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IPMT400100

Individual and Cultural

Differences
Tonny Menglun Kuo (郭孟倫), Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
Interdisciplinary Program of Management and Technology (IPMT)
College of Management and Technology
National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan

493

After reading this chapter,

you should be able to answer these questions:
1. How do managers and organizations appropriately select individuals for
particular jobs?
2. How do people with different abilities, skills, and personalities build effective
work teams?
3. How do managers and employees deal effectively with individual
differences in the workplace?
4. How can organizations foster a work environment that allows employees an
opportunity to develop and grow?
5. How do managers know how to get the best from each employee?
6. What is the role of ethical behavior in managerial actions?
7. How do you manage and do business with people from different cultures?

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10.1 Linking Individuals to

the Workplace
Describe the differences between person-job fit and
person-organization fit.

495

Why Personality Matters in Organizations

■ Personality helps explain how people think, feel,

and behave at work
■ The fit between individuals and work environment
impacts:
n Employee attitudes
n Job performance
n Turnover intentions

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Why Individual and Cultural Differences Matter

■ Essential for managers and organizations to:

n Select the right people for specific jobs
n Build effective diverse teams
n Address individual differences among employees
n Create environments for employee development
n Optimize individual employee performance
n Ensure ethical managerial behavior
n Successfully work across cultures

497

Individual Factors in Employee Performance

Performance = Ability × Motivation

■ Ability: Capacity to respond
n Mental and physical abilities
n Personality traits
n Perceptual capabilities
n Stress tolerance
■ Motivation: Will or desire to respond
n Internal drive
n External incentives
n Personal values

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Basic Conflict Between Employees and Organizations

499

Person-Environment Fit

Types of Person-Environment Fit

■ Person-Job Fit: Matching personality with job
requirements
■ Person-Organization Fit: Aligning individual
values with organizational culture
■ Person-Group Fit: Compatibility with team
members
■ Person-Supervisor Fit: Match with manager's
style

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Person-Job Fit

Holland's Personality-Job Fit Theory

■ Six personality types matched to work
environments:
n Realistic, Investigative, Artistic
n Social, Enterprising, Conventional
■ Strong fit predicts:
n Higher job satisfaction
n Increased organizational commitment
n Lower turnover intentions
■ More valued in individualistic cultures

501

Holland’s Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations

Type Personality Characteristics Congruent Occupations

Shy, genuine, persistent, stable, Mechanic, drill press operator,
Realistic
conforming, practical assembly-line worker, farmer
Analytical, original, curious, Biologist, economist,
Investigative
independent mathematician, news reporter
Imaginative, disorderly, idealistic, Painter, musician, writer, interior
Artistic
emotional, impractical decorator
Sociable, friendly, cooperative, Social worker, teacher,
Social
understanding counselor, clinical psychologist
Lawyer, real estate agent, public
Self-confident, ambitious,
Enterprising relations specialist, small
energetic, domineering
business manager
Conforming, efficient, practical, Accountant, corporate manager,
Conventional
unimaginative, inflexible bank teller, file clerk

502

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Person-Organization Fit

Aligning Values with Organizational Culture

■ Focus on compatibility with company values and
culture
■ Benefits:
n Higher employee satisfaction
n Reduced turnover
n Improved employee adaptation
■ Increasingly assessed through company
websites and social media
■ Organizations in dynamic environments prioritize
this fit

503

Why Are Companies Promoting Work Values

on YouTube & Social Media?
■ Attracting the Right Talent
n Gen Z & Millennials seek meaningful work and value
cultural fit.
n Highlighting core values helps attract candidates who
share similar beliefs.
■ Employer Branding
n Companies use values to differentiate themselves in a
competitive job market.
n Values become part of the company’s identity and
reputation.
■ Transparency & Reputation Management
n Sites like Glassdoor make internal culture visible.
n Proactively sharing values = strategic reputation
management.

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10.2 Personality at Work

Describe personality, the way it is measured, and the
factors that shape it.

505

Personality Defined

Understanding Personality
■ The sum of ways an individual reacts to and
interacts with the world
■ Described through measurable traits:
n Enduring characteristics
n Consistent across situations
n Relatively stable over time

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What Factors Shape Individual Personality?

