PLANT LIFE

Experiment 1 --- CELL DIVISION; - :: ~::c: PQae /'1

j)..i~ J JO
Aim: To study the different stages of mitosis. 0
Materials required: Permanent slides of mitosis, compound microscope, chart.
Procedure: To study and observe the slides of mitosis under the microscope.
Observation: The following observations are made about the different stages of mitosis.
Prophase
The chromosomes appear thick and short and are clearly visible inside the nucleus.
Each chromosome has duplicated to form sister chromatids.
The sister chromatids are held together at a point called the centromere.
The centrosome splits to form centrioles which develop into asters and slowly move to the
opposite poles, ·
Spindle fibres appear between the daughter centrioles.
The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappears.
Meta phase
The chromosomes arrange th.emselves on th e equatori a l plane.
Each chromosome gets attached to the spindle fibres by its ce ntromere.
Anaphase
The centromere divides and the two sister chromatids of each chromosome se parate .
The chromatids are pulled towards the opposite poles by th e spindle fibres.
Telophase
. Each chromatid at the ·poles become thinner and form chromatin network.
The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
Cytokinesis
Karyokinesis is followed by cytoki•nesis. At the end of telophase 1 a furrow appears in the cell
membrane in the middle, wh ich deepens from the periphery to centre and divides one cell
into two daughter cells.
In plant cell, the cell plate grows from centre towaras periphery and finally divides one cell
into two daughter cells.
3
Experiment 2 -,- Diffusion Jq l)J°'§ . J.i'
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Aim:To study the phenomenon'6f diffusion in liquid.
Materials required:Crystals of potassium perma·n ganate, beaker,water.
Procedure: Add crystals of potassium permanganate to the be_a ker containing water on one
side , ,
Observation:The crystal of potassium permanganate slowly dissolves in _water. The water in
the beaker turns pink. '. .
Inference: The molecules of potassium permanganate diffused uniformly in water. ·
The movement of molecul es from a region of its higher concentrat ion to lower concent ration
wh e n the·two are in direct contact is called diffusion.

Experiment 3 --- Osmosis ! Pa.!j e liO ::D..i.°'5 · Ji ·Ji

Aim:To demonstrate the phenoJnerion o.t osmosis using thistle lunnel.
 Materials required: Thistle funnel, cellophane paper, beaker, 20% sucrose solution, water,

stand.
Procedure: Cover the mouth of the thistle funnel with cellophane paper and tie it securely.
Invert the thistle funnel in beaker containing water and fix it to the stand . Add sucrose
solution to the thistle funne_l. Mark the initial level of the sugar solution. Keep the
experimental set up for 3-4 hours.
observation: The level of sucrose solution rises in the thistle funnel. The level of water in the

beaker drops. concentration of water \nolecules in beaker is more than in thistle funnel.
lnference:The
Water molecules from beaker pass th(ough the cellophane paper to enter in the thistle funnel.
Thus cellophane paper acts like a semi permeable membrane, which allows only water ·
molecules to pass through it.

Experiment 4 --- Osmosis

. Alm:To demonstrate the phenomenon of osmosis using potato osmoscope.
i Materials required: Potato, 30% sucrose solution, petri dish with water, scalp.el, pins .
Procedure:Take a large sized potato and peel it out with a scalpel. Cut the potato in_to a
rectangular block. Scoop out the central part.of the potato to make a cavity in the centre.l'ill
this cavity with 30% sucrose solution . Mark the initial level of solution witt.a pin . Place the
osmoscope in a petr(dish containing water. Leave the experimental set up for 5-6 hours.
Observation: The level of sucrose solution rises in the
osmoscope.
lnference:The sucrose solution in the os~oscope is separated from pure water by means of
potato tuber cells. Each cell has a cell wall an~ cell membrane. Water molecules from petri
dish pass through'the cell membrane of potato tuber cells to enter into the osmoscope by the
process of osmosis:

Experiment 5 --- Absorption P~e Ji8 J)4 li' 15'

Aim :To show that water is absorl:fed by roots in plants.
Materials required:Test tube, water, balsam plant, oil.
Procedure:Uproot a balsam plant without damaging the roots.Wash roots thoroughly with
water to remove soil. Put the plant immediately in test tube A containing water. Add few
drops of oil into the test tube to prevent any loss of water by evaporation. Mark the initial
level of water in the test tube A. Set U,P a similar.test tube B but without a plant. Keep both the
test tubes for 1-2 days.
Observation:After 1-2 days, there will be fall in the level of water in test tube A. The level of
water in test tube B remains same.
lnference:The leaves of plant kept in test tube A lose wa!er during transpiration that causes
water _to be absorbed by the roots of plant. Thus the level of water falls in the test tube A. As
there 1s no plant in test tube 8, the level of water remains same.
____, -~-------------

