RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANTS (BMEM654B)

Module 2
Solar Power Plants: Measurement of Solar Radiation: Pyrometer, shading ring
Pyrheliometer, sunshine recorder, schematic diagrams and principle of working. Solar
Thermal Conversion: Collection and storage, thermal collection devices.
Fundamentals of solar energy and photovoltaic (PV) technology, Types of solar power plants:
gridtied, offgrid, and hybrid systems, Design considerations for solar power plants: site
selection, orientation, and shading analysis, PV system components and their functionalities,
Operation, maintenance, and performance monitoring of solar power plants

2.1 Measurement of Solar Radiation:

Measurement of solar radiation is crucial for various applications such as solar energy generation,
climate studies, and agricultural planning. It is typically measured using instruments that capture
and quantify the energy coming from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation. There are
several key methods and tools used for measuring solar radiation:

Three basic types of instruments are employed for solar radiation measurements

[1] Pyrheliometer, which collimated the radiation to determine the beam

intensity as a function of incident angle and

[2] Pyronameter, which measures the total hemispherical solar radiationcalled the
solar constant.

[3] Sunshine Recorder

PYRHELIOMETER:

Fig. Pyrheliometer

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A Pyrheliometer is an instrument which measures beam radiation. In contrast to a
pyranometer, the sensor disc is located at the base a tube whose axis is aligned with the
direction of the sun’s rays. Thus, diffuse radiation as essentially blocked for the sensor surface.
 The instrument is used with a tracking mechanism to follow the sun continuously.
 It is responsive wavelength bands that range from 280nm to 3000nm. The units
ofirradiance are W/m2
 The instruments are specially used for weather monitoring and climatological
research purpose.
 It consists of a blackened silver disc positioned at the lower end of a tube.
 The entry has an opening with an aperture angel of 5.7O and the tube is provided with
diaphragm to limit the aperture angel of the radiation.
 A thermocouple is attached at the bottom of the disc and connected to an instrument
indicating the EMF developed by the thermocouple.
 The tube axis is aligned in the direction of the solar radiation.
 A tacking mechanism is provided to align the tube properly, the aperture opening plus
the tube alignment ensures the falling of the beam radiation on the disc at the bottom
surface of the tube.
 The EMF is measured on the indicator is taken as a measure of the radiation.

PYRANOMETER:

Fig. Pyranometer
A Pyranometer is an instrument which measure’s either global or diffuse radiation falling

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on a horizontal surface over a hemispherical field of view. Sketch of one type of
Pyranometer as installed for measuring global radiation is shown in the following figure

 Pyranometer consists of a black surface which heats up when exposed to solar radiation.

 It’s temperature increases until the rate of heat gain by solar radiation equals the rate of
heatloss by convection, conduction and radiation.

 The hot junctions of thermopile are attached to the black surface, while the cold junctions
are located under a guard plate so that they do not receive the radiation directly
 As a result, an emf is generated. This emf which is usually in the range of 0 to10mv can
be read, recorded or integrated over a period of time and is a measure of global radiation.

 The pyranometer can also be used for measurement of diffuse radiation. This is done by
mounting it at the center of a semicircular shading ring.

 The shading ring is fixed in such a way that its plane is parallel to the plane of path of sun’s
daily movement across the sky and it shades the thermopile element and two glass domes
of pyranometer at all the times from direct sun shine.

 Consequently, the Pyranometer measures only the diffuse radiation received from the sky.

SUNSHINE RECORDER:

 It consists of a glass sphere of about 100mm diameter.

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 It is mounted concentrically in spherical bowl with grooves, its axis is held parallel to
theaxis of the earth

 The sphere acts as a lens and focusses the sun’s image along a special thermal sensitive
paper strip marked with a time scale.

 When the radiation intensity is above 200W/m2, it creates a burnt impression

 As the sun moves a burnt image is created along the paper strip indicating the bright
sunshine periods along the strip.

