Revision Notes for Class 11 Chemistry

Chapter 7 – Redox Reactions

Oxidation:

a. Oxygen is added. 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

b. Hydrogen is being removed. H 2 S + Cl2 → 2HCl + S

c. Positive charge increases. Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e−

d. Removal of electron Sn 2+ → Sn 4+ + 2e−

Reduction:

a. Oxygen is being removed. CuO + C → Cu + CO

b. Hydrogen is added. S + H 2 → H 2 S

c. Positive charge decreases. Fe3+ + e− → Fe2+

d. Addition of electron. Fe3+ + e− → Fe2+

Oxidation Number

• When an element transitions from its elemental free state to its combined form in
molecules, it develops an imaginary or seeming charge over each atom.

• It is determined using an arbitrary set of rules.

• In a certain bonded condition, it is a relative charge.

• A more practical way of employing oxidation number to keep track of electron-shifts

in chemical reactions involving the synthesis of compounds has been created.

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 • The complete transfer of electrons from a less electronegative atom to a more
electronegative atom is always expected in this procedure.

Rules Governing Oxidation Number

The following rules can be used to calculate the oxidation number of elements in various
compounds. It is important to remember that the electronegativity of the element is the
foundation of these rules.

Atom of Fluorine:

Fluorine is the most electronegative of all the elements (known). In all of its compounds, it
has an oxidation number of –1.

Atom of Oxygen:

Oxygen atoms have an oxidation number of –2 in general, as well as in their oxides.

I.peroxide (e.g. H 2O 2 , Na 2O 2 ) is −1

II.super oxide (e.g. KO 2 ) is −1/ 2

III.ozonide (e.g. KO3 ) is −1/ 3

IV.in OF2 is +2 in O2 F2 is +1

Hydrogen Atom:

The hydrogen atom has an oxidation number of +1 in general. However, it is –1 in metallic

hydrides (e.g. NaH, KH).

Halogen Atom:

In general, all halogen atoms (Cl, Br, and I) have an oxidation number of –1.

If a halogen atom is connected to a more electronegative atom than the halogen atom, the
oxidation numbers will be positive.

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e.g. KClO3 , HIO3 , HClO4 , KBrO3 .

Metals:

a. The oxidation number of alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, etc.) is always +1.

b. The oxidation number of alkaline earth metals (Be, Mg, Ca, etc.) is always +2.

c. The oxidation number of aluminium is always +3.

Note that a metal's oxidation number might be negative or zero.

d. In the free state or in allotropic forms, an element's oxidation number is always zero.

e.g. O02 , S80 , P40

e. The sum of all the oxidation numbers of the atoms in a molecule is zero.

e. The charge on an ion is equal to the sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in
the ion.

e. If an element's group number is n in the contemporary periodic table, its oxidation

number can range from (n – 10) to (n – 18). (but it is mainly applicable for p-block
elements).

Calculation of Average Oxidation Number: Solved Examples

Example-1 : Calculate oxidation number of underlined element

a. Na 2 S2

b. Na 2 S4

a. Let oxidation number of S-atom is x . Now work accordingly with the rules given
before.

(+1)  2 + ( x)  2 + (−2)  3 = 0

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 x = +2

b. Let oxidation number of S -atom is x

 (+1)  2 + ( x)  4 + (−2)  6 = 0

x = + 2.5

It is vital to note that Na 2S2O3 has two S-atoms, whereas Na 2S4 O6 has four S-atoms.
However, none of the sulphur atoms in either compound has an oxidation number of
+2 or + 2.5; instead, the average of the oxidation numbers on each sulphur atom is
used. As a result, we should strive to determine each sulphur atom's specific oxidation
number in these compounds.

Individual Oxidation Number Calculation:

It's vital to remember that in order to calculate the individual oxidation number of an element
in its compound, you'll need to know the structure of the compound and follow the steps
below.

