BIO 104 (2 UNITS) COURSE OUTLINE

 Chromosomal basis of genetics

 Laws of genetics
 Qualitative inheritance
 Test of goodness of fit of explal result
 Genotype and phenotype
 Alteration of chromosome no
- Variant
- Polyploidy
- Karyotype analysis
 Linkages and sex linkage
 Mutation: effect of radiation and chemical agents
 Introduction to population genetics
Reasons why Mendel used garden pea for his experiments
1. Pea plants are small and easy to cultivate.
2. Pea plants have many distinctive varieties.
3. They have a short generation time (span) thus are obtained relatively quickly.
4. Possess constant differentiating characteristics that are unchanging and can be
completely controlled by the experiments.
5. A large number of the breeding varieties of peas were available.
6. The sexual organs are endorsed within the flower fertilization can take place
automatically within an undisturbed individual self-fertilization. Or the male parts
could be removed before fertilization and pollen from strain with an alternative
characteristics introduced cross fertilization.
7. The hybrids of the plants are capable of protecting themselves from the influence of
all foreign and from marked disturbances in their fertility in successive generations.
8. Peas had 7 easily observed traits without intermediate forms. They were round or
wrinkled, short or tall
Definition of Keywords
1. Chromosomes: rod-like or thread like gene bearing bodies. Found in the nucleus,
they always appear in pairs. They are not visible except during cell division.
2. Genotype: genetic constitution (make-up) of an individual. The genotype and
environment will determined the phenotype.
3. Phenotype: the outward appearance of an individual as a result of the genotype.
4. Heredity: the passing of a trait or characteristics from one cell to the other or from
one organization to the other is heredity.
5. Genetics: the study of heredity from one generation to the other.

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EARLY IDEAS ABOUT HEREDITY
Genetics in organs from generation to generation
 Aristotle: (322-284 BC) he proposed that the semen (motion) and menstrual fluid
(matter) were purified blood and that these pools become mixed during intercourse
to form the basic make-up of a new individual that will blend the parent’s
characteristics.
 Charles Darwin: he introduced the theory of pangenesis which states that organs
produced pangene (gemmules) that were carried by blood to reproduction cell. Each
pangene was believed to have a recollection of the parts of the body from which it
comes from, that would enable it to radiate that aspect of organs in the new
offspring’s (theory of nat selection, more popz struggle).
 Another accepted theory: is the theory of acquired characteristics which was put
forward by Lamarck. This theory stated that organism transmit to their offspring
those characteristics that were developed to cope with changing environmental
condition.
 Gregor Mendel (1822-84): Mendel who was considered as the father of genetics
was born in 1822 in Czechoslovakia near Austria. He was the only son of peasant
farmers. And he was directly involved in tilling, cultivation, planting and harvesting
of crops this made him develop interest in plants. The parents managed to send him
to college where he studied science and philosophy later he entered the Augustinian
Monestry in Brun in 1843, where he was ordained a priest in 1847. As a monk, he
was appointed to be a teacher. In 1856 while teaching, Mendel began his
investigations in plant breeding. He selected two varieties of garden pea for his
experiments. One variety produced tall plants with yellow rounded seeds and the
other variety produced short plants with green wrinkled seeds. He planted the seeds
in separate plots in the garden of the monastery.
Reason why Mendel used garden peas for his experiments
(i) They are small and easy to cultivate.
(ii) They have many easily observable characteristics.
(iii) Have short generation span.
(iv) Can self-pollinate or can be cross pollinated.
(v) Do not have intermediate forms.
(vi) Sharply contrasting and easily recognizable traits.