Heredity and Physiological

Environment: Determinants:
Nature and nurture Physical attributes
interaction and health

Cultural Family and Social

Determinants: Group: Parenting
Cultural norms and styles and peer
values influence

Role Determinants: Situational

Gender and Determinants: Life
occupational events and
expectations circumstances

507

Relation of Personality to Attitudes and Behavior

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Personality and Selection

Pre-employment Screening
■ Increasing use of personality assessments
■ Matching individuals to jobs and company culture
■ Legal considerations:
n Avoiding disparate treatment
n Preventing disparate impact
■ Validity requirements:
n Tests must predict job performance
n Clear connection to job requirements

509

Measuring Personality

Assessment Methods
■ Self-report surveys:
n Most common method
n Limitation: potential for faking responses
■ Observer-ratings surveys:
n Assessments by coworkers or others
n Can predict job success better than self-ratings alone
■ Modern technology approaches:
n AI and machine learning
n Analysis of social media language and writing samples

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Discussion: Candidates Faking

■ Faking: The practice of answering questions in a

way one thinks the company is looking for.
n Aspirational Bias: In hiring contexts, candidates are
incentivized to “fake good” — to give answers that match
what they believe the employer wants.
n An estimated 20%–50% of job applicants intentionally fake Can you think of any limitations
on personality tests. of developing an “ideal
employee” profile and looking
■ Faking and Its Implications for employees who fit that
n Faking may distort results, but some researchers argue the profile while hiring?
tests still predict job performance even with faking.
n The ability to fake may relate to traits like self-monitoring,
which could themselves be predictive of success.

M orgeson, F. P., Cam pion, M . A., Dipboye, R. L., Hollenbeck, J. R., M urphy, K., & Schm itt, N. (2007). Reconsidering the use of personality tests in personnel selection contexts. Personnel Psychology, 60, 683–729.
M orgeson, F. P., Cam pion, M . A., Dipboye, R. L., Hollenbeck, J. R., M urphy, K., & Schm itt, N. (2007). Are we getting fooled again? Com ing to term s with lim itations in the use of personality tests for personnel selection. Personnel
Psychology, 60
van Hooft, E. A. J., & Born, M . P. (2012). Intentional response distortion on personality tests: Using eye-tracking to understand response processes when faking. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97, 301–316.

511

10.3 Personality Frameworks

Describe the strengths and weaknesses of the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality framework,
the Big Five Model, and the Dark Triad.

512

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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

MBTI Framework
■ Classifies people into 16 personality types
■ Four dichotomies:
n Extroverted/Introverted
n Sensing/Intuitive
n Thinking/Feeling
n Judging/Perceiving
■ Limitations:
n Developed unscientifically
n Forces binary classifications
n Does NOT predict job performance
n Results often inconsistent upon retesting

513

The Big Five Model

Five-Factor Model of Personality

■ Well-researched framework with strong empirical
support
■ Five basic dimensions:
n Conscientiousness
n Emotional Stability
n Extroversion
n Openness to Experience
n Agreeableness
■ Verified links to important organizational outcomes

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The Big Five Model

Key Traits and Workplace Impact

■ Conscientiousness: Strong predictor of job
performance and OCB
■ Emotional Stability: Related to satisfaction and
reduced burnout
■ Extroversion: Advantage in social jobs and
leadership emergence
■ Openness: Related to creativity, innovation, and
comfort with ambiguity
■ Agreeableness: Better performance in
interpersonal roles, more OCBs

515

Model of How Big Five Traits Influence OB Criteria

Big Five Traits Why Is It Relevant? What Does It Affect?
• Less negative thinking and fewer • Higher job and life satisfaction
Emotional stability negative emotions • Lower stress levels
• Less hypervigilant • More adaptable to change
• Better interpersonal skills • Higher performance
Extroversion • Greater social dominance • Enhanced leadership
• More emotionally expressive • Higher job and life satisfaction
• Increased learning
• Enhanced training performance
Openness • More creative
• Enhanced leadership
• More flexible and autonomous
• Higher performance
• Better liked
Agreeableness • Lower levels of deviant
• More compliant and conforming
behavior
• Greater effort and persistence • Higher performance
Conscientiousness • More drive and discipline • Enhanced leadership
• Better organized and planning • Greater longevity