This is the formula:

Number of electrons in the valence shell minus number of electrons taken up after bonding =
oxidation number

Recommendations: It is based on an element's electronegativity.

1. Bonded pair electrons are evenly shared by each element if there is a bond between similar
types of atoms and each atom has the same sort of hybridisation.

Consider the Following Scenario:

Calculate each Cl-oxidation atom's number in the Cl 2 molecule.

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I : Number of electrons in the valence shell = 7

Number of electrons taken up after bonding = 7

 oxidation number = 7 − 7 = 0

II : similarly, oxidation number = 7 − 7 = 0

If a bond exists between different types of atoms, such as A – B (if B is more electronegative
than A), the bound pair of electrons are tallied with the B-atom after bonding.

Consider the following scenario:

Calculate each atom's oxidation number in the HCl molecule.

Electron of H-atom is now counted with Cl-atom, because Cl-atom is more electronegative
than H-atom

H: Number of electrons in the valence shell = 1

Number of electrons taken up after bonding = 0

Oxidation number of H = 1 − 0 = + 1

Cl : Number of electrons in the valence shell = 7

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Number of electrons taken up after bonding = 8

Oxidation number of Cl = 7 - 8 = - 1

Solved Examples Example – 2

Calculate individual oxidation number of each S-atom in Na 2 S2O3 ( sodium thiosulphate)

with the help of its structure.

I (the middle S-atom) is sp3 hybridised (25 percent s-character), while II (the terminal S-
atom) is sp2 (33 percent s-character). As a result, the terminal sulphur atom has a higher
electronegative charge than the central sulphur atom. With the terminal S-atom, the shared
pair of electrons is now counted.

I, S-atom: Number of electrons in the valence shell = 6

Number of electrons left after bonding = 0

Oxidation number of central S -atom = 6 − 0 = + 6

II, S-atom : Number of electrons in the valence shell = 6

Number of electrons left after bonding = 8

Oxidation number of terminal S-atom = 6 − 8 = − 2

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 6 + (−2)
Now, you can also calculate Average Oxidation number of S = = + 2 (as we have
2
calculated before)

Miscellaneous Examples:

In order to determine the exact or individual oxidation number we need to take help
from the structures of the molecules. Some special cases are discussed as follows :

From the structure, it is evident that in CrO5 there are two peroxide linkages and one double
bond. The contribution of each peroxide linkage is −2 . Let the oxidation number of Cr is x .

 x + (−2)2 + (−2) = 0 or x = 6

 Oxidation number of Cr = + 6 Ans.

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From the structure, it is evident that in H 2SO5 , there is one peroxide linkage, two sulphur-
oxygen double bonds and one OH group.

Let the oxidation number of S = x .

 (+1) + (−2) + x + (−2)2 + (−2) + 1 = 0

or x + 2 − 8 or x − 6 = 0 or x = 6

 Oxidation number of S in H 2SO5 is +6 Ans.

Paradox of Fractional Oxidation Number:

The structural parameters demonstrate that the atoms of the element for whom fractional
oxidation state is realised are truly present in distinct oxidation states, and the fractional
oxidation number is the average of oxidation state of all atoms of the element under
investigation. The following bonding scenarios are shown by the species' C3O2 , Br3O8
structure:

In each species, the element highlighted with an asterisk (*) has a different oxidation number
than the rest of the atoms of the same element. This demonstrates that two carbon atoms in
C3O 2 are each in the +2 oxidation state, while the third is in the zero oxidation state, giving a
total of +4/3. The realistic picture, on the other hand, is +2 for two terabytes.

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Likewise in Br3O8 , each of the two terminal bromine atoms are present in +6 oxidation state
and the middle bromine* is present in +4 oxidation state. Once again the average, that is
different from reality, is +16 / 3 .

Oxidising and Reducing Agent:

Oxidising Agent or Oxidant :

Oxidising agents are substances that can oxidise others while reducing themselves during a
chemical process. Oxidants are chemicals that cause an element's oxidation number to
decrease or gain electrons in a redox process. e.g. KMnO4 , K 2Cr2O7 , HNO3 , conc. H 2SO4 etc
are powerful oxidising agents.

