Human Mental Workload

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 V

PREFACE

It is now almost a decade since the publication of the Proceedings of the NATO
symposium on Mental Workload (Moray, 1979), and as Jahns (1987) has noted in a recent
editorial, a look at changes that have occurred with respect to mental workload
assessment in the interim decade may prove both refreshing and informative. I t is our
major purpose in the present volume to fulfill this function. Within the contributed
chapters is information not only on the contemporary status of mental workload but also
a number of insightful glimpses into the future of the area. The volume was conceived in
association with several colleagues at the 1984 meeting of the Human Factors Society, in
San Antonio, Texas. We asked several prominent researchers to survey their respective
area of expertise with respect to recent developments. In order to limit the overlap that
can occur when different individuals comment on the same area of investigation, we
asked authors to provide a contribution that focused on their own particular research
endeavors rather than a general survey of particular workload topics or methodologies.
While we have attempted to elicit contributions from a wide range of acknowledged
experts, we are only too aware of the number of individuals who because of space and
time limits we were unable to invite. Also, as our work has progressed, we have become
familiar with many more colleagues from whom, had it been possible, we would have also
liked to solicit contributions. Indeed, such is the rate of progress in this area that a
decade is perhaps too long a period to cover adequately in terms of progress. Some
prominent workers had, or were, completing extensive chapters on this issue and are
consequently missing from the present work. T h e reader is directed to the works of
Kantowitz (1987) and of Gopher and Donchin (1986) for further elaboration of
alternative views on the mental workload question.
We have organized the volume into a series of coherent sections. These include a
section for each of the current dominant methodologies, a further section on individual
differences, and final contributions concerning unanswered questions and future
directions for the mental workload issue together with a listing of contemporary research
reports. The text begins with a contribution by John Senders. His poetical offerings
provide a creative view of the state of mental workload as represented at the NATO
conference alluded to above. I t is followed by Henry jex’s chapter which represents the
written version of the Franklin V . Taylor lecture he presented as the 1980 winner of the
award given by the Engineering Psychology Society of the American Psychological
Association. T o capture the essence of this work, the chapter is, with minor amendments,
a written reproduction of the original verbal presentation. It is both instructive and
informative to compare j e x and Senders’ assessments and aspirations of approximately a
decade ago with the reality of contemporary developments as represented in chapters
which follow.
The Fist of these contemporary perspectives is provided by Tom Eggemeier in his
chapter on the properties of workload assessment techniques. I t is followed by a chapter
from Glenn Wilson and Robert O’Donnell who survey the growing field of physiological
measures and continues with the work of Najmedin Meshkati which focuses specifically
on heart rate variability as a measure of mental load. Aasman. Wijers, Mulder, and
Mulder have chosen to explore the concept of effort and fatigue in relation to the
workload experienced during normal daily routines. The largest section of the t ex t
concerns the use of subjective assessment techniques, and the originators of two of the
most widely employed techniques, i.e., SWAT and NASA TLX, give a detailed account of
vi Preface

these procedures and the knowledge upon which they are founded. In conclusion to the
section Michael Vidulich provides a discussion of the cognitive psychology of subjective
workload.
An area that has often been acknowledged as of vital importance is the effect of
individual differences. In the first paper of the section, Diane Damos emphasizes the
paucity of experimental information on this topic. However, the chapters by Peter
Hancock and by Najmedin Meshkati and Alex Loewenthal present some data on
individual characteristics that appear to influence the experience of workload. In the
concluding section of the volume Najmedin Meshkati offers a preliminary proposal for a
cohesive model of mental load, and Walter Wierwille discusses some remaining questions
and future issues which surround the investigation of mental workload. As an appended
element to the work, we have collected a listing of workload-related literature which
provides a sampling OF the many citations in the area. The criteria For selection of this
listing and its breakdown according to several characteristics are given in the final
chapter .
In generating any volume there are a number of individuals who have made
significant contributions and whose efforts it is a pleasure to acknowledge. First and
foremost, w e must thank the authors have who provided prompt and complete copy.
Our appreciation goes to Cuong Chu who provided considerable help to a number of
authors in generating final copy and also to Nancy Knabe, George Rodenburg, and Eric
DiGiovanni who were instrumental in producing the finished text.