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Mendel’s experiments
Mendel carried out his experiments with garden peas in three (3) steps
(i) Mendel spent several years making sure that he had pure strains of pea plants by
allowing each variety was of garden pea to self-pollinate for a several
generations. This method ensured that each variety was true breeding for a
particular trait. Mendel called these plants the parental generation (P generation).
(ii) Then Mendel crossed pollinated two varieties from the P generation with
contrasting traits such as plant with round seed and those with wrinkled seeds.
He called the offspring of these plants. The filial generation or F1 generation.
(iii) Then Mendel allowed the F1 generation to self-pollinate he called the resulting
offspring of this plant. The second filial generation or F2 generation.
Mendel’s Result and observations
Mendel made hundreds of crosses by dusting the pollens of one kind of plant on the stigma
of the plant of another kind. For each cross Mendel obtained F1 generation plant that had
only one form of the crossed traits. The contrasting traits had disappeared. Mendel
described the remaining or expressed traits as dominant. The trait that was not expressed
in the F1 generation was described as recessive traits. The offspring of every cross were
always exactly like one of the parents. No intermediate plants were observed or any form
of blending of the parents traits. When Mendel allowed the F1 generation plants to pollinate
themselves, in the F2 generation, the dominant trait appear in 75% of the offspring while
the recessive traits reappeared in 25% of the offspring. No intermediates were observed i.e
the new seeds were either wrinkled or round. At this point Mendel counted 5,474 round
seeds and 1,850 wrinkled seeds with an approximate ratio of 3:1. For each cross Mendel
obtained the same 3:1 ration of plants expressing the dominant trait to plants expressing
the recessive traits. Mendel observed that plants showing the recessive traits were true
breeding when they were allowed to self-pollinate but when plant with the dominant trait
1 2
to self-pollinate, Mendel observed of them were true breeding where as were not. These
3 3
results suggested that 3:1 ratio in the F1 generation was a disguised 1:2:1 i.e true breeding
dominant plants, 2 not true breeding dominant plants and 1 true breeding recessive plants.
This is the first step.
The second step is to self-pollinate F1
RR - Dominate-true breeding plants
Rr - Not true breeding dominant plants.
rr - True breeding recessive plants
3:1 Phenotype
1:2:1 Genotype

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Mendel carried out his experiment in 3 steps (P1)
1. He grow pure line of peas using self-pollination (P1)
2. He cross pollinated contrasting traits (F1)
3. Self-pollinated F1x F1
He found out that the P1 genotype had
Tall TT Short tt
Dominant Recessive
Tt F1 He cross pollinated this and found out that 75% were tall 3, 25% were short 1
Mendel’s conclusion
From this observation, Mendel established the basic principles of inheritance that become
the foundation of modern genetics Mendel proposed the following:
(i) A pair of factor controls the expression of inheritable characteristics.
(ii) That offspring inherit one member of the pair from the male parent and the other
member of the pair from the female parent.
(iii) That each factor is transmitted as a discrete unit i.e factors do not blend or
become diluted in future generation.
(iv) One member of a pair of factors may mask (dominant) or prevent the other from
having any impact if so then only it will be expressed, however the recessive
member will remain as a discrete unit to be expressed in future generation.
(v) Paired factors separate during the formation of gametes. Offspring inherit one
member of each pair form each parent the separation is known as the principle
of SEGREGATION.
(vi) Each pair of factors segregate independently of any pair of other factors the
principle of independent ASSORTMENT. Mendel discovered the systematic
and predictable inheritance of what he called factors in the garden pea. The rules
established by Mendel that allowed prediction of factors in future generation are
today referred to as Mendel’s principles or Mendel’s laws and they form the
foundation of modern genetics. The genetic predictions that are possible because
of Mendel’s laws are commonly called MENDELIAN Genetics or
Transmission Genetics.
Genetics after Mendel
1. PROF. HUGO DE VRIES
Prof. Hugo De Vries: A Dutch botany professor stimulated by the work of Darien.
Created new strains of the evening Primrose and hypothesized that evolution occur
as a result of accumulation of slight variations (mutation) over time. He explained