Reducing Agent or Reductant :

Reducing agents are substances that can both reduce and oxidise other molecules during a
chemical reaction. Reductants are reagents that increase the oxidation number of an element
or cause the element to lose electrons in a redox reaction. e.g. KI, Na 2 S2O3 etc are the
powerful reducing agents.

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Redox Reaction:

A redox reaction is one in which both oxidation and reduction occur at the same time. The
overall increase in oxidation number must match the total reduction in oxidation number in
all redox processes.e.g.
10FeSO4 + 2KMnO4 + 8H 2SO4 → 5Fe2 (SO4 )3 + 2MnSO4 + K 2SO4 + 8H 2O

Disproportionation Reaction :

A disproportionation reaction is a redox reaction in which the same element present in a

specific molecule in a specific oxidation state is oxidised and reduced at the same time.

Disproportionation reactions are a sort of redox reaction that is unique. In a

disproportionation reaction, one of the reactants must always contain an element that may
exist in at least three oxidation states.
0
2H 2 O 2 (aq) → 2H 2O(l ) + O( g)
2

S8 (s) + 12OH− (aq) → 4 S2− (aq) + 2 S2O32− (aq) + 6H2O(l )

Consider the Following Reations:

2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2

KClO3 plays a role of oxidant and reductant both. Here, Cl present in KClO3 is reduced
and O present in KClO3 is oxidized. Since same element is not oxidized and reduced, so
it is not a disproportionation reaction, although it looks like one.

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 b. NH 4 NO2 → N 2 + 2H 2O

Nirogen in this compound has −3 and +3 oxidation number, which is not a definite
value. So it is not a disporportionation reaction. It is an example of
comproportionation reaction, which is a class of redox reaction in which an element
from two different oxidation state gets converted into a single oxidation state.

List of Some Important Disproportionation Reactions:

1. H 2O2 → H 2O + O2

2. X2 + OH− (dil.) → X − + XO− (X = Cl, Br, I)

F2 does not undergo disproportionation as it is the most electronegative element.

F2 + NaOH (dil.) → F− + OF2

3. (CN)2 + OH− → CN− + OCN−

4. P4 + OH− → PH3 + H2 PO2−

5. S8 + OH− → S2− + S2O32−

6. Oxyacids of Chlorine (Halogens) (+1, +3, +5 Oxidation number)

ClO− → Cl− + ClO−2

ClO−2 → Cl− + ClO3−

ClO3− → NO + HNO3

7. HNO2 → NO + HNO3

Comproportionation is the inverse of disproportionation. By shifting the medium

(from acidic to basic or reverse) in some disproportionation reactions, the reaction
goes in the opposite direction and can be considered a Comproportionation reaction.

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 I− + IO3− + H+ → I2 + H2O

Balancing of Redox Reactions:

All balanced equations must meet two requirements.

1. Atom balance (mass balance): On the reactant and product sides, there should be the
same number of atoms of each species.

2. Charge balance: On both sides of the equation, the sum of real charges must be equal.

The redox equations can be balanced in two ways:

1. Number change technique of oxidation

2. Half-cell method or ion electron method

Because the first approach is not particularly effective in balancing redox reactions, students
are urged to use the second way (Ion electron method) to do so.

Method of Ion Electrons:

Redox equations in two different mediums are adjusted using this method.

a. Acidic Medium and

b. Basic Medium

Balancing in Acidic Medium:

Students are advised to balance redox reactions using the ion electron technique in an acidic
medium by following the procedures below.

Balance the following redox reaction :

FeSO4 + KMnO4 + H 2SO4 → Fe 2 (SO 4 )3 + MnSO4 + H 2O + K 2SO 4

Step-I Assign the oxidation number to each element present in the reaction
FeSO+42 + KMnO4 + H 2SO4 → Fe2 (SO4 )3 + MnSO4 + H 2O

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Step II : Now convert the reaction in Ionic form by eliminating the elements or species,
which are not undergoing either oxidation or reduction.

