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THE EUROPEAN UNION SERIES
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The Political System of
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Third edition

Simon Hix
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© Simon Hix 1999, 2005, 2011, © Bjørn Høyland 2011

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Contents

List of Figures, Boxes, and Tables xi

Preface xiv
List of Abbreviations xv

1 Introduction: Explaining the EU Political System 1

The Institutional and Policy Architecture of the EU 2
What is the EU? A Political System but not a State 12
Two Theories of EU Politics 16
Structure of the Book 19

PART I GOVERNMENT

2 Executive Politics 23
Theories of Executive Politics 23
The Member States: Executive Power, Delegation, and
Discretion 27
Delegation and intergovernmental conferences 27
Political leadership and delegation 32
Transposition of EU legislation 33
Government by the Commission 34
A cabinet: the EU core executive 34
Comitology: interface of the EU dual executive 37
Administrative Accountability: Parliamentary Scrutiny and
Transparency 39
Political Accountability: Selection and Censure of the
Commission 43
Conclusion: the Politics of a Dual Executive 46

3 Legislative Politics 49
Theories of Legislative Coalitions and Organization 49
Development of the Legislative System of the EU 51
Legislative Politics in the European Parliament 54
The MEPs: agents with two principals 54
Agenda organization: leaderships, parties, and committees 55
Coalition formation 59
Legislative Politics in the Council 61

v
vi Contents

Agenda organization: the presidency, sectoral Councils,

and committees 62
Voting and coalition politics in the Council 64
Bicameral Politics in the EU 68
Conclusion: Bicameral Politics in the EU 74

4 Judicial Politics 75
Political Theories of Constitutions and Courts 75
The EU Legal System and the European Court of Justice 78
Composition and operation of the European Court of
Justice 79
Jurisdiction of the European Court of Justice 82
Constitutionalization of the EU 83
Direct effect: EU law as the law of the land for national
citizens 84
Supremacy: EU law as the higher law of the land 85
Integration through law and economic constitutionalism 86
State-like properties: external sovereignty and internal
coercion 87
Kompetenz–Kompetenz: judicial review of competence 88
Penetration of EU Law into National Legal Systems 89
Quantitative: national courts’ use of ECJ preliminary
rulings 90
Qualitative: national courts’ acceptance of the EU legal
system 93
Explanations of EU Judicial Politics: Is the ECJ a Runaway
Agent? 95
Legal–formalist view: the hero of European integration 95
Intergovernmentalism: the ECJ as an agent of the member
states 97
Supranational politics: the ECJ as an independent but
constrained actor 98
Conclusion: a European Constitution? 100

PART II POLITICS

5 Public Opinion 105

Theories of the Social Bases of Politics 105
End of the Permissive Consensus 107
Explaining Support for the EU at the National Level 110
Explaining Support for the EU at the Individual Level 115
Political Context Matters: the Role of Ideology, Parties,
and the Media 124
Conclusion: from Consensus to Conflict? 129
 Contents vii

6 Democracy, Parties, and Elections 130

Democracy: Choosing Parties, Leaders, and Policies 130
The ‘Democratic Deficit’ Debate 132
Parties: Competition and Organization 137
National parties and Europe 138
Parties at the European level 140
Elections: EP Elections and EU Referendums 146
EP elections: national or European contests? 146
Referendums on EU membership and treaty reforms 152
Conclusion: Democratic Politics in the EU? 157

7 Interest Representation 159

Theories of Interest-Group Politics 159
Lobbying Europe: Interest Groups and EU Policy-Making 162
Business interests: the large firm as a political actor 165
Countervailing power: public interests, social movements,
and trade unions 169
Territorial interests: at the heart of multilevel governance 176
Explaining the Pattern of Interest Representation 178
Demand for access: the effects of globalization and
European integration 178
Supply of access: expertise and information means
legislative power 181
Conclusion: Competing Interests on a Level Playing Field 185

PART III POLICIES

8 Regulation of the Single Market 189

Theories of Regulation 189
Deregulation: Market Integration and Liberalization 192
The single market programme 192
Competition policies 195
Services integration 199
Open method of coordination 201
Re-regulation: Common Standards 203
Environmental policy 203
Social policy 206
Explaining EU Regulatory Policies 209
National preferences and bargaining over EU regulatory
policies 210
Supranational politics: interests, entrepreneurship, and
preferences 211
Conclusion: Mostly Winners, But Some Losers 216
viii Contents