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Traits That Matter Most to Business Success at

Buyout Companies
■ Most Important
n Persistence
n Attention to detail
n Efficiency
n Analytical skills
n Setting high standards
■ Less Important
n Strong oral communication
n Teamwork
n Flexibility/adaptability
n Enthusiasm
n Listening skills

Source: Based on S. N. Kaplan, M. M. Klebanov, and M. Sorensen, “Which CEO Characteristics

and Abilities Matter?” The Journal of Finance 67, no. 3 (2012): 973–1007.

517

The Dark Triad

Socially Undesirable Traits
■ Machiavellianism:
n Manipulative, pragmatic, emotionally distant
n Can win in short term, but poorly liked long-term
■ Narcissism:
n Arrogant, grandiose self-importance, requires admiration
n Can be charismatic but harmful to organizations
■ Psychopathy:
n Lack of concern for others, no remorse for harm
n Associated with hard influence tactics and bullying

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Additional Personality Concepts

Beyond the Big Five

■ Core Self-Evaluations (CSE):
n Bottom-line conclusions about one's capabilities and worth
n Positive CSE linked to higher satisfaction and performance
■ Self-Monitoring:
n Ability to adjust behavior to external factors
n High self-monitors more adaptable but potentially less
authentic
■ Proactive Personality:
n Taking initiative and driving meaningful change
n Related to higher performance and career success

519

10.4 Personality and Situations

Describe how the situation affects whether personality
predicts behavior.

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Situation Strength Theory

■ Core Idea: The extent to which personality traits

predict behavior depends on the “strength” of
the situation.
■ Strong situations: Clear norms, rules, and
expectations minimize personality expression
n e.g., surgeon, bank auditor
■ Weak situations: Ambiguous norms allow
personality traits to guide behavior.
n e.g., freelance writer, remote worker

521

Situation Strength Theory

■ Four Components of Situation Strength:

Example
Component Definition
(Strong Situation)
Cues about
Clarity Janitor vs. Talent Agent
responsibilities are clear
Cues are aligned and
Consistency ER nurse vs. Manager
non-contradictory
Freedom to act is Bank examiner vs. Forest
Constraints
restricted ranger
Actions have significant Surgeon vs. Language
Consequences
impact teacher

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Situation Strength Theory

Managerial Implications:
■ Excessive rules may reduce creativity and
motivation.
■ Strong situations can force compliance
(e.g., with safety rules), suppressing
personality expression.
■ In overly structured environments,
counterproductive behaviors may
emerge (e.g., rule-breaking out of
frustration).

523

Trait Activation Theory

■ Situations as Trait Triggers

n Certain situations, tasks, or environments “activate”
specific personality traits, making them more
influential.
n Helps predict which jobs suit certain personalities
■ Examples:
n Commission-based jobs activate extraversion
(reward sensitivity)
n Customer service roles activate agreeableness
n Complex projects activate openness to experience
n Electronic monitoring can activate fear of failure
■ Environment can activate traits positively or
negatively

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Trait Activation Theory

Job Type Activated Traits (+) High-Fit Example Jobs

Air traffic controller,
High detail orientation Conscientiousness (+)
Accountant
Extraversion (+), Clergy, Therapist,
High social skill needed
Agreeableness (+) Concierge
Competitive Coach, Sales rep,
Extraversion (+)
environments Financial manager
Openness (+), Systems analyst,
Creative/innovative jobs
Emotional Stability (+) Advertising writer
Agreeableness (+), Correctional officer,
Handling angry people
Emotional Stability (+) Flight attendant
Time-sensitive jobs Conscientiousness (+) Editor, Airline pilot

525

Trait Activation Theory

Managerial Implications:
■ Supportive teams can activate
conscientiousness, enhancing information
sharing.
■ Traits may emerge differently based on context—
even strong situations can activate traits indirectly.

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10.5 Ability, Values,

and Work Ethics
Demonstrate the relevance of intellectual and physical
abilities to OB.
Contrast terminal and instrumental values.