Fe2+ + MnO−47 → Fe3+ + Mn 2+

Step III : Now identify the oxidation/reduction occuring in the reaction.

Step IV : Spilt the Ionic reaction in two half, one for oxidation and other for reduction.

Fe2+ → Oxidation Fe3+ ∣ MnO4− → Reduction Mn 2+

Step V : Balance the atom other than oxygen and hydrogen atom in both half reactions.

Fe2+ → Fe3+ ∣ MnO−4 → Mn 2+

Step VI :Now balance O and H atom by H2O and H+ respectively by the following way :

For one excess oxygen atom, add one H 2 O on the other side and two H + on the same side.

Fe2+ → Fe3+ (no oxygen atom)

8H+ + MnO−4 → Mn 2+ + 4H2O

Step VII : Equation (i) & (ii) are balanced atomwise. Now balance both equations
chargewise. To balance the charge, add electrons to the electrically positive side.

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Fe2+ → oxidation Fe3+ + e−

5e− + 8H+ + MnO−4 → Reduction Mn 2+ + 4H2O

Step VIII : The number of electrons gained and lost in each half-reaction are equalised by
multiplying both the half reactions with a suitable factor and finally the half reactions are
added to give the overall balanced reaction. Here, we multiply equation (1) by 5 and (2) by 1
and add them :

Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e−   .(1)  5

5e − + 8H + + MnO −4 → Mn 2+ + 4H 2O   ..(2) 1
5Fe 2+ + 8H + + MnO −4 → 5Fe3+ + Mn 2+ + 4H 2O

Step IX : Now convert the ionic reaction into molecular form by adding the elements or
species, which are removed in step (2). Now, by some manipulation, you will get :

5 1
5FeSO4 + KMnO4 + 4H2SO4 → Fe2 (SO4 )3 + MnSO4 + 4H2O + K 2SO4
2 2

10FeSO4 + 2KMnO4 + 8H 2SO4 → 5Fe2 ( SO4 )3 + 2MnSO4 + 8H 2 O + K 2SO4

Balancing in Basic Medium :

In this case, except step VI, all the steps are same. We can understand it by the following
example :

Balance the following redox reaction in basic medium :

ClO− + CrO−2 + OH− → Cl− + CrO42− + H2O

By using upto step V , we will get:

+1
ClO − → Reduction Cl+3

CrO−2 → Oxidation CrO24−

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2H+ + ClO− → Cl− + H2O∣ 2H2O + CrO−2 + 4H+

Now, since we are balancing in basic medium, therefore add as many as OH– on both side of
equation as there are H+ ions in the equation.

2OH− + 2H+ + ClO− → Cl− + H2O + 2OH−

Finally you will get

H2O + ClO− → Cl− + 2OH−

4OH− + 2H2O + CrO2− → CrO24− + 4H+ + 4OH−

Finally you will get

4OH− + CrO−2 → CrO42− + 2H2O

Now see equation (i) and (ii) in which O and H atoms are balanced by OH and H 2 O Now
from step VIII

2e− + H 2O + ClO− → Cl − + 2OH − 3

4OH− + CrO2 − CrO42− + 2H2O + 3e− 2

Adding : 3ClO− + 2CrO−2 + 2OH → 3Cl− + 2CrO42− + H2O

Concept of Equivalents:

Equivalent Mass of Element

The equivalent weight of an element is the number of parts by mass of that element that
reacts or displaces from a compound containing 1.008 parts by mass of hydrogen, 8 parts by
mass of oxygen, and 35.5 parts by mass of chlorine.