P.A. Hancock N ajmedin Meshkati

REFERENCES
Gopher, D., & Donchin, E. (1986). Workload: An examination of the concept. In:
K. Boff., L. Kaufman., and J.P. Thomas, (Eds.). Handbook of perception and human
performance, New York: Wiley.
Jahns, D.W. (1987). Editorial. Human factors bulletin, 30, 3.
Kantowitz, B.H. (1987). Mental workload. In: P.A. Hancock (Ed.). Human factors
psvcholony, North-Holland: Amsterdam.
Moray, N. (1979) (Ed.). Mental workload: Its theory and measurement, New York:
Plenum Press.
 vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Part of my editorial efforts with respect to the present volume were supported by
Grant NCC 2-379, ( I EH) from NASA, Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California.
Michael Vidulich and Sandra Hart were the technical monitors for the grant. The
contributions contained should not necessarily be construed as representative of t h e
position of this agency.

P.A. Hancock
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 IX

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREAMBLE 1

1. MENTAL WORKLOAD . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J.W. Senders 3

APPLICATIONS
PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES
PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASURES
CONTROL THEORY
MATHEMATICAL MODELS

2. MEASURING MENTAL WORKLOAD: PROBLEMS, PROGRESS,

AND PROMISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H.R.Jex 5

INTRODUCTION 5
T H E WORKl.OAD PROBLEM IS MULTIFACETED 6
PROBLEMS I N DEFINING MENTAL WORKLOAD 8
PROGRESS TOWARDS A LJSABLE DEFINITION It
CRITERIA FOR WORKLOAD MEASUREMENT 12
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT 12
Objective Measures 13
Subjective Measures 14
SEQUENTIAL SUBJECTIVE RATING SCALES 15
PROGRESS IN SUBJECTIVE WORKLOAD RATINGS 16
PROGRESS IN AUXILIARY-TASK TECHNIQUES 18
AUTOMATIC MEASUREMENT O F WORKLOAD MARGIN 21
CORRELATION O F SUBJECTIVE RATINGS W I T H WORKLOAD
MARGINS 21
PROGRESS O N A THEORY FOR DIVIDED A T T E N T I O N 23
Finite Dwell Sampling Theory 23
Sampling Effects o n Control Performance 25
Discrete Task Interference 26
Combining Continuous and Cognitive Tasks 27
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES OF WORKLOAD PROGRESS 28
PROMISES 30
Standard Tasks for Calibrating Mental Workload 30
Tracking Task 30
Discrete Tasks 31
Divided Attention Tasks 32
Event Related Potentials 33
WORKLOAD SPECIFICATIONS 35
X Table of Contents

CONCLUSION 36
REFERENCES 36

3.PROPERTIES OF WORKLOAD ASSESSMENT T E C H N I Q U E S

... , , ... , , . .. ...... . ..... .. .. . . , , . . . ....... . . . F.T. Eggemeier 41

I NTRODUCTION 41
SENSITIVITY 42
Sensitivity as a Function of Level of Capacity Expenditure 42
Sensitivity as a Function OF the Locus of Processing Demands 45
I NTRUSl VEN ESS 49
Intrusion With Secondary Task Techniques 50
Intrusion With Subjective and Physiological Techniques 51
IMPLICATIONS O F PROPERTIES 52
WORKLOAD METRIC EVALUATION METHODOLOGY 54
T h e Criterion Task Set 54
Applications of the CTS Battery 56
SUMMARY A N D CONCLUSIONS 57
REFERENCES 59

4. MEASUREMENT O F OPERATOR WORKLOAD W I T H T H E

N EUROPSYCHOLOGICA L WORK LOAD T E S T BATTERY
, , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . G.F. Wilson and R.D. O'Donnell 63
INTRODUCTION 63
MEASURES OF BRAIN FUNCTION 66
General Introduction 66
Epoch Analysis 66
Cortical Evoked Potential 67
T h e Transient Cortical Evoked Response 68
P300 to Primary Tasks 69
P300 to Secondary Tasks 70
T h e "Probe" Technique 72
Steady State Evoked Responses 73
Brain Stem Evoked Responses 75
MEASURES OF HEART RATE 76
EYE BLINK MEASURES 77
COMBINED PHYSIOLOGICAL, PERFORMANCE A N D SUBJECTIVE
MEASURES 78
T H E NEUROPSYCHOLOCICAL WORKLOAD T E S T
BATTERY (NWTB) 79
Odd-Ball Test 82
Memory-Scanning Test 84
Continuous Performance Test R5
Flash Evoked Response X .5
Monitoring Task 8G
 Table of Contents xi

Tracking Task 86
Brain Stern Evoked Response 86
Checkerboard Steady State Evoked Response 87
Sinewave Grating Steady State Evoked Response 87
Unpatterned Steady State Evoked Potential 87
Electrocai diograph 88
Electroociilograph 89
Electromyograph 89
Operating Procedures x9
OVERVIEW O F C U R R E N T S T A T U S 90
GUIDELINES FOR APPLICATION O F PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES 91
SUMMARY 92
REFERENCES 93

