IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1 What are carbohydrates? Mention three main type of carbohydrates and give the classification of
carbohydrates and Discuss cellulose based water filter.
2 What are proteins? Discuss meat as an analogues of protein, give the examples of meat alternative proteins,
mention the plant based proteins.
3 What are lipids? Explain bio-diesel and the production of bio-diesels.
4 What is bio-bleaching? Discuss ligninolytic enzyme bio-bleaching technique.
5 What are enzymes? Discuss the classification of enzymes. Discuss bio-sensing application of enzyme as
glucose level analysis in blood sample with neat figure.
6 What due you mean by m-RNA, explain m-RNA as vaccine and explain m-RNA vaccine for Covid-19.
7 What is DNA and RNA, what are nucleosides mention nitrogen basis of RNA and DNA?
8 What is PLA? Discuss PLA as Bioplastic.
9 Discuss PHA bio-plastic.
10 Discuss DNA as a vaccine and also vaccine for rabies
11 Discuss forensic application of DNA finger printing and steps involved in DNA finger printing
12 Mention plant based proteins and animal based proteins.
13 Discuss cleaning agents and detergents applications of lipids.
CARBOHYDRATES APPLICATIONS
WHAT ARE CARBOHYDRATES
• Carbohydrates are macronutrients and are
one of the three main ways by which our body
obtains its energy.
• They are called carbohydrates as they
comprise carbon, hydrogen and oxygen at
their chemical level.
• Carbohydrates are essential nutrients which
include sugars, fibers and starches.
• They are found in grains, vegetables, fruits
and in milk and other dairy products.
• They are the basic food groups which play an
important role in a healthy life.
CLASSIFICATION

Simple Complex
 APPLICATIONS
⮚Cellulose-Based Water Filters:
• Cellulose is a polymer made up of glucose subunits.
• Cellulose filter papers are versatile and diverse tools for microfiltration,
that work by trapping particulates within a random matrix of cellulose
fibers.
• Cellulose is among the most commonly used fibers in filtration media.
• This versatile, proven, and cost-effective material is made from
renewable resources and compatible with a multitude of filter
production processes, such as embossing, corrugating, and pleating.
• Cellulose filter media is widely used in a range of applications. Each
product platform has been highly engineered to optimize fiber content,
structure, resin chemistry, and other characteristics. Common
applications for cellulose media are:
• Gas turbine filtration
• Fuel and oil filtration
• Engine air intake filters
• Coalescing filters
• Hydraulic filters
• Process liquid operations
▪ Similar to traditional papermaking, cellulose media is manufactured using a wet laid process. The result is a
filtration media platform suitable for a broad range of filtration applications, with the ability to capture an array
of particles down to nanoparticles. Cellulose filter media can be made from pure cellulose fibers or cellulose
fibers mixed with synthetic fibers or glass fibers for enhanced properties. It serves as a diverse and versatile
filtration solution that functions by trapping contaminants and other particles within a matrix of fibers.
▪ There are different grades of cellulose filter media designed to meet application-specific requirements. Grades
are formulated from different combinations of fibers and resin systems, each providing different physical
properties, chemical resistance, filtration efficiency, pressure drop, and flow characteristics. While each grade
may differ in its capability and composition, all cellulose filter media contain resin and cellulose fibers.
▪ Cellulose filtration media offers a host of benefits, including:
• Renewable fiber sources
• High strength and durability
• Large surface area
• Chemical stability
• Temperature stability
• Strong adhesion to glass
• Good value