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e.g. 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

48 g32 g

12 g8 g

32 g of O2 reacts with 48 g of Mg

48  8
 8 g of O2 = = 12 g
32

 Equivalent weight of Mg = 12

Equivalent Weight (E) :

Atomic weight or molecular weight Mol. wt. M

In general, Eq. wt. (E) = = =
valency factor (v.f) n − factor x

• Number of equivalents = N1V1 for a solution, where N is the normalcy and V is the
volume in litres.

• Equivalent mass is a pure number that is called gramme equivalent mass when given
in grammes.

• Under different situations, the equivalent mass of a substance may have different
values.

• There is no clear and fast rule that the molecular mass will always be less than the
comparable weight.

mass of species
• Number of Equivalents =
eq. wt.of that species

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Valency Factor Calculation:

For elements, the valency factor equals the element's valency.

For acids, the valency factor is the number of hydrogen ions that can be replaced per acid
molecule. Example:

NaOH, KOH

v.f. 1 1

M M
Eq. wt.
1 1

Acid - Base Reation :

The valence factor in an acid-base reaction is the actual number of hydrogen or hydroxide
ion exchanged in the reaction. There may be more hydrogen or hydroxide ion replaceable in
the acid or base than is actually replaced in the reaction. The number of hydrogen ions from
the acid that are replaced by each molecule of the base is denoted by v. f.

Example:

2NaOH + H 2SO4 → Na 2SO4 + 2H 2O

Base acid

Valency factor of base = 1

Here, two molecule of NaOH replaced 2H + ion from the H 2SO4 . Therefore, each molecule of
NaOH replaced only one H + ion of acid, so v.f = 1

• v. f. for acid is the number of OH− replaced from the base by each molecule of acid.

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Salts :

a. ln Non-Reacting Condition

The total amount of positive or negative charges present in the chemical is referred to
as the valency factor. Example:

Na 2 CO3 , Fe 2 ( SO 4 )3

v.f. 22  3 = 6

M M
Eq. wt. & &
2 6

b. In Reacting Condition: Example

Na 2CO3 + HCl → NaHCO3 + NaCl

base acid

Because it is an acid-base reaction, the valency factor for sodium carbonate is one,
while it is two in the non-reacting state.

c. Equivalent Weight of Oxidising / Reducing Agents in a Redox Reaction

v.f. = Total change in oxidation number per molecule in the case of a redox change.

Example: KMnO4 + H2O2 → Mn 2+ + O2

Mn in KMnO4 is going from +7 to +2 , so change in oxidation number per molecule

M
of KMnO4 is 5 . So the valency factor of KMnO4 is 5 and equivalent weight is .
5

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Normality:

The number of equivalents of solute present in one litre (1000 mL) solution is known as the
solution's normality. Let V mL of solution be made by dissolving W g of equivalent weight
E solute in water.

W
Number of equivalents of solute =
E

W
VmL of solution contain equivalents of solute
E

W 1000
1000 mL solution will contain equivalents of solute
EV

W 1000
Normality (N) =
EV

Normality (N) = Molarity  Valency factor N  V(inmL) = M  V( in mL)  n

or

milliequivalents = millimoles n

Example:

Calculate the normality of a solution containing 15.8 g of KMnO4 in 50 mL acidic solution.

W 1000
Normality (N) =
E V

Here

W = 15.8 g, V = 50 mL

molar mass of KMnO4

E= = 158 / 5 = 31.6
Valency factor

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 So, normality = 10 N

Law of Equivalence:

One equivalent of one element combines with one equivalent of the other, according to the
law. Equivalents and milliequivalents of reactants react in the same proportion in a chemical
reaction to produce the same number of equivalents or milli equivalents of products
separately.