527

Abilities in the Workplace

Intellectual and Physical Capacities

■ Ability: Current capacity to perform job tasks
■ Distinct from personality but equally important
■ Smart people tend to perform better in complex
jobs
■ Abilities must be matched to job requirements

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Intellectual Abilities Verbal

comprehension:
Word fluency:
Understanding Naming objects,
forming sentences
word meanings
Mental Capacities
■ General Mental Ability (GMA):
Number aptitude: Inductive
n Strong predictor of job performance Speed and reasoning:
n Appears to generalize across cultures accuracy in Discovering and
calculations applying rules
■ Caution: Using ability tests can have
disparate impact
Memory: Recalling Spatial aptitude:
information and Understanding
associations geometric
relationships

Cognitive
Perceptual speed:
Quick visual detail complexity:
Information
recognition
processing capacity

529

Physical Abilities

Physical Capacities
■ Nine basic physical abilities identified:
n Strength factors (dynamic, trunk, static, explosive)
n Flexibility factors (extent, dynamic)
n Other factors (body coordination, balance, stamina)
■ Important for jobs with physical demands
■ Matching abilities to requirements improves
performance

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Cognitive Complexity

Information Processing Styles

■ High Cognitive Complexity:
n Uses more information sources
n Recognizes relationships between elements
n Handles complex situations effectively
n Values diverse perspectives
■ Low Cognitive Complexity:
n Categorical thinking
n Relies on simple rules
n Limited personal contribution
n Struggles with ambiguity

531

Personal Values and Ethics

Values as Behavioral Guides

■ Definition: Enduring beliefs about preferable
conduct or end-states
■ Characteristics:
n Relatively stable over time
n Learned early in life
n Guide behavior and evaluations
n Influence ethical decisions

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Schwartz Value Survey (SVS; Schwartz, 1994)

Measurement Tools
Shalom H. Schwartz: Theory of basic human values
• Schwartz
Personal Values Dictionary 887 Value Survey (SVS): A rating-
Personal Values Dictionary 889 based questionnaire measuring the
The approaches described above provide various degrees grounded in the widely used theory of basic human values
importance of values.
of generalizability but are limited in several ways. Manual (Schwartz, 1992), thereby offering generalizability and com- • Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ): Uses
coding methodologies are ill-suited to use for large bodies patibility with the large existing body of research on values,
of text (Portman, 2014), while most others to date are ex- (ii) readily automated and thus suitable for application to large
brief verbal portraits to indirectly assess
tremely brief and thus unable to capture most references to bodies of text, (iii) sensitive to the variety of ways in which personal values.
values (Bardi et al., 2008). Much research to date is not spe- values can be referenced, (iv) applicable across types of texts,
cifically designed to align with a theory (LIWC-based ap- and (v) convenient and resource-efficient.
proaches; Chen et al., 2014; Christen et al., 2016; Mukta The procedure we used to develop and validate the PVD Applications
et al., 2016) or, in more extreme cases, use machine-learning builds upon and advances procedures used in earlier approaches • International marketing: Tailoring strategies
approaches where results strongly depend on the specific texts to extracting information on psychological constructs from text
used for training the algorithm (Gou et al., 2014; Sun data, such as personality traits, moral foundations, or sentiments based on cultural value priorities
et al., 2014) and therefore have limited generalizability. Finally, (Graham, Haidt, & Nosek, 2009; Pietraszkiewicz et al., 2018; • Organizational behavior: Understanding
some are impossible to validate independently (IBM Wat- Tausczik & Pennebaker, 2010). In the development stage, a
son, 2018). In consequence, there is still a strong need for a group of experts agreed on a list of candidate words employee motivations
thoroughly validated theory-driven instrument to detect refer- representing the 10 value types proposed by Schwartz (1992) • Political science and economics: Studying
ences to value orientations in large bodies of text. (content validity). Candidate words were obtained from
established values questionnaires, synonym networks of cultural influences on societal development
Present study
value-laden terms, and most common words in online searches.
We set out to develop an instrument for assessing individual This candidate list was then refined using multiple methods in-
value priorities via references to values in natural language. cluding psycholinguistic techniques and exploratory factor anal- Schwartz, S. H. (1992). “Universals in the content and
Our approach is based on the assumption that values that ysis (EFA; see Figure 2). structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests
are held more important to the author are referred to more of- We followed Cronbach and Meehl’s (1955) classification of in 20 countries.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,
ten (Bardi et al., 2008; Boyd, Pasca, & Conroy-Beam, 2019; validity in psychological tests that distinguishes between con- 25, 1-65.
Tausczik & Pennebaker, 2010). By reference to a value, we tent validity, construct validity (including convergent and dis-
Figure 1. The
understand antheoretical model
utterance that of relations
invokes amongof
the content thethe
10value
value typescriminant
and the four higherand
validity), order values.validity
criterion [Colour(including
figure canconcurrent
be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

