earth’s ecosystem. Groundwater (Borehole) is
the largest reserve of potable water in regions where humans live. Major environmental pressures
have an impact on the quantity and quality of borehole waters which are generally perceived as
being less vulnerable to contamination than surface water given the natural filtering ability of the
subsurface.

According to (Ogbeifun, et al, 2019), Water is one of the most abundant and essential resources
of man, and occupies about 70% of the earth’s surface. About 97% of this volume of earth’s
surface water is contained in the oceans, 21% in polar ice and glaciers, 0.3-0.8% underground,
0.009% in inland freshwaters such as lakes, while 0.00009% is contained in rivers. Water has
been regarded as a universal solvent that can dissolve many chemicals which may or not be
beneficial to man and its environment. It is however essential to all living things and its
environment.

Other studies conducted, literature revealed that Ground water is the water beneath the surface
where all the voids in the rocks and soil are filled. It is a source of water for wells, springs and
boreholes. A spring is a hydraulic structure which when properly designed and constructed,
permits the economic withdrawal of water from an aquifer. It is a narrow well drilled with
9
machine. Groundwater from boreholes is a major source of drinking water in most rural areas of
developing countries like Uganda (Musa, et al, 2018).

2.1 Springs

All spring water ultimately originates from precipitation (Figure 1). A spring may emanate from
water saturated soil or porous rock, from a fracture, fissure or cave, or along a contact zone
between two rock types of different permeability, often at the bottom of or along steep slopes of
the land surface (including hills and mountains). In general, aquifers gain water (are recharged)
by precipitation and may lose water (are discharged) by spring flow, though there is a lag time
between these two processes because of underground water storage (Glazier, 2019). For
example, after a rain storm, a spring brook may show little immediate change in flow rate,
whereas a nearby runoff stream will quickly (within a few hours or less) become engorged with
rapidly flowing water (Jeremy, 2011).

Springs associated with small, shallow aquifers or those having poor storage capacities (as in
shale-siltstone areas) tend to show greater variability of flow than those associated with large,
deep aquifers or those having high storage capacities and long water residence times (as in some
karst terrains containing numerous underground pockets and passage ways in carbonate
rocks such as limestone). Over relatively long periods of time (weeks, months or more), the
amount of spring water flow (discharge) varies with aquifer (recharge) size and the local balance
between precipitation (Hedlund, 2011). Some karst springs show daily or annual rhythms of
outflow rate, the former being the result of the filling and draining of an internal siphon, and the
latter the result of seasonal changes in regional water balance (precipitation minus
evapotranspiration). Others show irregular changes in discharge rates (Singh, 2021).

10
 Figure 1: Showing origin of spring water

2.1.1 Protected springs site selection

Location of springs far from any source of potential pollution avoids water contamination
(Akpoveta, 2011). Assessment of the type and loads of contaminants transported from landfill
site to the adjacent aquifer and the extent of leachate plumes within the groundwater is used for
site Investigation and spring positioning based on geophysical measurements and positioning
based on the Bayesian expert system for flow field modeling (Abbaspour et al., 2000).

Table 1: Recommended distance between domestic water wells and sources of pollution

Source of pollution Distance(m)

Septic tank 15

Latrines 45

Cemetery 250

Sewage farms 30

Infiltration ditches 30

Percolation zone 30

Pipes with watertight joints 3

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 Other pipes 15

Dry wells 15

2.2 Water Pollution (Point and Non-Point Sources)

The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that 884 million people lack access to even basic
drinking water service, 159 million of which are dependent on surface water and 423 million
people on unprotected springs and boreholes (Afolabi, et al, 2021). Water pollution is a global
concern as risks of water quality degradation translate directly into environmental, health, social
and economic problems. Water pollution has also an impact on biological diversity of aquatic
ecosystems, on which a wide range of sectors, from urban development to food production and
industry (Musa, et al, 2018).

Figure 2: ground water pollution

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On world scale, Water is an essential basic need of life. However, pollution has still remained
one of the most significant environmental issues of recent times. Water gets polluted when its
quality changes or compositions either by the contamination of water sources by substances
which make the water unusable for drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, or other activities.
Pollutants include chemicals, trash, bacteria, and parasites. Land pollution can seep into an
underground stream, then to a river, and finally to the ocean. Thus, waste dumped in a vacant lot
can eventually pollute a water supply. (Eckenfelder, 2020). In other studies, Water pollution
occurs when harmful substances often chemicals or microorganisms contaminate a stream, river,
lake, ocean, aquifer, or other body of water, degrading water quality and rendering it toxic to
humans or the environment. (Denchak, 2022).