 The sphere is supported in various fashion depending upon the place of measurements,
like polar latitude.

2.2 Solar Thermal Conversion: Collection and storage, thermal collection

devices.

Solar thermal conversion is the process of using solar energy to generate heat for a variety of applications,
such as space heating, water heating, or electricity generation. This process typically involves three main
stages: solar collection, thermal storage, and heat conversion.

Solar Thermal Conversion & Storage:

Solar energy collection involves the absorption of solar radiation by exposing a dark
surface to the radiation. A part of the absorbed radiation is transferred to a medium (air
or water) for further utilization. The thermal energy collected can be of low-temperature
type used for the heating and cooling of buildings or high-temperature type used for the
generation of electricity.
Flat plate collector

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 The schematic diagram of a FPC is as shown in fig. it consists of a casing either made up
of wood or plastic having an area of about 2m*1m*15cm.
 The casing insulator is provided at the bottom to check conductive heat transfer,
mineral wool, glass wool, fibre glass, asbestos thermocol etc. are used as insulator.
 Above the insulator the absorber plate is fixed. The absorber plate is made of good
conducting material like aluminum or copper.
 It is coated black to increase its absorption property. Usually, the black coating is done
by chemical treatment.
 In the flat plate collector as shown in the figure a blackened sheet of metal is used to
absorb all the sunlight, direct, diffuse and terrestrially reflected.
 A sheet of metal coated in black has the property of absorbing the sunlight falling on it
and convert into heat
 The heat generated in the sheet of metal is subsequently transferred to the other Fluids
like air, water etc
 The heat energy will be continuously transferred to the fluid after the blackened surface
attains a temperature at which the equilibrium state is established between the rate at
which the Solar Energy is absorbed and the rate at which the heat energy is transferred
to the fluid.
 When the conduction Convection and radiation losses during absorption generation
and transfer are prevented this method of solar energy conversion will have very high
conversion efficiencies even as high as 100%
Evacuated Tubular Collector

Fig.: Evacuated Tubular Collector

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 Evacuated tube collectors are made up of a single or multiple rows of parallel, transparent
glass tubes supported on a frame.
 Each individual tube varies in diameter from between 1" (25mm) to 3" (75mm) and between
5′
(1500mm) to 8′ (2400mm) in length depending upon the manufacturer.
 Each tube consists of a thick glass outer tube and a thinner glass inner tube, (called a “twin-
glass tube”) or a “thermos-flask tube” which is covered with a special coating that absorbs
solar energy.
 The tubes are made of borosilicate or soda lime glass, which is strong, resistant to high
temperatures and has a high transmittance for solar irradiation.
 Inside the each glass tube, a flat or curved aluminium or copper fin is attached to a metal heat
pipe running through the inner tube.
 This sealed copper heat pipe transfers the solar heat via convection of its internal heat transfer
fluid to a “hot bulb” that indirectly heats a copper manifold within the header tank.
 These copper pipes are all connected to a common manifold which is then connected to a
storage tank, thus heating the hot water during the day.
 The hot water can then be used at night or the next day due to the insulating properties of the
tank.
 The insulation properties of the vacuum are so good that while the inner tube may be as high
as 150°C, the outer tube is cooler to touch.

 This means that evacuated tube water heaters can perform well and can heat water to fairly
high temperatures even in cold weather when flat plate collectors perform poorly due to heat
loss.

Solar Distillation:
A device that distills water by first evaporating it and then condensing it in a
separate system by using solar energy.

Working principle
 The basic principles of solar water distillation are simple yet effective, as distillation
replicates the way nature makes rain.
 “Solar distillation” is a technology for producing potable water from brackish
and underground water of low-quality at low cost.
 It can reduce water-scarcity problems together with other water purification technologies.
 Solar distillation is analogous to natural hydrological cycle.
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 It uses an apparatus called a solar still in which water is evaporated using solar energy, a
form of renewable energy,
 The sun’s energy heats water to the point of evaporation
 As the water evaporates, water vopor rises, condensing on the glass surface for collection.
 This process removes impurities such as salts and heavy metals as well as
eliminates microbiological organisms.
 The end results is water cleaner than the purest rainwater.
 The sola Aqua still is a passive solar distiller that only needs sunshine to operate.
 There are no moving parts to wear out.