Experiment 6 --- Transpiratio_r1 ' P~

5G Jti~ 5 ·l B
Aim :To study the process of transpirl!'tion. _, .
rllov-,1 •pap·
Materials required:Potted plant, polythene bag1 1:,e. ll jo.." l coho.If
Procedure:Take a well-watered potted plant. Cover the pot up to the stem with a polythene
'bag and secure tightly with thread . Keep this set up under sunlight.
' Observation:Drops of water are found on the inner side of bell jar which turns blue cobalt

chloride paper pink.

lnference:Leaves of potted plant lose water in the form of water vapour.
i
t Experiment Cf--- Transpiration [ P.9..;·~ 51:, .· s; - - ,..
r
Aim :To compare the rate of transptl-ation from the twu ~-·. . ~sofa dicot leaf.

I Materials r_equired: Potted plant, slides, clips, cobalt chloride paper, forceps.
Procedure:Take a well-watered potted plant with broad leaves. Place a strip of dry cobalt
chloride paper on the·dorsal surface of the leaf with the help of forceps and immediately

cover it with a slide. Similarly place another strip of dry cobalt chloride paper on the ventral
surface of the leaf and cover it with a slide. Tie both the slides on either side with rubber band

\ or clip.
Observation:Within a few minutes, the colour of cobalt chloride paper attached to ventral
surface changes from blue to pink. The strip of cobalt chloride paper attached to dorsal
surface of the leaf takes longer time to turn pink.
lnference:The change of cobalt chloride paper from blue to pink faster on ventral surface
indicates that ventral sµrface has more stomata and lose water during transpiration.

Experiment &:---
Transpiration 57 'P~e.J).i 5 •S ,
Alm :To measure the rate of water u~take by the leafy shoot using Ganong':·potometer.
Materials required: Leafy shoot, beaker, water, split cork, Ganong' ~potometer, coloured

water.
Procedure:Fill Ganong';· potometer with water to make it tree of air spaces. Take a fresh leafy
shoot of a herbaceous plant cut under water. Fix it in the vertical tube through a split cork. Dip
the bent capillary tube in a beaker containing coloured water. Introduce an air bubble in the
! capillary tube. Note down the initial position of the air bubble in the capillary tube. Place the
!

I apparatus in sunlight.
Qbservation:The air bubble1n the capillary tube moves towards the shoot.
lnference:The leafy shoot looses water through transpiration,which sets up the suction force .
This suction force pulls,up water and the leafy shoot absorbs water. As a result water moves
\
through the capillary tube and so does the air bubble indicating the water uptake by the leafy

\ shoot. '
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 Biology Practical Notes STD X

6
Expt 9 Photosynthesis P~e 7
J../ . :Di i 'H 15 _
Aim: To show that starch is produced by green leaves as a result of photo synthes . _ _
Materials required: A potted plant, water bath, methylated spirit (methyl alco hol), iodine solution,

white glazed tile. __

Procedure: Take a leaf from a potted plant which was exposed to sunlight. Dip the leaf in boiling water
to kill the cells. Boil the leaf in alcohol in a test tube over a water bath . Thi s is done to remove
chlorophyll (decolourise) from the leaf. The decolourised leaf is brittle and is dipped in hot water to
soften il. The leaf is then placed on a white tile and iodine solution is poured on il.
Observation: The leaf turns blue -black in colour.
Inference: This experiment proves that starch is produced by th e leaves during photosynthesis .

Exptl0 Photosynthesis p~e, 7

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Aim: To show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.
Materials Required: A potted pl ant with variegated leaves and materials for starch test.
Procedure: Keep the potted plant in sunlight for f ew hours. Pluck a leaf and mark its outline on a paper.
Mark the green and non-green areas of the leaf. Test th e lea f for starch .
Observation: Only the green parts of the leaf turns blue-black during starch test and the non -green

areas turn brown in colour.

Inference: The green parts of the leaf which turn ed blue-black indicates the presence of chlorophyll.
This experiment proves that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis .

Expt 11 Photosynthesis P°i,e. I~ ::Pi°3 b'r;

Aim: To show that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesi s.
Materials Required: A destarched plant, two pieces of black paper, paper clips and materials for starch

test.
Procedure: Select a healthy leaf of a destarched plant. Cover a part of its leaf with black paper strips on
either sides if the leaf. Affix the paper firmly using the clips. Allow the plant to remain in sunlighffor 5-6
hours (restarching).
Take the experimental leaf and draw its outline on a paper including the position of the black paper
strip s. Remove the black paper from the leaf and test the leaf for starch.
Observation: The part of the leaf exposed to sunlight turns blue-black during starch test indicating the
presence of starch. The area of the leaf covered with black paper turn s brown in colour indicating the
absence of starch.
Inference: This expe riment proves that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.

Expt 12 Photosynthesis P°'{)e 75 ,D·1~ It> . 7 A

Aim: To prove that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
Materials Required: A destarched plant, wid e mouthed bottle, split cork, caustic potash and materials
for starch test.
Procedure: Inse rt a lea f of a destarched pl ant into a bottle containing potassium hydroxide solution.
The potassium hydroxide is kept in the bottle to absorb any carbon dioxide prese nt in it.
The whole apparatus is exposed to sunlight for f ew hours and later tested for starch .
Observation: The experimental leaf inside the bottle turns turn s brown in colour indicating the
absence of starch whereas any other lea f of th e plant shows blue-bl ack colour during starch test
indicating the presence of starch . ·
Inference: This experiment prove s that carbondioxide is necessa ry l~r photosynth esis.
Exp\ 13 Photo synthesis [Pg: 73Diag-6·$ v v '~
Aim: lo show that oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis.
Materials Required: Aquatic plants like hydrilla or elodea, beaker, funnel with short stem and test tube.
Procedure: Put some selected aquatic plant shoots in a beaker of water. Cover them with an inverted
funnel. Fill a test tube completely with water and invert it over the stem of the funnel. Keep the
apparatus in sunlight for few hours. ·
Observation: The wate·r in the test tube is displaced.by gas. We can see bubbles moving out from the
stem of the funnel. Test the gas using a burning splinter. Th e burning splinter burns more brightly.
Inference: This proves that oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis.

Expt 17 Internal Structure of Kidney p~ II~ 'J)i q'.l. A

Aim: To study the internal parts of human kidney
Materials required: Specir,;en of kidney, chart and model of L.S of kidney.
Observation: The kidney ha s two main region s namely an outer dark parrcalled renal cortex and inner

light part call ed renal med ulla .

The cortex is made up of huge number of malpighian cap sule of the nephron . The nephron is the
structural and functional units of the kidney.
The malpighian capsule in turn contains the Bowman's capsule and th e glomerul us.
The renal cortex also contains the proximal convoluted tubul e and the dist al convoluted tub ule.
The medulla is filled with cone shaped projections called renal pyramids whose apex points into th e
renal pelvis. The renal medulla contains the loop of Henle and the collecting duct of the nephron.
The.pelvis extends into a long narrow tube, th e ureter which joins the urinary bladder.
 ANIMAL LIFE

Experiment il.J---· Blood cells p°o/- 1l3 J)~°d g'

Aim :To identify the different typ;s qf blood cells.
Materials required: Slides, disposabl'e needle, Leishman stain, distill ed water, microscope,
sterilised cotton and permanentslid~s of blood smear.
Procedure:Take two clean glass slidks.Clean and puncture the tip of the finger with disposable
needle. Wipe the first drop of blood. Touch the next drop of blood with clean slide. Take the
next slide at 4S 0angle and spread it slowly as a smear. Let the blood dry, add the stain and
rinse the slide with·distilled water.
Observation:Blood is a fluid connective tissue. It consists of plasma and blood cells.
!.Erythrocytes or Red blood cells; These are minute biconcave disc like structures. Mature
HBCs are withal.I-!: nucleus and mitochondria . They contain pigment haemoglobin to transport
Q1(ygen and carbondioxide.
2.Leucocytes or White blood cells:These are amoeboid in shape and possess distinct
nucleus.They show diapedesis and phagocytcisis. They are broadly classified as follows.
I a.Granulocytes; These WBCs have cytoplasm with granules

I They include
i.Eosinol'.)hils: Nucleus is two lobed and they stain with acidic dye(eosin).-
ii.Basophils: Nucleus is large and indistinctly lobed and stain with methylene blue(basic dye) .
iii.Neutrophils: Nucleus is 3-4 lobed and they stain with neutral dyes:
b.Agranulocytes; These WBCs have cytoplasm without granules. They are
iTymphocytes: They have a single large nucleus.
ii.Monocytes; They have a large kidney shaped nucleus.
3.Thrombocytes or platelets:These are minute, oval or round structures without nucleus.