9 Expenditure Policies 218

Theories of Public Expenditure and Redistribution 218
The Budget of the European Union 220
Revenue and expenditure 220
The annual budget procedure: the power of the purse 222
The Common Agricultural Policy 224
Operation and reform of the CAP 225
Making agricultural policy: can the iron triangle be
broken? 227
Cohesion Policy 230
Operation of the policy 230
Impact: a supply-side policy with uncertain convergence
implications 232
Making cohesion policy: Commission, governments, and
regions 234
Other Internal Policies 235
Research 236
Other internal policies 237
Explaining EU Expenditure Policies 239
Intergovernmental bargaining: national cost–benefit
calculations 239
Supranational politics: private interests, policy
entrepreneurship, and institutional rules 242
Conclusion: a Set of Redistributive Bargains 243

10 Economic and Monetary Union 245

The Political Economy of Monetary Union 245
Development of Economic and Monetary Union in Europe 249
The Delors Report 249
The Maastricht Treaty design 250
Who qualifies? Fudging the convergence criteria 252
Explaining Economic and Monetary Union 254
Economic rationality: economic integration and a core
optimal currency area 254
Intergovernmental bargaining: a Franco-German deal 256
Supranational politics: the Commission and central
bankers 257
The power of ideas: the monetarist policy consensus 258
How Economic and Monetary Union Works 259
Independence of the ECB: establishing credibility and
reputation 260
ECB decision-making 262
Inflation targets: ECB–Ecofin relations 265
National fiscal policies and the eurozone crisis 266
 Contents ix

Labour market flexibility: structural reforms and wage

agreements 269
Conclusion: Testing Times for the Euro 271

11 Interior Policies 273

Theories of Citizenship and the State 273
EU Interior Policies: From Free Movement of Workers to
an Emerging European State 275
From free movement of workers to ‘an area of freedom,
security and justice’ 275
Free movement of persons 277
Fundamental rights and freedoms 280
Immigration and asylum policies 282
Police and judicial cooperation 286
Explaining EU Interior Policies 288
Exogenous pressures: global migration, crime, and
terrorism 288
Intergovernmentalism: high politics, voters’ demands,
and bureaucrats’ interests 292
Supranational politics: entrepreneurship, credibility,
and actors’ preferences 295
Conclusion: a Pan-European State? 300

12 Foreign Policies 302

Theories of International Relations and Political Economy 302
External Economic Policies: Free Trade, Not ‘Fortress
Europe’ 305
Pattern of EU trade 306
The Common Commercial Policy 306
Multilateral trade agreements: GATT and WTO 308
Bilateral preferential trade agreements 309
European development policy 310
Security and Defence Policies 310
Development of foreign policy cooperation and decision-
making 310
Enlargement 319
The politics of foreign policy 322
Explaining EU Foreign Policy 323
Global economic and geopolitical interdependence 323
Intergovernmentalism: geopolitical and economic
interests 325
Supranational politics: institutional rules and
supranational agenda-setting 328
Conclusion: a Major Player in Global Politics? 330
x Contents

13 Conclusion: Rethinking the European Union 331

What Political Science Teaches Us about the EU 331
Operation of government, politics, and policy-making
in the EU 331
Connections between government, politics, and policy-
making in the EU 334
What the EU Teaches Us About Political Science 337

Bibliography 340
Index 389
List of Figures, Boxes, and Tables

Figures

1.1 Progress towards equilibrium? 10

2.1 Policy drift by the European Commission 25
2.2 Controlling policy drift by restricting discretion 26
3.1 Legislative bargaining in one dimension 50
3.2 Voting in the 2004–9 European Parliament 61
3.3 Voting behaviour of governments in Council 67
3.4 The Tsebelis–Garrett model of EU legislative politics 70
4.1 Court discretion in a separation-of-powers system 76
4.2 Proportion of cases heard by bench type, 2000 to 2009 81
4.3 Growth of ECJ referrals, 1961–2009 90
5.1 Public support for European integration and economic
growth 108
5.2 What the EU means to citizens 110
5.3 Some political determinants of national-level support
for the EU 112
5.4 Some economic factors and national-level support for
the EU 114
5.5 Social group and EU support 117
5.6 Education, age, migration, and religion and EU support 120
5.7 National attachment and support for the EU 122
5.8 Elites compared to mass support for the EU 123
5.9 Ideology and support for EU policies 125
5.10 Political ideology and EU support 128
6.1 Party policy positions in EU politics 139
6.2 Party make-up of the EU institutions in 2005 and 2010 142
6.3 Second-order effects in European Parliament elections 148
6.4 Main party families and the 2009 European Parliament
elections 149
7.1 Interest groups in the Commission registry, by policy
area 164
7.2 How large firms lobby the EU 169
7.3 MEPs’ contacts with interest groups 184
8.1 Difference between redistributive and efficient policies 190
8.2 Locations of EU actors on regulatory issues 213
9.1 Relative composition of the EU’s revenue sources,
1980–2010 221

xi
xii List of Figures, Boxes, and Tables

9.2 Relative composition of EU expenditure, 1980–2010 222

9.3 EU trade balances and net budgetary contributions,
2000–6 240
9.4 Solidarity and net contributions, 2000–6 241
11.1 Asylum applications per year 290
11.2 Public support for EU action on crime and immigration 294
11.3 Politics of interior policies 298