For example,
533
in describing an object, event, state, evaluation, and so on.
for the value of security, such utterances derived
can in-
validity and predictive validity). In the validation stage, after
assessing the internal consistency of the PVD, we examined
value orientations was empirically from status and respect, commitment and tradition, competence,
clude words ‘warning’, ‘danger’, or ‘safe’. Note that the va- the validity of the refined dictionary by comparing the pattern
co-occurrences of value-related terms in textual
lence of the relationship of the words to the content of the data correlationsand
of(i.e. autonomy.
between Thetypes
the 10 value participants
against thedid not answer any Schwartz
theoreti-
theory-free); theory-driven
value can be positive or negative,approach
so we expectdescribes
authors thatattemptscallytoexpectedvalues measure
circumplex. forwea examined
Further, direct comparison.
the correla-
apply a specific
consider the valuevalue theory—most
of security often,toSchwartz’s
more important use both theory
tions between values Such as data-driven
measured by the lexical approaches
PVD with relevant often arrive at very
ofwords
basic‘dangerous’
human and ‘safe’ more often.
values—to textual data as a means LIWC of categories as well conclusions,
different as the Moral Foundations
depending Dictionary
on the methods employed
To detect and quantify the references to values we con- (MFD; Graham et al., 2009) (convergent and discriminant va-
extracting information on individuals’ value orientations.
structed a broad, theoretically grounded dictionary for use
and specific language under study. An extensive analysis of
lidity). Finally, we tested the criterion validity of the PVD by
examining (i)verbal expressions
between theofPVD value orientations
scores and in English and Ger-
Personal Values Dictionary (PVD, Ponizovskiy et al., 2020)
with word-counting software. To overcome the limitations correlations value
of past research, we aimed to create a solution that is (i) man languages
value scores obtained (Christen
with questionnaire et al.,
measures 2016) revealed a structure
(concurrent
Studies on the dimensionality of verbal references to Personal Values Dictionary 893
that did not resemble any of the existing taxonomies or value
value orientations
theories. The authors began with 448 value-relevant words
Aavik and Allik (2002) employed the lexical method in the identified through a literature review of value concepts in
tradition of Galton, 1949 and Allport’s (e.g. Allport & psychological as well as philosophical texts. To capture the
Odbert, 1936) seminal studies on the dimensionality of use of the concepts more broadly, each of the 448 ‘seed’
personality traits in a study on dimensions of value orien- words was represented as a ‘word bag’ or a set of semanti-
tations. In the first step, they developed the Estonian Value cally similar words, identified via online synonym databases
Inventory (EVI) by starting with 560 words from an Esto- such as www.thesaurus.com. After extensive cleaning, 3749
nian dictionary that referred to value orientations, accord- English and 4775 distinct German terms remained across
ing to expert judgements. In several revisions, this list all word bags. They then used an iterative process of auto-
was reduced to 78 words. In the second step, 294 Estonian matic classification and expert annotation to classify value
participants filled in the SVS and rated the personal impor- word bags and to create a value map based on a dissimilarity
tance of the values that were expressed in the 78 words of matrix. Rather than linking their findings to existing theories
the EVI. The resulting data favoured a six-factor solution, or taxonomies, the authors argue that their results highlight
with authors labelling the resulting factors benevolence, the importance of value pluralism.
self-enhancement, broadmindedness, hedonism, conserva- Machine learning is another approach used to identify the
tism, and self-realization, together accounting for 45.3% taxonomy of values in language. Wilson et al. (2018) com-
of the variance of the ratings of the 78 EVI words. Corre- piled a substantial list of value-related seed words based on
lations
Figure 2. between SVS scales
Diagram summarizing and ofEVI
the workflow scales were
the development stage. EFA, exploratory factor suggestions
moderate from
analysis; PA, parallel participants
analysis; in an
VSS, very simple online survey, words that
structure.