E~periment 15···· Human Heart P~ lo O })i°(\' 8• 7-

A1m :To study the structure of human heart.
\ Materials .required: Model ~f the human heart, chart.
Observation; Human heart is a muscular cone shaped organ located in the thoracic cavity
I! between the two lungs. Its size is about the size of a clenched fist of the same person. The
apex of the heart is downwards pointing towards the left. Heart is covered by a double walled
membrane called pericardium enclosing the pericardia I fluid which allows frictionless
·movement of heart and protects from mechanical injuries.
illlf<7
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Chambers of the heart: , i
1. Hu mah heart consists q(four chambers namely right auricle, ·1eft auricle, right ventricle
and left ventricle. Auricles are thin walled. The right and left auricles ar e partitioned by
.inter-atrial septum. The right auricle pumps deoxygenated blood into the right
ventricle while the left auricle pumps oxygenated blood into the the left ventricle.
2. Ventricles are thick walled . The wall of left ventricle is thicker than the right ventricle.
Inter-ventricular septum is the partition between left ventricle and right ventricle. The
inner surface of the ventricles have muscular projections called papillary muscles. The
right ventricle pumps deoxygena.ted blood into pulmonary artery while left ventricle
pumps oxygenated blood into aorta.
Valves:
1. The aperture between right auricle and right ventricle is guarded by the tricuspid valve.
It cor:isists of three flaps attached to the papillary muscles by chordae tendinae.
2. Mitra! valve or bicuspid valve guards the aperture between left auricle and left
ventricle. It consists of two flaps attached to the papillary muscles by chordae
tendinae .
3. Aortic semi-lunar valve guards the op e ning of left ventricle into aorta . Pulmonary semi·
lunar valve guard s the opening of right ve nt ricle into pulmonary a rtery.
Blood vessels leaving and entering Heart:
Superior and inferior venacava bring deoxygenated blood from diffe rent parts of the body to
the right auricle. Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenatedblood from right ventricle to lun gs for
oxygenation. Pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from lungs to left auricle. Aorta carries
oxygenated blood fro·m left ventricle to different parts of the body.

Experiment /'6 ··· Urinary system in man 11)-J J) i~ q, / P~

Aim :To study the parts of hu~an urinary system.
Materials required: Model of kidney, chart.
Observation: The urinary system consists of the following parts: pair of kidneys, a pair of
ureters, urinary bladder and urethra . ··
Kidney:
'kidneys are ·reddish brown colou.red bean sha ped organs located one on either side of the
backbone. It has an outer cortex and an inn e r medulla region. The kidney is enclosed in a
tough layer called the capsule . Each kidney has millions of microscopic units called nephrons.
Ureter:
There are a pair of ducts a risin g from e ach kidney call ed ureter. They e nd in urinary bl add e r.
i
Urinary bladder: /
It is a muscular bag like structure in which urine coll ects .!1
Urethra:
Th e urinary bladder leads into the urethra which is a narrow tube. The urethra opens to the
outside of the body and it is controlled by the sphincter muscles .
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Materials required: lllfoaellof the brain, chart.
Ob;ervation: The brain has three major parts.visible externally. ·They are cerebrum,
cerebellum and medulla oblongata.
Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest part of t he brain. It is divided into two halves called
cerebral hemispheres . .The outer surface is highly convoluted with ridges and grooves. The
outer portion of the cerebrum contains cytons and is called gray matter. The inner portion of
the cerebrum is made up_of axons and is called white matter. Corpus callosum is a- sheet of
nerve fi~res connecting the two cer~bral hemispheres. The highly developed cortex enable s us
to think, reason out, inven:t, plan anc,l memorise. Overall the cerebrum is the· seat of
intelligence, consciousness. "It controls all voluntary actions.
Cerebellum: Cerebellum is a much ~mailer area of brain located just at the base of large
cerebrum. It does not have convolutions but h_as numerous furrows. The main funct1on of the
cerebellum is to maintain body balance arid co-ordinate muscular activity.
Medulla oblongata: Medulla oblongata is the lowest portion of the brain located at the base
of the skull. It is roughly triangular and is continued behind as the spinal core!. The main
function of medulla is to control involuntary activities like peristalsis, heart beat, respiration
etc.