Fig.: Solar Distillation

ii) Solar Pond:

 A salinity gradient solar pond is an integral collection and storage device of solar energy.

 By virtue of having built-in thermal energy storage, it can be used irrespective of time
and season.

 In an ordinary pond or lake, when the sun's rays heat up the water this heated water, being
lighter, rises to the surface and loses its heat to the atmosphere.

 The net result is that the pond water remains at nearly atmospheric temperature.

 The solar pond technology inhibits this phenomenon by dissolving salt into the bottom layer
of this pond, making it too heavy to rise to the surface, even when hot.

 The salt concentration increases with depth, thereby forming a salinity gradient.
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 The sunlight which reaches the bottom of the pond remains entrapped there.

 The useful thermal energy is then withdrawn from the solar pond in the form of hot brine.

 The pre-requisites for establishing solar ponds are: a large tract of land (it could be barren),
a lot of sun shine, and cheaply available salt (such as Sodium Chloride) or bittern.

 Generally, there are three main layers. The top layer is cold and has relatively little
salt content.

 The bottom layer is hot -- up to 100°C (212°F) -- and is very salty.

 Separating these two layers is the important gradient zone.

 The hot brine solution enters in to evaporator coil releases steam, these steam transfer to turbine,
it rotates with high speed by converting mechanical energy into electricity.

 The steam transfer to condenser and it will condensate from liquid phase, this cooled liquid
transfer to upper convective zone, to maintain the atmospheric temperature and cycle repeats.

Solar Cooker

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 Solar cooker is a device for the preparation of food by concentrating solar radiation on the food to
be cooked.
 It consists of a box made of non-conducting materials like plastics, fiber glass or wood.
 The walls of the box are made thick so as to minimize loss of heat due to radiation. It is painted
all black from inside.
 The box is covered with a thick glass sheet, plane mirror reflector, R is attached in the inside cover
of the box. The food to be cooked is kept in a container which is painted black from outside.
 The container is kept in the box and it is then covered with glass sheet. In order to cook the food,
the assembly is kept in the sunlight and the reflector R is adjusted in such a way that a strong beam
of light falls on the cooker top after reflecting from the mirror.
 The sun rays after passing through the glass sheet are absorbed by the black surface of the box.
Once the heat rays enter the box, glass sheet does not allow these to escape.
 In this way more and more heat gets trapped in the box and a temperature of 100°C to 140°C can
be reached in two to three hours which is sufficient to cook the food like rice, dhal and some
vegetables kept in the black containers.
 Thus, these cookers can be used to cook food items that require slow heating and not for frying
etc

Advantages
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i) It saves precious fules like coal, kerosene etc.

ii) It does not produce any smoke or ash
iii) The food cooked in a solar cooker has all its nutrients intact
Disadvantages
i) Solar cooker cannot be used during night time.
ii) If the day-sky is covered with clouds, it will not be possible to cook the food using solar cooker
iii) Direction of reflector has to be changed from time to time to keep it facing the sun

2.2.1 Thermal energy storage systems

Thermal energy storage systems are equivalent of an electrical battery which stores electrical
energy. Thermal energy storage systems utilizes essentially two basic modes. These includes
sensible heat storage and latent heat storage

Sensible heat storage

In the sensible heat storage, thermal energy is stored in certain materials using their
specific heat. In addition, the energy stored depends on their density and the operating
temperature.

b) Packed Bed Energy Storage:

This is a sensible heat storage system. This consists of a packed bed of rock, gravel or
crushed stones in a container, placed on perforated screens.