I. aA + bB → mM + nN

meq of A = meq of B = meq of M = m .eq. of N

II. In a compound Mx Ny

meq of M x N y = meq of M = meq of N

Example:

Find the number of moles of KMnO4 needed to oxidise one mole Cu 2 S in acidic
medium. The reaction is KMnO4 + Cu 2 S → Mn 2+ + Cu 2+ + SO2

From law of equivalence,

equivalents of Cu 2 S = equivalents of KMnO4

moles of Cu 2 S  v  f = moles of kMnO4  v  f

1 8 = moles of KMnO4  5  moles of KMnO4 = 8 / 5

( v.f. of Cu 2 S = 2(2 − 1) + 1(4 − (−2)) = 8 and v.f . of KMnO 4 = 1(7 − 2) = 5 )

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Example: The number of moles of oxalate ions oxidized by one mole of MnO−4 ion in
acidic medium are :

5
a.
2

2
b.
5

3
c.
5

5
d.
3

Equivalents of C2O24− = equivalents of MnO−4

x( mole )  2 = 1 5

( v.f. of C2O24− = 2(4 − 3) = 2 and v.f. of MnO−4 = 1(7 − 2) = 5 .

5
x= mole of C2O42− ions.
2

Example: How many millilitres of 0.02MKMnO4 solution would be required to exactly

titrate 25 mL of 0.2MFe ( NO3 )2 solution in acidic medium ?

At the equivalence point,

milliequivalents of MnO−4 = milliequivalents of Fe2+

M1  vf1  V1 = M 2  vf 2  V2

0.02  5  V1 = 0.2 1 25

MnO−4 → Mn 2+ ; v  f 2 = 5, Fe2+ → Fe3+ ; v.f , = 1

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 V1 = 50 mL

Titrations:

Titration is a method of estimating a solution's concentration by allowing a precisely

measured volume to react with a known-concentration standard solution of another
substance.

A standard solution is a known concentration solution that is taken in a burette. Titrant is

another name for it.

There are Two Types of Titrants

Primary Titrants/Standards - These reagents can be precisely weighed, and their solutions
do not require standardisation before use. Example: oxalic acid, ferrous ammonium sulfate.

Secondary Titrants/Standards: Because these reagents cannot be precisely weighed, their

solutions must be standardised prior to use. Example: NaOH,KOH

Titrate: A solution containing the chemical to be measured, usually in a beaker.

The point at which the number of titrant equivalents added equals the number of titrate
equivalents is known as the equivalence point.

At equivalence point:

n1 V1M1 = n 2 V2 M 2

Indicators:

Auxiliary material added to allow physical detection of titration completion at the

equivalence point. When the titration is finished, the colour usually changes.

Titrations come in a variety of shapes and sizes.

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Types of Indicators:

• Titrations of acid and base (to be studied in Ionic equilibrium)

• Permanganate titration:

In acidic media, KMnO4 is commonly used as an oxidising agent, which is usually provided
by dilute H 2SO 4 . The persistent pink colour of KMnO4 serves as a self-indicator of the
termination point.

oxalic acid, oxalates, H 2 O 2 and other elements are commonly measured.

Example: Write the balanced reaction of titration of KMnO4 Vs oxalic acid in presence
of H 2SO4 .

Reaction:

2KMnO4 + 3H 2SO4 + 5H 2C2O4 → K 2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H 2O + 10CO2

 M
Redox Changes C32+ → 2C4+ + 2e  E H c O = 
 2 2 4
2

 M
5e− + Mn 7 + → Mn 2+  E kMnO4 = 
 5 

Indicator : KMnO4 acts as self indicator.

Hydrogen Peroxide:

In both mediums, H 2 O 2 can act as an oxidising and reducing agent (acidic and basic).

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Oxidising Agent: ( H 2O2 → H 2O )

a. Acidic Medium: 2e− + 2H+ + H2O2 → 2H2O

vf = 2

b. Basic Medium: 2e− + H2O2 → 2OH−

vf = 2

Reducing Agent: ( H 2 O 2 → O 2 )

a. Acidic Medium:

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 H2O2 → O2 + 2H+ + 2e−
vf f = 2

b. Basic Medium: 2OH− + H2O2 → O2 + 2H2O + 2e−

vf = 2

Note: Valency factor of hydrogen peroxide is always 2.