▪ Cellulose can lose mechanical strength in certain chemical or high-temperature environments and absorb water
in high-humidity conditions, potentially altering its filtration properties.
⮚ PHA and PLA as bioplastics:
Bioplastics are one type of plastic which can be generated from natural
resources such as starches and vegetable oils.
1. PHA- (Polyhydroxyalkanoates)
• PHAs can be defined as a family of intracellular biopolymers that are
synthesized via various bacteria as intracellular carbon and energy
storage granules.
• These renewable polyesters can be produced by various microorganisms
in response to various stress conditions (for example, excess carbon or
limited phosphate, nitrogen, sulfur, or oxygen) and provide protection
from nutrient starvation and extreme conditions.
• PHAs characteristics include, water insolubility, relative resistant to
hydrolytic degradation, biocompatibility and suitability for medical
applications, as well as nontoxicity.
• Although, PHAs are not water soluble, they are still degradable and
biocompatible. In addition, PHAs are considered less sticky than other
polymers once heated, and they sink in water which facilitates their
anaerobic biodegradation in sediments.
• Due to their biodegradable nature, PHAs are intended to replace
synthetic non-degradable polymers for various applications, such as:
packaging, fast food, medicine, biomedical, and agricultural applications
2. PLA- (Polylactic acid)
• Polylactic acid or polylactide (PLA) is a polyester derived from
renewable biomass, typically from fermented plant starch, such as
corn, cassava, sugarcane or sugar beet pulp.
• PLA is a polyester (polymer containing the ester group) made with
two possible monomers or building blocks: lactic acid, and lactide.
• PLA is biodegradable under appropriate conditions and is generally
regarded as food safe since it decomposes back into its lactic acid
building blocks, which are non-toxic.
• However, it must be noted that PLA does not degrade naturally in the
environment and must be composted under a special set of
conditions such as a temperature of at least 60 °C, and humidity of 90
% which must be maintained over a period of 60 to 90 days.
• PLA decomposes into carbon dioxide, lactic acid, and water.
• PLA is used in food packaging and disposable cutlery and can be
formed into fibers for clothing. It is also one of the most widely used
3D printing filaments for fused deposition modeling (FDM) due to its
low melt temperature and its ease of use.
• Compared to PLA, PHAs are both compostable and biodegradable in
marine environments. On the other hand, PLA is compostable but
may stay for up to a thousand years in the marine environment
 NUCLEIC ACIDS
▪ Nucleic acids are naturally occurring chemical
compounds that serve as the primary
information-carrying molecules in cells. They
play an especially important role in directing
protein synthesis. The two main classes of
nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
▪ Nucleic acids are long chainlike molecules
composed of a series of nearly identical building
blocks called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogen-containing
aromatic base attached to a pentose (five-
carbon) sugar, which is in turn attached to
a phosphate group.
▪ Each nucleic acid contains four of five possible
nitrogen-
containing bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosi
ne (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U). A and G are
categorized as purines, and C, T, and U are
called pyrimidines. All nucleic acids contain the
bases A, C, and G; T, however, is found only in
DNA, while U is found in RNA.
 DNA VACCINES
▪ A DNA vaccine is a type
of vaccine that transfects a specific antigen-
coding DNA sequence into the cells of an
organism as a mechanism to induce an
immune response.
▪ DNA vaccines, which are often referred to as
the third-generation vaccines, use engineered
DNA to induce an immunologic response in the
host against bacteria, parasites, viruses, and
potentially cancer.
▪ Like any other type of vaccine, DNA vaccines
induce an adaptive immune response. The
basic working principle behind any DNA
vaccine involves the use of a DNA plasmid that
encodes for a protein that originated from the
pathogen in which the vaccine will be targeted.
▪ Plasmid DNA (pDNA) is inexpensive, stable,
and relatively safe, thereby allowing this non-
viral platform to be considered an excellent
option for gene delivery. Some of the different
virus vectors that have been used to source
pDNA include onco-retroviruses, lentiviruses,
adenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses, and
Herpes simplex-1.
 DNA VACCINES FOR RABIES
▪ Rabies is a simple, negative-stranded RNA virus
that encodes five structural proteins, that is, the
nucleoprotein (NP), the glycoprotein (G), the
phosphoprotein (P), the matrix protein (M), and
the polymerase (L). Correlates of protection are
well defined, and virus-neutralizing antibodies
(VNAs) present in serum at titers of or above 0.5
international units (IU)/mL provide protection.
▪ Protection from rabies is commensurate with the
presence of adequate amounts of virus
neutralizing anti- bodies, principally targeted
against the rabies virus glycoprotein. The tools of
recombinant DNA technology allow facile cloning
of the glycoprotein gene into suit- able expression
vectors which mediate efficient in vivo expression
of glycoprotein.
▪ DNA vaccination has been proposed as a
cheaper and efficient strategy for rabies
prophylaxis, and its feasibility has been
demonstrated in a number of animal models
including companion animals, since 1994.
 RNA VACCINES
▪ Vaccines help prevent infection by
preparing the body to fight foreign invaders
(such as bacteria, viruses, or other
pathogens). All vaccines introduce into the
body a harmless piece of a particular
bacteria or virus, triggering an immune
response. Most vaccines contain a
weakened or dead bacteria or virus.
▪ However, scientists have developed a new
type of vaccine that uses a molecule called
messenger RNA (mRNA) rather than part of
an actual bacteria or virus. Messenger
RNA is a type of RNA that is necessary for
protein production. Once cells finish
making a protein, they quickly break down
the mRNA. mRNA from vaccines does not
enter the nucleus and does not alter DNA.
▪ mRNA vaccines work by introducing a piece
of mRNA that corresponds to a viral protein,
usually a small piece of a protein found on
the virus’s outer membrane.
 RNA VACCINES FOR COVID-19