In this, air is used as the medium for energy transport mechanism. The materials used
for the bed (rock, stones) should have a high specific heat, thus increasing the thermal
energy storage capacity of the unit. This unit works as a regenerative heat exchanger.

First hot air is passed through the unit, so that the bed absorbs the heat and hence their
temperature is raised. They store this heat energy till it is taken out from them by

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passing cold air in the form of sensible heat. Whenever required cold air can be passed
from the opposite side of the unit and heat from the storage unit can be extracted.

Latent heat Storage

 The transition from solid to liquid or from liquid to vapour is a type of energy storage called
latent heat storage. In which no temperature range is involved.

 It is possible for both sensible and latent heat storage to occur in the same material, as when
solid is heated and then melted, and then raised further in temperature.

 Energy is stored in a material whenever it changes its phase from solid to liquid or liquid to
gas, and energy is released when the phase changes back from gas to liquid or from liquid to
solid phase.

 The heat storage capacity of a material is given by the relation.

Qs = m Cp Δt
Where, Qs--- heat energy
stored m--- Mass
Cp- Specific heat
Δt - Temperature difference
One simple latent heat storage system is shown in Fig. The system consists of a
insulated container. The storage material is kept in long and thin sealed tubes
9vertically or horizontally) in the path of the heat transfer medium like gas, water etc.,
when the hot medium passes over the tubes containing the storage medium, the phase
change occurs in the sealed container and energy transfer takes place. When the stored
energy is to be extracted cool air/water is passed over the hot tubes, from where the
heat is passed on to the cool medium.

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2.3 Fundamentals of solar energy and photovoltaic (PV) technology:

Solar Photovoltaic Cell

“A photovoltaic cell, also called solar cell, is a device that directly converts the sun’s
radiation into electrical energy.”
Working Principle.
 A photovoltaic cell is made up of at least two layers of semiconductor material like silicon,
doped with impurities in order to increase the conductivity of the material.
 The first layer has a positive charge (P-type silicon), while the next layer a negative charge
(N-type silicon).
 As known, sunlight is composed of photons or particles of solar energy.
 When sunlight strikes the photovoltaic cell, the semiconductor material absorbs photons
from the light
 When enough photons are absorbed by the negative layer of the semiconductor material,
electrons are dislodged from the material, which then move towards the positive layer.
 This flow of electrons constitutes an electric current, which can be captured in a circuit
connecting the two layers of the semiconductor material.
 The electricity generated by the photovoltaic cell can be used directly, or stored in
batteries.
 The power output can be increased by connecting a number of photovoltaic cells together
in a sealed package called a module.
APPLICATIONS
1. Solar Farms - Many acres of PV panels can provide utility-scale power—from tens of megawatts

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tomore than a gigawatt of electricity.
2. Remote Locations - It is not always cost-effective, convenient, or even possible to extend power lines
to locations where electricity is needed.
3. Stand-Alone Power - In urban or remote areas, PV can power stand-alone devices, tools, and
meters.
4. Power in Space - From the beginning, PV has been a primary power source for Earth-orbiting
satellites.
5. Building-Related Needs - In buildings, PV panels mounted on roofs or ground can supply electricity.
6. Military Uses - Lightweight, flexible thin-film PV can serve applications in which
portability or ruggedness are critical.
7. Transportation - PV can provide auxiliary power for vehicles such as cars and boats.
Advantages
1) Environmental Sustainability: Photovoltaic cells generate clean and green energy as no harmful
gases such as COx, NOx etc are emitted.
2) Economically Viable: The operation and maintenance costs of cells are very low.
3) Accessible: Solar panels are easy to set up and can be made accessible in remote locations or
sparsely inhabited areas at a lesser cost as compared to conventional transmission lines.
4) Renewable: Energy is free and abundant in nature.

5) Cost: Solar panels have no mechanically moving parts except in some highly advanced sunlight
tracking mechanical bases.
Disadvantages

1) The efficiency of solar panels is low compared to other renewable sources of energy.