Groundwater is the most reliable source of drinking water in arid to semi-arid countries.
However, groundwater is usually polluted by natural and anthropogenic activities, which makes
groundwater unsafe and unfit for human use without treatment ( Kurwadkar, et al, 2020).
Contaminated groundwater is found in a range of aquifers of unconsolidated sediment to
bedrocks (Sharma, et al, 2021). In addition, groundwater can become contaminated when excreta
disposal systems are improperly designed, located, constructed, or maintained. Another source of
groundwater contamination is leachate from landfill sites and open dump sites, particularly in
developing countries, where open dumps are common.

Point source pollution, which includes municipal sewage treatment plants and industrial plants,
intense evaporation in shallow aquifers, degradation of water sources in areas located in
geothermal/volcanic fields, and rock oxidation, is a single discernible localized source. However,
the non-point source pollution, which includes diffuse sources such as land use, land use
changes, chemical reactions of elements in the air or the water and pollutants from runoff from
agricultural areas draining into the groundwater, is characterized by multiple discharge points.
Therefore, a point source is relatively easy to identify, quantify and control, whereas a non-point
source is difficult to monitor and control because the pollution cannot easily be traced to a single
point of discharge (Zou, et al, 2020).

Pollution occurrence usually depends on the level of contaminant transport. Contaminants can be
transported through filtration, sorption, chemical processes, microbiological decomposition and
13
dilution. Thus, groundwater pollution may cause ecosystem imbalance and severe sickness,
which may lead to death. Prevention of groundwater pollution is more appropriate than
remediation. Such preventive measures include proper waste disposal, monitoring of hazardous
materials, conducting environmental audits periodically and intensifying health education, while
remediation includes stream stripping, oxygen sparing, bioremediation, chemical oxidation and
thermal treatment. In addition, most pollution of groundwater is anthropocentric and can be
prevented through intensive health education. (Patrick, 2022).

2.2.1 Impacts of pollution on water quality

Pollution by agricultural run-off especially from pesticides have effects on the environment, they
are especially difficult to remove from underground water, and thus, can be found in municipal
or bottled water, even after conventional treatment (Augustin, 2013). Pollution also has
detrimental impacts on water quality which in turn increase the cost of municipal water
treatment. The costs and difficulty of removing contaminants can be considerable, depending on
the materials to be removed. Water pricing is a barrier to access to safe and adequate water for
drinking and sanitation by poor people. A study by the UN world summit (2012) concluded that
in developing countries, people may pay up to 30% of their income for water supply and
treatment compared to the United States where people pay about 1-2 % of their house hold
income for water supply and treatment.

2.3 Water quality

The quality of groundwater has been taken for granted. The status and potential threats of
groundwater quality have not been investigated on a large scale in most of the developing
countries public health is at risk from physical and chemical contaminants in drinking water
which may have immediate health consequences 2017. Good quality water is odorless, colorless,
tasteless and free from fecal. Detection of total coliform and Escherichia coli are considered the
best way to determine if a water supply is protected from microbial contamination. E. coli
originates in the gut of a warm-blooded animal, and its presence in water indicates contamination
from human and animal faeces and high likelihood of presence of disease-causing organisms as
well (Patrick, 2022).

14
People all around the globe are under terrible threat due to water pollution resulting from
anthropogenic activities such industrialization. Water for drinking purposes mainly comes out
from the surface and underground aquifers near the rivers or rocks and soils filled. The Borehole
water quality is dropping rapidly due to the addition of raw municipal and industrial effluents
discharge and agriculture runoff into water sources. When flow of river water is at its peak, it
contains high solid suspension thus most of the boreholes located nearer are contaminated It is
clear that these Boreholes are feacally contaminated and need proper processing to free them
from contaminants for human use (Ali, 2017).

Water pollution can be referred to the changes in the physical, chemical and biological
characteristic of water thereby reducing the quality and suitability of the water as well as
affecting living organisms that dwell in aquatic environment (Umar, 2010).