Experiment j q. '. -•; Sense organs -- Human Eye '

' 0
Po-.o 13°
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Aim: To identify the various parts of the human eye.

Materials required: A model and chart of human eye.
Observation: The eyeball is composed of three concentric layers namely outer sclera, middle
choroid and inner retina.

The sclerotic layer is made up of tough fibrous tissue and is white. The sclera bulges out and
becomes transparent in the front part of the eye a·nd is called cornea.
The choroid layer is richly supplied with blood vessels and provide nourishment to the eye. It
contains the pigment melanin which prevents light rays from reflecting and scattering inside
the eye. In the front the choroid expands to form a ciliary body. The iris is· an extension of the
choroid partially covering the lens and leaving a circular opening In the centre, the p1,1pil.
The reti-na is ·t he innermost light sensitive layer of the eye. It contains two types of sensory
cells namely rods and cones. Tbe _rods are sensitive to dim light and contain pigm_e nt
rhodopsin, The cones are sensitiv_e to bright light and contain the "pigment iodopsiri.
The yellow-spot is ii region of b est vision.
The lens is transparent biconvex crystalline structure located just behind the pupil. The lens is
held In position by the suspensory ligament.
The ciliary body change the the shap~ of the lens for viewing objects at different distances.
The aqueous chamber lies between the lens and the cornea and is filled with aqueous
humour. It protects the lens and refracts light.
The vitreous chamber lies behind the lens and Is filled with vitreous humour. It protects the
·retina and maintains the shape of the eye ball.
 J)i°3 11,q A
Experiment JO ·ij Sense organs - .Human Ear
r Aim : To identify tlie .various pa'rts·of the human ear.
Materials required: A model and chart of human ear.
Observation: The human ear has three main divisions namely
outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.
The outer ear consists of outer projecting part ,the pinna and the passage, auditory canal
leading to the ear drum. The middle ear contains three tiny bones namely malleus, incus and
stapes which are collectively calle~ ear ossicles.
The middle ear is connected to the throat by the Eustachian tube which equalises air pressure
on either side of the ear drum.
The inner ear or membranous labyrinth has two parts namely, the cochlea and semi-circular
canals.
The cochlea .is spiral :shaped and has two and a half turns. The median canal of the cochlea
contains organ <;if corti. The organ of corti helps in hearing. The median canal of the inner ear
is filled with endolymph and the other two canals with perilymph.
The three semi-Circular canals are arranged at right angles to each other. It contains sensory
cells concerned with dynamic equilibrium. The sensory cells of utriculus and saccuius help in
static balance with respect to gravity.

Experiment - Endocrine Glands I_ /5/.-t J)i°j J;}, /

Alm: To identify and locate the endocrine glands.
Materials required: A chart on endocrine glands .
Observation: ·
1. Pituitary gland: The pituitary gland is a small projection which hangs from the base of
the mid brain just belq_w the hypothalamus. It is popularly called the master gland. The
pituitary gland has an anterior and posterior lobe. The hormones secreted are called
tropic hormones which control the other endocrine glands.
2. Thyroid gland: The thyroid gland is a bi lobed structure situated in front of the neck Just
below the larynx. It secretes thyroxine and calcitonin. Thyroxine regulates bii"sal
• metaboHsm. Hyposecretion of thyroxine causes simple goitre and cretinism in children
and myxoedema in adults.

· 3. Pancreas: Pancreas is both an endocrine and exocrine gland. Aspecial group of cells
called Islets of Langerhans are endocrine in function. They contain· alpha,beta and delta
cells which produce glucagon,Jnsulin and somatostatin respectively.
Insulin promotes gluco,;e utilization in the body and Its
hypo- secretion results in diabetes mellitus.
Glucagon stimulates breakdown of glycogen to glucose
1
in the liver thus raising blood glucose.
4. Adrenal Gland: The adrenal glands are like caps above th,e kidneys. Each adrenal gland
consists of two parts, a central medulla and a peripheral cortex.
The adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline which increases
heart beat and blood pressure, release more glucose
I
into blood and hence called emergency hormone.
The adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids and
mineriilocorticoids which regulate carbohydrate,
protein metabolism and minerai metabolism.

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