2) Energy from the sun is intermittent and unpredictable and can only be harnessed in the presence
of sunlight
3) Long-range transmission of solar energy is inefficient and difficult to carry.
4) Photovoltaic panels are fragile and can be damaged relatively easily.

2.4 Types of solar power plants:

1) ON-GRID SOLAR SYSTEMS

2) OFF-GRID SOLAR SYSTEMS

3) HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEMS

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1) ON-GRID SOLAR SYSTEMS:

Components employed in on-grid systems – Panels, Meters, Grid-tied inverters and the local
grid.

Use Cases – Suitable for residential, commercial, industrial properties with robust grid
availability.

Here, the systems are tied to the local utility grids and they act as a complementary source of
electricity. Further, Investors can supplement the low energy yield with the grid or transfer the
surplus energy produced by the solar system to the grid via net metering to get compensated for
the same.

However, in case of a power shutdown, your electricity supply will be affected if it is not tied to
a battery backup system. Even if your solar system can accommodate your monthly electricity
usage, you will be charged the basic service fee and demand charges for grid connection. When
you have a commercial connection, you are often levied to pay an enhanced rate of electricity
during a peak period.

It assists you in earning a faster return on investment (ROI), lower electricity overheads and
savings through netmetering.

Fig. on-grid solar systems

2) OFF-GRID SOLAR SYSTEMS:
Components employed in off-grid systems – Solar Panel array, batteries and inverters

Use Cases – They are viable for agricultural lands, industrial properties, rural and remote areas and
construction sites.

Widely known as standalone systems, they are systems that help you in building a self-reliant powerhouse
on your premises. Here, the MPPT(Maximum Power Point Tracker) helps the PV array to charge the

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battery bank, then transfer it to the inverter. Hereafter, the inverter sends the current to the AC load to
support the energy demands at night and during the outcast as well.

The system needs to be engineered and designed seamlessly to uphold the energy demands in peak times.
The batteries and inverters play a very crucial role in the successful installation of these systems. However,
if everything is assembled well, the system will remain unaffected by the changing weather patterns and
acute power outages. The upfront cost is generally higher than the grid-tied systems as it needs
complementary elements like batteries for energy storage.

These systems are independent of the local grid and offer higher ROI while ensuring complete peace of
mind.

Fig: Off Grid Solar System

3) Hybrid solar systems:

Components employed in hybrid systems – Solar Panel array, batteries and inverters, meter and grid

Use Cases – They are best suited for the agricultural sector, residential applications, micro-grids, rural
areas and offices.

Hybrid systems are solar systems that are dependent on the grid and can also accumulate extra electricity
in a storage unit. Here, the extra energy produced by the solar system after the energy consumption by
appliances is transferred to the battery bank. Once they are completely charged, they can export the extra
energy to the grid.
These systems deliver the functionality of both off-grid and grid-tied systems, at once. They are a more
steady, secure and cost-effective way for power generation as compared to the other systems we

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mentioned earlier. Because it does not necessitate you to invest in large storage systems. This is the reason
why they are more popular among solar investors, they remain unharmed because blackouts don’t hamper
their yield or supply.

Fig. Hybrid Solar System

2.5 Design considerations for solar power plants:

Designing a solar power plant requires detailed planning and optimization to ensure maximum
energy production and efficiency. Key design considerations such as site selection, orientation, and
shading analysis play crucial roles in the overall performance and economic feasibility of the solar power
plant. Here's a breakdown of these factors:
1. Site Selection

Site selection is perhaps the most important step in the design of a solar power plant, as it determines the
potential energy production, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact. Several factors need to be
considered:

a. Solar Resource Availability

 Solar Irradiance: The primary factor for site selection is the amount of sunlight the location
receives, usually measured in kilowatt-hours per square meter per day (kWh/m²/day). A
location with high solar irradiance ensures that the plant generates more energy over its lifetime.
b. Land Area and Availability
 Size of Land: Large, flat areas are typically preferred for utility-scale solar power plants. For

instance, solar farms require expansive areas to accommodate thousands of solar panels.
 Land Ownership and Cost: Availability of affordable land that is either owned or can be leased
long-term is a crucial financial consideration. Sites with lower land costs may improve project
viability.