▪ Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) is a molecule

that provides cells with instructions for making
proteins. mRNA vaccines contain the instructions for
making the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. This protein
is found on the surface of the virus that causes
COVID-19.
▪ COVID-19 mRNA vaccines are given by injection,
usually into the muscle of the upper arm. After the
protein piece is made, the cell breaks down the
instructions and gets rid of them. The mRNA never
enters the central part (nucleus) of the cell, which is
where our DNA (genetic material) is found. Your DNA
can't be altered by mRNA vaccines.
▪ The cell then displays the protein piece on its surface.
Our immune system recognizes that the protein
doesn't belong there and begins building an immune
response and making antibodies.
 FORENSICS-DNA FINGERPRINTING

▪ DNA fingerprinting (also called DNA

profiling or forensic genetics) is a technique
employed by forensic scientists to assist in the
identification of individuals or samples by
their respective DNA profiles.
▪ Although more than 99.1% of the genome is
the same throughout the human population,
the remaining 0.9% of human DNA shows
variations between individuals.
▪ These variable DNA sequences, termed
polymorphic markers, can be used to both
differentiate and correlate individuals.
▪ Alec Jeffreys, a geneticist at the University of
Leicester in Britain, invented the first usable
version of DNA fingerprinting in 1984. Few
years later, a chemical company, Imperial
Chemical Industries (ICI), launched the first
kit commercially available.
 STEPS INVOLVED IN DNA FINGERPRINTING

Isolating the DNA.