According to (WHO, 2011) the quality of any given water source like springs can be altered by
both natural and anthropogenic factors such as: geological, topographical, meteorological,
hydrological and biological characteristics. Anthropogenic factors that contributed to water
quality deterioration included dumping of human and animal wastes into the water supply.
However, water quality decline has been accelerated by the pressure of increasing population,
urbanization, consumerism and deforestation (USEPA, 2018).

2.3.1 Spring water quality

In rural Africa, where the most common type of sanitation is the pit latrines, this poses a great
risk on the microbial quality of borehole water. For instance, a septic tank can introduce bacteria
to water and pesticides and fertilizers that seep into farmed soils can eventually end up in the
water drawn from a borehole. Poor sanitary completion of boreholes may lead to contamination
of borehole water. Proximity of some boreholes to solid waste dumpsites and animal droppings
being littered around them could also contaminate the quality of groundwater (Lobina, et al,
2015).

According to other studies, Africa registered the greatest reduction in water quality related to
acceptability parameters, presenting a decrease of 30% from the 1980s to 2000s. This may be
due to lack of awareness because groundwater problems are not readily detected and pathways

15
for contamination are not as noticeable as those affecting surface water. The aquatic ecosystem is
most and highly polluted with trace metals arising from anthropogenic and natural sources
including industrial activities This limits access to a clean sources of drinking water which is the
major factor adversely affecting the general health of the population in Africa and sub-Sharan
Africa (Silva, et al., 2013).

2.3.2 Water quality parameters

These are divided into physical, chemical and biological properties or parameters which
determine whether a given water source is polluted or not polluted (Silva, et al., 2013).

2.3.2.1 Water physical- chemical parameters

2.3.2.1.1 pH and Turbidity

pH refers to the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution or water. pH is a crucial indicator that
can be used for assessing water quality and degree of contamination in water bodies. Turbidity is
another indicator of water quality. Turbidity measures the relative clarity of the water by the
presence of organic and mineral suspended particles and color producing substances (Shigut
et al., 2017). Higher levels of turbidity are caused by suspended solid particles due to fast
transport pathway connecting potentially contaminated surface water with the aquifer.” The low
turbidity values indicate an absence of such contamination transport pathways (Silva, et al.,
2013).

2.3.2.1.2 Total Dissolved Solids and Electrical Conductivity

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), which is a measure of the salinity of groundwater, is also
frequently used as a useful parameter for evaluating the quality of water and for classifying
drinking and irrigation water (Barakat et al., 2018). TDS is usually estimated by electrical
conductivity (EC) and there is a strong relationship between EC and TDS. EC refers to the direct
measure of TDS (Abdulwahid, 2013). According to Barakat et al. (2018), “the concentration of
dissolved chemical substances and mineral contamination in water are controlled by the level of
EC of the water.

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2.3.2.1.3 Alkalinity

Total alkalinity (TA) refers to the capability of water to resist changes in pH. Carbonate and
bicarbonate alkali substances represent the major forms of alkalinity in natural waters. Alkalinity
testing is highly important for evaluating Applied Water Science (2019) water alkalinity changes
due to anthropogenic disturbances (Barakat et al., 2018).

2.3.2.1.4 Sulfates

Sulfate (SO4) is another important chemical parameter for water quality and has an influence on
the taste and odor of drinking water (Bouslah et al., 2017). Water containing higher levels of SO 4
could have a noticeable taste and might cause a laxative effect in unaccustomed consumers
(WHO, 2017). SO4 in the aquifer system is derived primarily from weathering of two major
forms of SO4 containing rocks, namely pyrite and gypsum, in addition to the inputs from
anthropogenic activities (Ziani et al., 2017).

2.3.2.1.5 Nitrates

Nitrate (NO3) is another important parameter for assessing water quality. Nitrate is considered
undesirable in drinking water as it can cause a number of health disorders, such as
methemoglobinemia in infants, gastric cancer, goiter, birth malformations, and hypertension
(Shigut et al., 2017). Natural concentrations of NO3 − in groundwater are generally low, but
concentrations increase as a result of anthropogenic activities, such as agricultural activities, and
discharge of domestic effluent and septic tank effluent (Barakat et al., 2018).