(rs = .20–.50). were generated by crowdworkers, and words from value

Ponizovskiy, V., Ardag, M., Grigoryan, L., Boyd, R., Dobewall, H.,
A similar
© 2020 approach
The Authors. was used
European Journal
& Holtz, to identify
of Personality
P. (2020). publishedaby
common taxon-
Development and Validation questionnaires
of the Personal and
Eur.similar sources.
J. Pers. 34: Crowdworkers were then
885–902 (2020)
omy of values
John Wiley & Sons in
Ltd Spanish, Austrian/German,
on behalf of European
Values and Dutch
Association of Personality
Dictionary: A Theory–Driven value
Psychology used to train an algorithm to sort the words into a hierarchical
Tool for Investigating
expressions (De Raad et al., 2016).
References to BasicParticipants
Human Values from each tree-like structure.
in Text. European Journal of This approach resulted in a taxonomy of
country rated pairwise similarities
Personality, between
34(5), 885–902. 496 https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2294
(Austrian/ 100 value categories, yet the authors did not attempt to relate
German) and 641 (Dutch) value terms that were previously these categories to existing value theories.
identified by experts as reflecting values. Various factor ana- Unlike studies that only aimed at describing taxonomies
lytic approaches were then used to identify a common facto- of values, Boyd Figureet
3. al. (2015) compared
Two-dimensional thescaling
multidimensional predictive powerto values in text measured by the Personal Values Dictionary (PVD). [Colour figure
(MDS) of references
can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
rial structure. The 534 authors arrived at a five-factor solution, of an empirically derived framework for verbal references to
differentiating between values of interpersonal relatedness, value orientations with the predictive power of SVS scores.
Table 2. Average correlations of references to values (Personal Values Dictionary) with theoretically related psychological constructs (as
measured by the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count tool) across four corpora

© 2020 The Authors. European Journal of Personality published by Insight Perceptual processes
Eur. J. Pers. Sexuality
34: 885–902 (2020) Achievement Power Risk Religion Family

John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of European Association of Personality Psychology Ten value types

SD
ST
.43
!.05
!.04
.04
.00
!.02
.11
!.02
!.06
!.13
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!.22 21
HE !.11 .07 .13 !.12 !.17 !.13 !.15 !.07
AC !.11 !.09 !.06 .47 .05 !.04 !.21 !.17
PO !.12 !.04 !.01 .09 .19 .06 !.15 !.21
SE !.16 .05 !.03 !.13 .03 .32 !.17 !.18
CO !.02 !.06 .00 !.05 .16 .11 !.12 !.16
TR !.03 .03 .04 !.17 .04 !.01 .79 .07
BE .00 .02 !.01 !.12 !.08 !.07 .01 .57
UN !.02 .03 .01 !.06 .03 .02 !.02 !.17
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Personal Values and Ethics

Understanding Value Systems

■ Terminal Values:
n Desirable end-states (prosperity, freedom, health)
n The "what" we want to achieve
■ Instrumental Values:
n Preferable modes of behavior (autonomy, discipline)
n The "how" we achieve our goals
■ Generational value differences often overstated

535

Role of Values in Organizations

Organizational Impact of Values

■ Establish standards of ethical behavior
■ Provide guidelines for decision-making
■ Help resolve conflicts and dilemmas
■ Influence employee motivation
■ Shape organizational culture
■ Determine desired rewards and outcomes
■ Guide work-life balance decisions

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Work Ethic

Cultural Variations in Work Values

■ Definition: Commitment to hard work as virtue
and path to rewards
■ Cultural Differences:
n Variations in average hours worked
n Different approaches to vacation and leisure
n Evolving attitudes across generations
n Contrasting views on work-life balance
n Example: Japanese work culture transformation

537

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

■ Max Weber, German sociologist (1905)

■ Core Idea:
n Early Protestant groups (especially Calvinists and
Puritans) emphasized hard work, frugality, self-discipline,
and personal responsibility.
n They viewed work as a religious calling (Beruf) and a
way to serve God.
n Although wealth accumulation wasn’t their goal, their
disciplined lifestyle unintentionally supported the rise of
modern capitalism.
■ This theory is widely regarded as the foundational
source of the modern “work ethic” concept.