5. H E A R T RATE VARIABILITY AND MENTAL WORKLOAD

ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. rneshkati 101

ABSTRACT 101
INTRODUCTION 101
H E A R T RATE VARIABILITY 101
Significant Relationship Between Heart Rate Variability and
Mental Workload 102
Parameters of H R Data a n d Scoring Methods 102
Spectral Analysis of H R Data 105
Combination of Calculated Parameters of H R Data and
Spectral Analysis 106
Absence of Significant Relationships Between Heart Rate
Variability and Mental Workload 107
Parameters of H R Data a n d Scoring Methods 107
REFERENCES 111

6. MEASURING MENTAL FATIGUE I N NORMAL DAILY WORKING

ROUTINES . . . . . . J. Aasman, A.A. Wijers, G. Mulder and L.J.M. Mulder 117
INTRODUCTION I I7
METHOD 123
Subjects 123
Data Analysis 125
RESULTS 126
Effects o f Task Conditions 127
Effects o f Workload 128
T h e Effects of the Preceding Day 132
Individual Differences 132
DISCUSSION 133
REFERENCES I36
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7. DEVELOPMENT OF NASA-TLX (TASK LOAD INDEX): RESULTS OF

EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL RESEARCH
. . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . S.G. Hart and L.E. Staveland
, 139

ABSTRACT i39
INTRODUCTION 139
Conceptual Framework 140
Information Provided by Subjective Ratings 141
Evaluating Ill-Defined Constructs 142
Individuals' Workload Definitions 143
Sources of Rating Variability 144
Research Approach 144
Research Objectives and Background 146
OVERALL RESULTS 145
Weights 149
Ratings 151
EXPERIMENTAL CATEGORIES 153
S I NGLE-COGNITIVE Category 154
SINGLE-MANUAL Category 156
DUAL-TASK Category 157
FITTSBERG Category 158
POPCORN Category 159
SIMULATION Category 160
CONSTRUCTING A WORKLOAD RATING SCALE 161
Subscale Selection 162
Task-Related Scales 162
Behavior-Related Scales 164
Subject-Related Scales 165
Overall Workload Ratings 166
Weighted Workload Score 166
Verification of Selected Subscales 167
Combination of Subscales 168
Quanti tication 168
Reference Tasks 171
Validation 172
Weights 173
Ratings 174
SUMMARY 175
REFERENCES 178

8. THE SUBJECTIVE WORKLOAD ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUE: A

SCALING PROCEDURE FOR MEASURING M E N T A L WORKLOAD
. . . . . . . . . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G.B. Reid and T.E. Nygren

I NT RODC CT 10N
StiBJECTlVE VEASC REMECT OF WORKLOAD
 Table of Contents xiii

M E N T A L W O R K L O A D OPERATIONALLY DEFINED 189

C O N J O I N T MEASUREMENT A N D CONJOINT SCALING i92
Axiom Tests for Conjoint Measurement 192
Conjoint Scaling 195
SCALE DEVEI.OPMENT 198
Analyzing C a r d Sort Data 200
Stability ot Subjects’ Judgments 202
EVENT SCORING 203
Simulation Studies 208
SUMMARY A N D CONCLUSIONS 21 I
REFERENCES 214

9. T H E C O G N I T I V E PSYCHOLOGY O F SUBJECTIVE M E N T A L
WORKLOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M.A. Vidulich 219

I N T R O DU CT ION 2 19
DISSOCIATION I N SINGLE-TASK T R A C K I N G 220
DISSOCIATION I N DUAL-TASK ENVIRONMENTS 22 1
Dual-Task Experiment I . 22 I
Dual-Task Experiment 2. 224
DISSOCIATION CAUSED BY M O T I V A T I O N A L DIFFERENCES 227
G E N E R A L DISCUSSION 227
REFERENCES 228

10. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SUBJECTIVE ESTIMATES OF

W O R K L O A D , . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.L. Damos 23 I

INTRODUCTION 23 1
PERSONALITY T R A I T S A N D BEHAVIORAL P A T T E R N S 232
Personality Traits 232
Behavioral Patterns 233
RESPONSE S T R A T E G Y 234
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN RESOURCE CAPACITY 234
DISCUSSION 235
REFERENCES 236

11. T H E EFFECT O F G E N D E R AND T I M E O F DAY U P O N T H E

SUBJECTIVE E S T I M A T E O F M E N T A L WORKLOAD D U R I N G T H E
PERFORMANCE O F A SIMPLE T A S K . . . . . . . , , . , . , , P.A. Hancock 239