2.3.2.2 Micro-biological parameters

2.3.2.2.1 Total coliforms

According to Bodoczi (2010), the sanitary quality of water is appreciated by the presence or
absence of pathogenic micro-organisms indicated by presence of coliforms. There is practically
no geological environment at or near the earth’s surface where pH will not support some form of
organic life, also at this depth water pressures are not high enough to deter microbial activity
(Chapman, 2011).

17
Pathogenic bacteria can survive long underground and may have a life span of about 4 years.
Coliform group of bacteria are a large group of disease-causing bacteria that inhabit intestine of
man and animals (Sigh et al., 2011). WHO (2013), specified that potable drinking water should
be devoid of total and faecal coliforms in any given water source, MPN (maximum permissible
number) of 0cfu/100ml.

2.3.2.2.2 Escherichia Coli

Escherichia Coli presence is the most reliable indicators of fecal bacterial contamination of
surface and groundwater waters in different countries (WHO, 2011). Faecal coliform bacteria are
bacteria found in faeces, they are subset of a larger group of organisms known as coliform
bacteria which are facultative anaerobes that can survive in the absence of oxygen, gram
negative, non-spore forming, rod-shaped bacteria that ferment lactose, producing gas and acid at
about high temperatures of 35O C. Human waste contaminant in water causes water borne
diseases such as diarrhea, typhoid, hepatitis and flu-like symptoms such as nausea, vomiting,
fever (FAO, 2015).

High coliform counts in water samples are an indication of poor sanitary conditions in the
community. According to Adekunle et al. (2017), inadequate and unhygienic handling of solid
wastes in the rural and urban areas leads to high concentrations of microbial organisms. In 2006,
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published the ground water rule in the United
States to keep microbial pathogens out of public water sources to reduce disease incidence
associated with disease causing micro-organisms (EPA, 2012).

The microbial content is a very important water quality parameter because of its bearing on
human health. Water can be classified based on microbial quality as shown in table 2.2; for
human use safely.

Table 2: Classification of water microbiological limits (DWAF, 2015).

Parameter Good Marginal Poor

TC 10cfu.100ml-1 11-100cfu.100ml-1 >100cfu.100ml-1

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FC 0cfu.100ml-1 1-10cfu.100ml-1 >10cfu.100ml-1

Cfu=colony forming units, Good (negligible risk of microbial infection: fit for human
consumption), Marginal (slight risk of microbial infection; must be treated before consumption),
Poor (risk of infectious disease transmission; not fit for human consumption)

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 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3 Introduction

This chapter explicitly spells out the materials and methods that will be used in assessing the
quality of spring water quality. It comprised of the study area, the sampling procedures and
methods of data analysis for the data collected.

3.1 Research Design

The study will involve use of experiments which will employ use of quantitative analytical
methods involving use of equipment like pH meter, multiparameter meter, and UV-Vis
spectrophotometer among other equipment. Sampling will entirely be simple random sampling
whereby each protected spring in Namanyonyi sub county Study Area will have equal chances
for selection and in this case water samples will be collected once which will be carried out in
the morning. Samples will be collected in plastic water bottles and will be transported using an
ice cooler box to the laboratory prior analysis.

3.2 Study area

The study will be carried out on selected protected springs in Namanyonyi sub county Mbale.
Mbale is city located in eastern region of Uganda; it is the main municipal administrative and
commercial center in the district and neighboring sub regions. It is located at a latitude of
1.078444, and at a longitude of 34.18100.with gaps coordinates of 1⁰4’42.3984”N and
34⁰10’51.6216”E with an elevation of 1,152metres above sea level. Namanyonyi sub county is
located northern division of Mbale city with four parishes or wards that is; Nkoma, Namagumba,
Nabweya, and Aisa. It is located at latitude 1.1251⁰N and longitude 31.2049 ⁰E with an elevation
of 1152 meters above sea level.

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3.2.1 Location

Figure 3: The map of the study area showing sampling locations along the selected Protected springs in
Namanyonyi sub-county Mbale city

Key:

Showing protected spring water sample sites.

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3.3 Population and Sample Size

Namanyonyi Sub County has a population of 36,600 and population density of 1257/km 2
(Uganda Bureau of Statistics 2020). The study area has four parishes that is to say Nkoma,
Namagumba, Nabweya, and Aisa making up a total of forty seven (47) villages. Through use of
simple random sampling technique, a sample of four (4) villages with protected springs will be
selected for the study. Each of the selected village will provide one protected spring for the study
of which the spring sampling will also follow simple random sampling technique as the
frequency of their usage is almost the same hence providing a sample of four (4) protected
springs out of more than 30 springs present in the area. Each of the selected protected springs
will provide 3 water samples (sampling points) differentiated with the spring outlet and distance
of 100m from the spring outlet hence providing a total of 12 samples for use in this study.