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What are Modern Work Ethics?

■ Multidimensional Work Ethic Profile (MWEP)

Dimension Description
Valuing independence and personal
1. Self-Reliance
responsibility.
Emphasis on honesty and doing the right
2. Morality/Ethics
thing.
Attitudes toward balancing work and non-
3. Leisure
work activities (reverse-coded).
4. Hard Work Belief in diligence and persistence.
5. Centrality of Work Seeing work as a central part of life.
Concern about productivity and aversion Miller, M. J., Woehr, D. J., & Hudspeth,
6. Wasted Time N. (2002). The meaning and
to idleness. measurement of work ethic:
Construction and initial validation of a
Willingness to sacrifice now for future multidimensional inventory. Journal of
7. Delay of Gratification
rewards. vocational behavior, 60(3), 451-489.

539

10.6 Cultural Differences and

Working with the Types

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Introduction to Cultural Differences

Culture in the Workplace

■ Definition: Collective programming distinguishing
one group from another
■ Characteristics:
n Shared within groups
n Transmitted across generations
n Shapes worldview and behavior
n Influences workplace interactions
n Often unconscious but powerful
■ Cultural differences affect management
approaches and expectations

541

Dimensions of Culture

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Framework

1. View of Humanity: Good vs. evil, trustworthy vs.
untrustworthy
2. Relationship with Nature: Harmony vs. control
3. Interpersonal Relationships: Individualism vs.
collectivism
4. View of Activity: Doing (achievement) vs. being
(existence)
5. Time Orientation: Past, present, or future focus
6. View of Space: Communal vs. private, personal
boundaries

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Cultural Patterns Across Countries

Comparison of Business Cultures

United States: Japan:

• Individualistic, future- • Group-oriented, long-
oriented term perspective
• Control over nature, • Harmony with nature,
achievement-focused hierarchy-conscious

Germany: Mexico:
• Rule-focused, • Relationship-centered Think–Pair–Share:
structured • Present-oriented, family What cultural differences
• Precise communication, emphasis exist in your country? How
formal relationships do they relate to the work
environment?

543

Working With the Types

■ People believe everyone thinks the same way.

If we disagree, you’re uninformed or stupid!

■ Es: Is are uninterested or withholding information.

n Is are processing internally
■ Is: Es are inconsistent
n Es are thinking aloud
■ Js: Ps are procrastinating and unreliable
n Ps try to keep options open
■ Ps: Js are rigid and controlling
n Js are structuring and scheduling

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Working With the Types

■ Preferences and style tend to become strengths

and weaknesses:
n Are you a prisoner of your type?
■ When would it be better to build on strengths vs.
exercise your recessive mode?
■ When should we form homogenous groups vs.
heterogeneous groups?
■ Types need each other, e.g., strategic planning
without operational content is empty, technical
content without people content is not persuasive

545

Questions for Reflection

■ What distinctive style, preferences, and beliefs do

you bring to your work and personal life?

■ What has happened when you dealt with people of

contrasting style and beliefs?

■ How might it matter if differences are due to

personality, situation, or culture?

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Managing Cultural Differences

Practical Applications
■ Recognize cultural patterns while avoiding
stereotyping
■ Understand diversity within cultures
■ Adapt communication styles appropriately
■ Acknowledge different values in conflict resolution
■ Design culturally appropriate motivation systems
■ Create inclusive leadership approaches
■ Develop cross-cultural team-building strategies

547

Implications for Managers

Practical Applications
■ Evaluate person-environment fit for optimal
outcomes
■ Screen job candidates for relevant personality
traits
■ Use evidence-based frameworks (Big Five
recommended)
■ Consider situational factors when evaluating
personality
■ Exercise caution with ability measures to avoid
discrimination
■ Avoid generational stereotyping due to lack of
evidence

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