↓
Digesting the DNA with the help of
restriction endonuclease enzymes.
↓
Separating the digested fragments as
per the fragment size by the process of
electrophoresis.
↓
Blotting the separated fragments onto
synthetic membranes like nylon.
↓
Hybridising the fragments using
labelled VNTR probes.
↓
Analysing the hybrid fragments using
autoradiography.
PROTEINS AS
FOOD
 Introduction
• All biologically produced proteins can be
used as food. However, proteins used as
foods can be defined as those that are
easily digestible, nontoxic, nutritionally
adequate, functionally useable in food
products and available in abundance.
• Dietary proteins are found in animal-
based foods, plant-based foods, and
alternative sources such as algae,
bacteria, and fungi (mycoproteins).
• Traditionally, milk, meats (fish and
poultry), eggs, cereals and oil seeds have
been used as major source of proteins as
food, but as the human population is
increasing new sources of proteins needs
to be developed to meet the future
demand.
Whey proteins
• Whey is the watery part of the milk remaining after the
proteinaceous mass that results from the coagulation of milk
by acids or proteolytic enzymes.
• It is the largest by product of the dairy industry both in
terms of volume and milk solids.
• Through new technologies, whey and its components
become versatile ingredients and have high economic
values.
• Whey and whey components are viewed as value-added
ingredients in infant formulas, sports nutrition foods and
beverages, and other food products.
• Whey products improve the texture, extends shelf life,
provides stability, improves flow properties, enhances both
the taste and the colour thus can be used as a food
ingredient.
• The health benefits of whey protein and whey proteins have
been a subject of growing commercial interest in the context
of health-promoting functional foods.
Meat analogues
• Analogue can be defined as compound that is
structurally similar to another but differs slightly in
composition, here the meat analogue is the food which
structurally similar to meat but differs in composition.
• Meat analogues are plant-based products designed to
replace meat.
• The supplement of protein in vegetarian diet through
meat alike food can be fulfilled by incorporating
protein rich vegetative food grade materials in meat
analogue and by adopting proper technological process
which can promote the proper fabrication of meat
analogue with acceptable meat like texture,
appearance, flavor etc.
Examples of meat alternatives include :
• Mycoprotein – protein sourced from fungi:
➢ Mycoprotein is a meat substitute made from a fungus called
Fusarium venenatum.
➢ This species of fungus is high in protein, is able to be grown in
large quantities and to be formed into a solid end-product.
• Tofu (bean curd) – made from coagulated soy milk:
➢ It is produced in a similar way to cheese, with the most
important step being the coagulation of proteins from
soybeans then these coagulated proteins are pressed into
blocks.
• Tempeh – fermented soybeans pressed into blocks:
➢ To make tempeh, whole soybeans are fermented (broken
down) by a fungus called Rhizopus oligosporus.
➢ Tempeh has a stronger flavour and typically a firmer
consistency. It can be aged to develop this flavour further.
• Textured vegetable protein (TVP) – from soy beans:
➢ Textured vegetable protein (TVP) is made from a by-product
of soybean oil production. The protein is separated from the
fat and formed into various shapes.
Plant based proteins
• A transition towards a more sustainable diet entails less
reliance on animal-based proteins, instigating agri-food
industries to search for novel and alternative protein
sources.
• Plant based protein refers to plant-based products that are
direct replacement to animal-based protein products.
• These products use the biomimicry approach to replicate the
animal-based protein products in terms of texture and flavor.
• Plant sources like soy, lentils, jackfruit, broccoli, ragi etc., can
be used to make products that can replace animal-based
meat, egg and seafood.
• Plant proteins are derived mostly from ‘cereals and cereal
products’ (24%), ‘rice, pasta and bread’ food group (18%),
followed by ‘vegetables and potatoes’ (8%), ‘fruit’ (1%), and
‘nuts and seeds’ (1%).
• Plant-protein-based dairy and meat alternatives can provide
an equal quantity at significantly lower costs while reducing
forest destruction and greenhouse gas emissions.
 LIPIDS
▪ Lipids are fatty, waxy, or oily compounds that
are soluble in organic solvents and insoluble
in polar solvents such as water. Lipids include:
✓ Fats and oils (triglycerides)
✓ Phospholipids
✓ Waxes
✓ Steroids
▪ Lipids are an essential component of the cell
membrane. The structure is typically made of a
glycerol backbone, 2 fatty acid tails
(hydrophobic), and a phosphate group
(hydrophilic). As such, phospholipids are
amphipathic.
▪ In the cell membrane, phospholipids are
arranged in a bilayer manner, providing cell
protection and serving as a barrier to certain
molecules. The hydrophilic part faces outward
and the hydrophobic part faces inward. This
arrangement helps monitor which molecules can
enter and exit the cell.
 BIODIESEL
▪ Biodiesel is an alternative fuel similar to conventional
or ‘fossil’ diesel. Biodiesel can be produced from
straight vegetable oil, animal oil/fats, tallow and waste
cooking oil. The process used to convert these oils to
Biodiesel is called transesterification.
▪ The largest possible source of suitable oil comes from
oil crops such as rapeseed, palm or soybean. In the UK
rapeseed represents the greatest potential for
biodiesel production. Most biodiesel produced at
present is produced from waste vegetable oil sourced
from restaurants, chip shops, industrial food producers
such as Birdseye etc. Rapeseed fields produce vivid colours