3.4 Sampling Instruments

The physicochemical characteristics will be determined using an electrochemical analyzer, and

biological parameter (Total coliforms and Escherichia coli) will be analyzed using plate
spreading method
3.4.1 Determination of pH, Total Dissolved Solids, Salinity, Turbidity and Electrical

conductivity

The pH, TDS, Electrical conductivity, Turbidity, temperature will be analyzed using portable
water meter (Consort C6010).
3.4.2 Determination of Nitrates

Colorimetric method will be used to determine nitrates in the water samples this method is

chosen because of its simplicity and cost effectiveness.

3.4.3 Determining sulfates

Sulphates will be estimated by UV-Visible spectrophotometry as described by Martnez (2019).

This will involve sample digestion using concentrated sulphuric acid and aqua regia followed by
color development process using nitric acid and color development reagent then preparation of

22
the blank solutions as well as standard solutions. Then analysis of the prepared solutions and the
digested sample with UV-Vis spectrophotometer at 107 nm.

3.4.4 Determination of biological parameters using total plate count test

The total plate count test will be conducted to establish coli form organisms which are a suitable
microbial indicator of drinking water quality, largely because they are easy to detect and
enumerate in water. The coliform test is used as an indicator of the integrity of the water source
and distribution system. The coliform test is also useful for monitoring the microbial quality of
treated piped water supplies (WHO, 1996)
3.5 Sampling Techniques

Sampling methodology, preservation, and analytical method Samples will be collected from
selected protected springs. Techniques for sample collection and preservation of water will be
adapted from the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (1983)
The water samples will be collected in plastic bottles for testing in the laboratory. The bottles
will be thoroughly cleaned and rinsed using distilled water before sample collection. They will
also be marked for identification using the labels for each protected water spring selected. The
bottles will then be transported to the laboratory in an insulated box to prevent external factors
like high temperatures from changing some of the water parameters. Analysis will commence in
12 hours of sampling (APHA, 1998).
Water samples will be analyzed in the laboratory of Kyambogo University, all parameters will be
measured on the different days of sampling due to the distance from sampling sites to Kyambogo
laboratory, some safety and complementary instructions (APHA, 1998).
Indicator organisms Total coliforms and Escherichia Coli in colony forming units/100ml (
cfu/100ml) will be analyzed from the water bottles named in Bo1, Bo2, Bo3 and S1, S2 and S 3
using Wagtech Potable 2 (APHA, 1998).

3.6 Data Analysis

Statistical analysis of raw data and plotting of graphs will be conducted using Microsoft Excel
software to determine sample means and standard deviations for data concerning physic-

23
chemical parameters. Biological data will be analyzed using Ultraviolet light or microscope as
well as use of mathematical formulae such as mean and standard deviation with basis on the
dilution factor.

3.7 Data Presentation

Biological data will mainly be presented in tabular formats for easy interpretation and easy
comparison for the data as the data will involve use of exponents in the values. On the other
hand, data for the physico-chemical parameters will be presented in a graphical format utilizing
use of bar and line graphs to aid in comparison of the values for the given parameters and easy
interpretation, these will be colored for proper visibility.

3.8 Ethical Considerations

 The study will ensure accuracy and transparency in reporting to protect public health,
this will be through providing clear and accessible information about the research
 The research will also ensure minimum environment impact avoiding harm to
ecosystems during sample collection and analysis
 The study will uphold the highest standards of honesty and integrity in data collection,
analysis and reporting
 The research will ensure that the benefits and burdens of the study distributed fairly
among stakeholders
 The study will prioritize health and safety of the researcher and participants during
sample collection and laboratory work.
3.9 Limitations and de-limitations

The main limitation for the study will be the easy contamination of the water samples during the
transportation process which can alter the parameters to be tested which will be solved by
accessing an ice cooler box for transportation of the samples to avoid contamination.
The other limitation is the limited access to some of the laboratory equipment and some costs to
be incurred especially in transportation which will be solved by providing some money to ease
the study as well as get access to the equipment required for the study.

24
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