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 For large-scale plants, sites with low population density are generally more ideal, as they reduce
the need for complex zoning and environmental approvals.
c. Environmental Considerations
 Climate and Weather Conditions: Regions with long, consistent sunny days and minimal cloud

cover are ideal. Avoid areas with excessive rainfall, frequent storms, or snow, as they can lead to
performance issues.
 Ecosystem Impact: Solar power plants should minimize disruption to local ecosystems. An
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is typically required to evaluate risks to wildlife and
habitats.
d. Proximity to Infrastructure
 Grid Connection: The proximity to existing transmission lines and substations is a key

consideration. The cost of connecting to the electrical grid (transmission infrastructure) should be
factored into the site selection.
 Road Access: The site should be accessible by road for the delivery of equipment, installation,
and ongoing maintenance.
 Water Availability: Some systems, especially Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) plants, require
water for cooling. In arid regions, alternative cooling methods (e.g., dry cooling) should be
considered.
e. Legal and Regulatory Compliance
 Permits and Zoning: Sites must comply with zoning laws and regulations, and developers must

secure various permits related to land use, construction, and environmental impact.
 Government Incentives: Consideration of tax incentives, subsidies, or feed-in tariffs offered by
the government for renewable energy projects may influence site selection.
2) Orientation:
The orientation of the solar panels is critical for maximizing energy production. The correct orientation
ensures that the panels receive the maximum amount of sunlight over the course of a day and throughout
the year.
a. Tilt Angle

The tilt angle refers to the angle at which solar panels are installed relative to the ground. The optimal tilt
angle depends on the geographical location of the solar plant and the specific time of year.

 Fixed Tilt: Most large-scale solar installations use fixed-tilt panels, which are typically set at an
angle that maximizes sunlight exposure for the location’s latitude.
 Latitude-based tilt: For example, a common rule of thumb is that the tilt angle should be close to
the site’s latitude. In the Northern Hemisphere, a tilt angle equal to the site’s latitude allows for
balanced seasonal energy capture.
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 Seasonal Adjustments: In some systems, the angle can be adjusted seasonally (e.g., steeper angles
in winter to capture more sun at lower angles), although this is less common in utility-scale projects
due to increased costs.

b. Orientation Direction

 Solar panels should be oriented to face the true south (in the Northern Hemisphere) or true north
(in the Southern Hemisphere) to capture maximum sunlight throughout the day. This direction
allows the panels to face the sun’s path, from east to west, as it moves across the sky.
 East-West Orientation: Some plants use an east-west orientation for panels, which reduces peak
electricity output but extends the generation hours. This can be beneficial for balancing grid demand over
a longer period.

c. Tracking Systems
 Single-Axis Trackers: These systems rotate the panels along one axis to follow the sun’s east-to-

west movement. Single-axis trackers increase energy yield by 15%-25% compared to fixed-tilt
systems, making them a good choice for utility-scale plants in regions with strong solar irradiance.
 Dual-Axis Trackers: These trackers adjust both vertically and horizontally to follow the sun more
precisely, maximizing solar energy capture and increasing production by 35%-45% compared to
fixed systems. However, dual-axis tracking systems are more expensive and require more
maintenance.
 Cost vs. Benefit: Trackers generally increase capital and operational costs but can be worth the
investment in areas with high solar potential and high energy prices.
3) Shading Analysis

Shading is one of the most significant factors affecting the performance of a solar power plant. Even small
amounts of shading can reduce the efficiency of a solar system because shading on one panel can affect
the entire system, particularly if panels are connected in series.