▪ Biodiesel has many environmentally beneficial

properties. The main benefit of biodiesel is that it can
be described as ‘carbon neutral’. This means that the
fuel produces no net output of carbon in the form of
carbon dioxide (CO2). This effect occurs because when
the oil crop grows it absorbs the same amount of CO2
as is released when the fuel is combusted.
 CLEANING AGENTS / DETERGENTS
▪ A detergent is a [email protected] or mixture of surfactants that has
cleaning properties in dilute solution with water. A detergent is similar to soap, but
with a general structure R-SO4-, Na+, where R is a long-
chain [email protected]
▪ Like soaps, detergents are amphiphilic, meaning they have both hydrophobic and
hydrophilic regions. Most detergents are akyl benzenesulfonates.
▪ Detergents tend to be more soluble in than soap because the sulfonate of detergent
doesn't bind calcium and other in hard water as easily as the carboxylate in soap
does.
▪ Types of Detergents:
▪ Anionic detergents: [email protected] detergents have a net negative
electrical charge. Commercial anionic detergents are usually alkyl beneze sulfonates.
The alkylbenzene is lipophilic and hydrophobic, so it can interact with fats and oils.
The sulfonate is hydrophilic, so it can wash away soiling in water.
▪ Cationic detergents: Cationic detergents have a net positive electrical charge. The
chemical structures of cationic detergents are similar to those of anionic detergents,
but the sulfonate group is replaced by quaternary ammonium.
▪ Non-ionic detergents: Non-ionic detergents contain an uncharged hydrophilic group.
Usually, these compounds are based on a glycoside (sugar alcohol) or polyoxyethylene.
Examples of non-ionic detergents include Triton, Tween, Brij, octyl thioglucoside, and
maltoside.
▪ Zwitterionic detergents: Zwitterionic detergents have equal numbers of +1 and -1
charges, so their net charge is 0. An example is CHAPS, which is 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)
dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate.
ENZYMES APPLICATIONS
 WHAT ARE ENZYMES
• Enzymes are biological catalysts (also known as
biocatalysts) that speed up biochemical reactions in
living organisms, and which can be extracted from
cells and then used to catalyze a wide range of
commercially important processes.
• Each enzyme has an “active site” which has a unique
shape. The substance an enzyme works on is a
substrate which also has a unique shape.
• The enzyme and the substrate must fit together to
work.
• The enzyme is not destroyed during the reaction and
is used over and over.
• A cell contains thousands of different types of enzyme
molecules, each specific to a particular chemical
reaction.
• Enzymes need optimum conditions to work. If
conditions aren’t right, enzymes can change shape
hence, the substrate no longer fits and reaction doesn’t
occur.
CLASSIFICATION
According to the type of reactions that the enzymes catalyze, enzymes are classified into seven categories,
which are oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, ligases, and translocases.
Oxidoreductases, transferases and hydrolases are the most abundant forms of enzymes. Individual enzyme
classes are further classified systematically based on the chemical name of the substrate and its reaction
mechanism.
 APPLICATIONS
⮚ Bio-Sensors:
• A biosensor is a device that uses a living organism or biological molecules,
especially enzymes or antibodies, to detect the presence of chemicals.
• Glucose sensors are biosensors designed to detect glucose levels, which is vital
to managing diabetes and use Glucose oxidase enzymes for detection.
• Glucose oxidase (GOx) is a subset of oxidoreductase enzymes.
• Glucose oxidase, along with catalase, is used in glucose testing kits (especially
in biosensors) to detect and measure the presence of glucose in industrial and
biological solutions (e.g., blood and urine specimens).
• The biosensor has a bienzymatic sensor phase consisting of glucose oxidase
and horseradish peroxidase (HRP), with ferrocyanide as an electron-transfer
mediator.
• The enzyme glucose oxidase reacts with glucose, water, and oxygen to form
gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide.
• The hydrogen peroxide can then be used to oxidize a chromogen or the
consumption of oxygen measured to estimate the amount of glucose present.
• Usually HRP catalyses the oxidation of ferrocyanide to ferricyanide, consuming
the hydrogen peroxide previously generated.
• The analytical signal is the current intensity due to the electrochemical
reduction of the enzymatically generated ferricyanide and Glucose level is
estimated by measuring the amount of ferricyanide produced.
⮚ Bio-Bleaching:
• The use of bacteria or enzymes or biological agents in the removal of color
is termed as bio bleaching.
• General concern about the environmental impact of chlorine bleaching
effluents has led to a trend towards totally chlorine free bleaching
methods.
• Organochlorine compounds have been the matter of concern in the pulp
and paper industry. These compounds are produced mainly by the
reactions between residual lignin present in wood fibers and the chlorine
used for bleaching.
• Some of these compounds are found to be toxic, mutagenic, persistent,
bioaccumulating and to cause harm to biological systems hence,
considerable interest has been focused on the use of biotechnology in pulp
bleaching, as large number of microbes and the enzymes produced by them
are known to be capable of preferential degradation of native lignin and
complete degradation of wood.
• Ligninolytic enzymes are most effective because it directly attacks on lignin.
• Lignin-oxidizing species are called white rot fungi, because they typically
turn wood white as it decays.
• Ligninolytic enzymes play a key role in degradation and detoxification of
lignocellulosic waste in environment. The major ligninolytic enzymes are
laccase, lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, and versatile
peroxidase.
• Ligninolytic enzymes identified till now are identified as extracellular,
nonspecific enzymes participating in various oxidative reactions, wherever
bonds between the basic units and the aromatic structure of lignin are broken.