Volume strength of H 2 O 2 : Strength of H 2 O 2 is represented as 10 V, 20 V,30 V etc.

20VH 2 O 2 means one litre of this sample of H 2 O 2 on decomposition gives 20L of O 2 gas of
STP. Decomposition of H 2 O 2 is given as :

1
H 2 O2 → H 2 O + O 2
2

1
1 mole  22.4 LO2 at STP
2

= 34 g = 11.2 LO2 at STP

To obtain 11.2 litre O 2 at STP, at least 34 gH 2O2 must be decomposed.

34
For 20 LO2 , we should decompose atleast  20 gH2O2
11.2

34
 1 L solution of H 2 O 2 contains  20 gH2O2
11.2

34 20  M 34 
 1 L solution of H 2 O 2 contains  equivalents of H 2O2  E H 2O2 = = = 17 
11.2 17  2 2 

34 20 20
Nomality of H2O2 =  =
11.2 17 5.6

Volume strength of H 2O2

Normality of H2O2 ( N) =
5.6

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 N H 2O2 N H 2O2
M H 2O2 = =
v.f. 2

Volume strength of H2O2

Molarity of H2O2 (M) = Strength (in g / L) : Denoted by S Strength
11.2
= Molarity  Mol. wt = Molarity 34

Strength = Normality Eq. weight = Normality 17

Example: 20 mL of H 2 O 2 after acidification with dilute H 2SO4 required 30 mL of

N
KMnO4 for complete oxidation. Final the strength. of H 2 O 2 solution. (Molar mass of
12
H 2 O 2 = 34 )

meq. of KMnO4 = meq. of H 2 O 2

1
30  = 20  N
12

30
N =
12  20

1
= N
8

1
strength = N  equivalent mass = 17 = 2.12 g / L
8

Hardness of water (Hard water does not give lather with soap):

Ca and Mg bicarbonates cause temporary hardness.

Ca and Mg chlorides and sulphates cause permanent hardness. We can soften the water
sample using a few different methods.

Class XI Chemistry www.vedantu.com 26

a. By boiling

2HCO3− → H2O + CO2 + CO32−

b. By washing soda

CaCl2 + Na 2CO3 → CaCO3 + 2NaCl

Parts Per Million(ppm): This concentration phrase is used when the solute is present in a
very small amount. It's the number of parts of the solute in every million parts of the
solution. ppm can be expressed in units of mass or moles. If nothing else is mentioned, we
assume ppm refers to mass. As a result, a 100 ppm solution has 100 g of solute per 1000000g
of solution.

mass of A
ppmA = 106 = mass fraction 106
Total mass

Measurement of Hardness:

Hardness is measured in terms of ppm (parts per million) of CaCO3 or equivalent to it.

mass of CaCO3
Hardness in ppm = 106
Total mass of solution

Example: 0.00012%MgSO4 and 0.000111%CaCl2 is present in water. What is the

measured hardness of water and millimoles of washing soda required to purify water
1000 L water ?

Basis of calculation = 100 g hard water

0.00012
MgSO4 = 0.00012 g = mole
120

0.000111
CaCl2 = 0.000111 g = mole
111

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  0.00012 0.000111 
equivalent moles of CaCO3 =  +  mole
 120 111 

 0.00012 0.000111  −4
mass of CaCO3 =  +  100 = 2 10 g
 120 111 

2 10−4
Hardness (in terms of ppm of CaCO3 ) = 106 = 2ppm
100

CaCl2 + Na 2CO3 → CaCO3 + 2NaCl

MgSO4 + Na 2CO3 → MgCO3 + Na 2SO4

 0.00012 0.000111 
Required Na 2CO3 for 100 g of water =  +  mole
 120 111 

= 2 10−6 mole

2 10−6 2
Required Na 2CO3 for 1000 litre water = 106 = mole ( d = lg / mL)
100 100

20
= mole = 20 m mole
1000

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