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 the theory of mutations and states that mutations account for resemblances and
differences among members of a species.
2. William Bateson: A plant breeder and a strong supporter of Mendelian theories. He
was responsible for the birth of genetics as a field and gave the field much of its
terminologies (Jargon) – Genetics, homozygous, heterozygous, F1, F2 generation etc.
3. Thomas Morgan (1908) after looking at the work of De Vries, Morgan bred fruit fly
(Drosophila melanogaster) for a year without observing any mutants. But a fly
appeared with white eyes instead of red eyes. Within another year 40 different kinds
of mutations had been noted. In trying to explain how organisms inherit
characteristics, Morgan found that the various mutants of the flies were associated
with four (4) pairs of chromosomes possessed by Drosophila (the fruit fly) the
chromosomes in the cell of the male drosophila were not exactly the same as the
female. Morgan’s work proved that chromosomes are the elements that transmit
inherited characteristics. Morgan also discovered that chromosomes are the carrier
of genes which causes the expression of individual characteristics. However,
Morgan observed that some characteristics did not segregate as Mendel predicted
but it has now been established that the units of inheritance fore shadowed by
Mendel are now called genes and do infact exist and that they are contained by the
chromosomes in all somatic cells and that each gene occupies a specific locus or
position in its chromosomes and that the genes are transmitted from parents to
offspring in the sex cell (gametes).
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are filamentous rod-like or thread-like gene bearing bodies found in the
nucleus during cell division. Each nucleus contained information coded in the form of
DNA and organized in to groups called genes. Genes are arranged on the chromosome and
each gene contains enough information for the production of one protein which can have
some effects on the individual chromosome vary widely between different organisms. The
chromosome molecule may be circular or linear, typically eukaryotic cell (cells with
nuclei) have large linear chromosomes and prokaryotic cell (cell without defined nuclei)
have circular chromosomes. Chromosomes are the essential unit for cellular division and
must be replicated, divided and passed successfully to their daughter cells so as to ensure
the genetic diversity and survival of their progeny.
Chromosome structure
Chromosomes within a cell occur in matched pairs called homologous chromosomes,
joined at the center by a centromere. Each chromosome contains many genes, and each
gene is located at a particular site on the chromosome, known as the locus. Like
chromosome, genes typically occur in pairs. A gene found on one chromosome in a pair

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usually has the same locus as another gene in the other chromosome of the pair, and these
two genes are called alleles. Alleles are alternate forms of the same gene.
In organisms that use sexual reproduction, offspring inherit one-half of their genes from
each parent and then mix the two sets of genes together. This produces new combinations
of genes; so that each individual is unique but still possesses the same genes as its parents.
Chromosome number
In the cell of most organisms that produce sexually, chromosome occur in pairs; one
chromosome is inherited from the female parent; and one is inherited from the male parent.
The two chromosomes of each pair contains genes that correspond to the same inherited
characteristics. Each pair of chromosome is different from every other pair of chromosome
in the same cell. The number of chromosome pairs in an organism varies depending on the
species. The number of chromosome characteristic of a particular organism is known as
the diploid number. Dogs, for example, have 39 pairs of chromosomes and a diploid
number of 78. While tomato plant have 12 pairs of chromosome and a diploid number of
24.
Gametes or sex cell (eggs and sperm) contains only half the number of chromosomes found
in the other cells of an organism. This reduced number of chromosome in the gametes is
known as the haploid number. During fertilization the gametes unites to form a cell known
as a zygote containing the diploid number of chromosome characteristics of the species.
Sex chromosomes
Most organisms have complete sets of matching chromosomal pairs, known as autosomes.
In mammals, birds and some other organisms, one pair of chromosomes is not identical,
known as the sex chromosomes, this pair plays a dominant role in determining the sex of
an organism. Females have two copies of the X chromosome while males have one Y
chromosome and one X chromosome. Both male and females inherit one sex chromosome
from the mother (always X chromosome) and one sex chromosome from the father (an X
chromosome in female offspring and a Y chromosome in male offspring). The presence of
the Y chromosome determine that a zygote will develop in to a male.

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