a. Shading from Surrounding Obstacles

 Trees and Buildings: Shading from nearby trees, buildings, or other structures can significantly
reduce the performance of a solar plant. A shading analysis should be conducted at different times
of the year (including seasonal variations) to ensure that no significant shading occurs during peak
sunlight hours.
 Topography: Hilly or uneven terrain can create natural shading. A topographic survey of the
land should be conducted to ensure that the land can accommodate an optimal layout.
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b. Shading from Nearby Solar Panels

 In large solar installations, panel spacing is an essential design consideration to minimize the
potential for self-shading. Proper spacing between rows of solar panels ensures that the panels
don’t cast shadows on each other, especially during low-angle sunlight hours (early morning or
late afternoon).
 Row Spacing: To avoid shading between rows of panels, the spacing should be large enough to
account for the solar zenith angle (the angle of the sun relative to the horizontal ground). The
distance between rows depends on the tilt angle of the panels and the latitude of the location.

c. Shading Tools
 Solar Path Finder: Tools like the Solar Pathfinder or ShadeAnalyzer can be used to measure
and map potential shading at different times of the day and year. These tools can help identify
areas where shading may occur and allow for optimized placement of panels.
 3D Modeling and Simulation: Advanced software (e.g., Helios3D, PVsyst, or SAM) can
simulate shading effects based on geographic location, panel orientation, and seasonal changes.
These tools allow designers to optimize panel placement, spacing, and tracking systems to
minimize shading losses.
4) PV System Components and Their Functionalities
a) Solar Panels (Photovoltaic Modules): Convert sunlight into electricity using semiconductor
materials (typically silicon). Each panel generates direct current (DC) electricity.
b) Inverters: Convert DC electricity generated by solar panels into alternating current (AC),
which is the standard for most electrical grids.
c) Mounting Structures: Hold the PV panels in place, ensuring proper tilt, orientation, and
stability.
d) Balance of System (BoS): Includes all electrical components, wiring, junction boxes, fuses,
and disconnect switches necessary for safely connecting and protecting the system.
e) Energy Storage Systems (Optional but Increasingly Common): Store excess energy
produced during the day for use during night-time or cloudy periods.
f) Monitoring and Control Systems: Monitor the health and performance of the entire system,
ensuring optimal energy production and detecting faults early.
5) Operation
 Energy Production: Ensure that the plant is continuously operating in optimal conditions,
adjusting for seasonal variations, weather, and any system faults.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., SKIT B’lore 19

 RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANTS (BMEM654B)
 Grid Connection: The AC output is synchronized with the grid frequency to avoid any disruptions
in energy supply.
 Optimal Performance: Regular checks for shading (e.g., trees, buildings) or panel degradation
that may reduce energy production.

6) Maintenance
a) Preventative Maintenance:
 Panel Cleaning: Dust, dirt, and bird droppings can reduce efficiency. Clean panels periodically,
especially in dry or dusty regions.
 Component Inspections: Regular checks for wear and tear, corrosion, loose connections, and
potential overheating, especially in the inverter and junction boxes.
 Thermal Inspections: Infrared thermography can be used to detect overheating and potential
faults in components.
b) Corrective Maintenance:
 Panel Replacements: If individual panels become damaged or degraded, they should be replaced.

 Inverter Maintenance: Inverters typically last around 10-15 years and may need repair or
replacement during the plant's lifetime.
 String Testing: Ensure that all strings of panels are functioning properly and without excessive
voltage drop.
7) Performance Monitoring
 Monitoring System: Use sophisticated monitoring tools that track real-time data from panels,
inverters, and the entire system.
 Energy Yield Monitoring: Compare actual energy production against expected performance.
This helps detect underperformance early.
 Fault Detection and Diagnostics: Many modern systems can automatically detect issues (e.g.,
malfunctioning inverters, electrical faults) and send alerts for immediate attention.
 Performance Ratio (PR): This ratio compares the actual output of the plant to the theoretical
output, helping identify losses due to inefficiency, shading, or technical issues.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., SKIT B’lore 20

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg., SKIT B’lore 21