ABSTRACT 239
I N T R O D U c rI O N 239
METHOD 240
Subjects 240
Procedure 240
Tasks 240
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Design 24 I
Physiological Measurement 24 I
RESULTS 24 I
Workload Evaluation 242
Weighted Responses 242
IJnweighted Responses 242
Gentler Differences in Scale Weightings 242
Tiine of Day Difterences in Scale Weightings 245
DISCUSSION 245
REFERENCES 248

12. AN ECLECTIC A N D CRITICAL REVIEW O F F O U R PRIMARY

MENTAL WORKLOAD ASSESSMENT M E T H O D S : A G U I D E FOR
DEVELOPING A COMPREHENSIVE M O D E L
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. Meshkati and A. Loewenthal 25 I
ABSTRACT 25 1
INTRODUCTION 25 I
REVIEW 252
Remarks o n Secondary Task Methods 252
Remarks on Subjective Rating Methods 254
Remarks on Performance Measure Methods 256
Remarks o n Physiological Methods 257
EPILOGUE TO T H E DISCUSSION O F M E N T A L WORKLOAD
ASSESSMENT M E T H O D S 259
REFERENCES 26 I

13. T H E EFFECTS O F INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES I N INFORMATION

PROCESSING BEHAVIOR O N EXPERIENCING M E N T A L
WORKLOAD A N D PERCEIVED T A S K DIFFICULTY: A
PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. Meshkati and A. Loewenthal 269
ABSTRACT 269
INTRODUCTION 269
DECISION STYLE MODEL 270
T H E C O N C E P T U A L MODEL A N D M E T H O D 273
Experimental Design 273
Independent and Dependent Variables 274
Experimental Method a n d Procedures 274
RESULTS 275
Dominant Decision Style Grouping 276
Results ot Variables for Each Doininant Decision Style G r o u p 275
Behavior of Each Dominant Decision Style 280
DISCCJ SS 10N A N D C O N C LUS 10NS 28 I
Siiius Air-hythniia Measure 28 I
 Table of Contents XV

Subjective Rating Measure 283

REFERENCES 285

14. FUZZY ANALYSIS O F S K I L L A ID RULE-B S E D ITAL

W O R K L O A D . , . . . . . . . N. Moray, P. Eisen, L. Money and I.B. Turksen 289
INTRODUCTION 289
METHOD 29 I
Development ot t h e Skill and Rule Base Curves 293
RESULTS 294
DISCUSSION 300
REFERENCES 303

15. T O W A R D DEVELOPMENT O F A COHESIVE MODEL O F

WORKLOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. Meshkati 305

ABSTRACT 305
PRESENT S T A T U S O F M E N T A L WORKLOAD T H E O R I E S 305
COHESIVE M E N T A L W O R K L O A D MODEL A N D C O N C U R R E N T TASKS 308
C R I T E R I A FOR A COHESIVE WORKLOAD M O D E L 309
REFERENCES 310

16. I M P O R T A N T REMAINING ISSUES IN MENTAL W O R K L O A D

ESTIMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W.W. Wierwille 315
INTRODUCTION 315
T H E IMPORTANCE O F MULTIPLE EXPERIMENTS 316
T H E C O N C E P T O F FULL MENTAL LOAD A N D ITS IMPLICATIONS
FOR SYSTEM DESIGN 318
TASK ANALYTIC M E T H O D S A N D MOMENTARY W O R K L O A D 320
WORKLOAD E S T I M A T I O N BASED O N NORMAL O P E R A T I N G
RECORDS 322
EFFECTS O F LEARNING A N D PROFICIENCY O N W O R K L O A D 323
REFERENCES 325

17. A BIBLIOGRAPHIC LISTING O F M E N T A L W O R K L O A D RESEARCH

. . . . . . , . . , . . . . P.A. Hancock, M. Rahimi, T . Mihaly a n d N. Meshkati 329
INTRODUCTION 329
RESOURCES USED TO C R E A T E T H E BIBLIOGRAPHIC LISTING 329
DESCRIPTION O F PUBLICATION SOURCES 330
PUBLICATION G R O W T H 33 I
C O N T E N T AREA DECOMPOSITION O F BIBLIOGRAPHIC
LIST 1N G 33 I
SUMMARY 332
xvi Table of Contents

REFERENCE LISTING 335

 1

PREAMBLE

In assembling the present work we were faced with the problem of how and where to
begin. We felt that the text edited by Neville Moray was a most appropriate point of
departure for this work, but could we summarize in a few succint phrases the state-of-the-
art that it represented some decade ago? This was proving a most thorny endeavor until
happily the problem was solved for us by the timely appearance of John Senders poetical
offerings. By kind permission of the author and the copyright holder we are able to
reproduce these verses. We leave it to the reader to assess their pertinence to
contemporary progress as represented by the contributions in the following pages.
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