Boxes

1.1 Key dates in the development of the EU 4

1.2 Policy architecture of the EU 6
1.3 Institutional architecture of the EU 8

Tables

1.1 Basic data on the EU 15

2.1 The Barroso II Commission 36
3.1 Membership of the political groups in the seventh
European Parliament, October 2010 57
3.2 Distribution of reports in the sixth European Parliament 58
3.3 Voting power in the Council 65
4.1 Average annual number of ECJ referrals, by member
state 91
4.2 Infringement cases declared and dismissed, 2005–9 93
6.1 Issue-by-issue voting coalitions in the 2004 to 2009
Parliament 145
6.2 Electoral systems used in the 2009 European Parliament
elections 151
6.3 Referendums on European integration, 1972–2009 154
7.1 Types and numbers of interest groups at the European
level, in 2006 163
7.2 Members of the European Round Table of Industrialists 168
7.3 Members of Social Platform 174
8.1 The Single Market Scoreboard, 2003 and 2009 195
8.2 Vote in the European Parliament on the Takeover
Directive 214
8.3 Vote in the European Parliament on the Services
Directive 215
9.1 EU budget, financial perspective, 2007–13 223
9.2 Member state receipts from cohesion policy, 2007–13 232
9.3 Expenditure on other internal policies, 2010 236
10.1 Voting weights of countries in the ECB 264
 List of Figures, Boxes, and Tables xiii

10.2 Productivity, labour costs, and unemployment in the EU 270

11.1 Minorities and migrants in the EU 289
11.2 Vote in the European Parliament on the Returns
Directive 299
12.1 EU military missions 316
Preface

The third edition of this book is a major rewrite of the previous edition. This
is partly due to the significant institutional, political, and policy changes that
have taken place in the EU in the five years since the second edition was
published. It is also due to the large volume of new research that has been
published on the EU, which continues to grow at a fast rate. Much of this
new research is of high quality, with new data, careful research designs, and
sophisticated methods. Having said that, research on some aspects of the EU
remains theoretically, empirically, and methodologically underdeveloped,
particularly on the policy outputs of the system and their consequences.
Above all, though, this new edition is significantly different from the previ-
ous edition because it now has two authors rather than one. We believe the
book is markedly improved as a result.
One of the main differences between this edition of the book and the
previous two editions is that we have tried to contrast throughout the
book two distinct theoretical approaches to EU politics, which we call
‘intergovernmentalism’ and ‘supranational politics’. The first of these
terms is shorthand for the most recent version of the intergovernmental
approach, as represented by Andy Moravcsik’s liberal–intergovernmental
theory. The second of these terms is our own description of a range of
views which nonetheless share the proposition that supranational insti-
tutions, rules, and political interactions need to be treated as independent
factors (from national governments) when explaining EU-level politics or
policy outcomes. We discuss these two perspectives in the Introduction
and also mainly focus on these two theoretical frameworks in the discus-
sions of the explanations of EU policies in Part III of the book.
This edition of the book is also somewhat shorter than the previous
two editions. The main reason for this is that we have cut out a lot of
basic information about EU institutions, politics, and policies which is
easily available on the internet, for example on the Europa website (at:
http://europa.eu/).
In writing this new version of the book we would like to thank Sara
Binzer Hobolt, Willie Paterson, and an anonymous reviewer for
commenting on an early draft of the manuscript, and Vibeke Wøien
Hansen and Marianne Dahl for devoted research assistance. We would
also like to thank our families, who tolerated our absences during the
writing of the book.

xiv
List of Abbreviations

ALDE Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe

CAP Common Agricultural Policy
CCP Common Commercial Policy
CFI Court of First Instance
CFSP Common Foreign and Security Policy
COREPER Committee of Permanent Representatives
ECB European Central Bank
ECR European Conservatives and Reformists group
EDD Group for a Europe of Democracies and Diversities
EFD Europe of Freedom and Democracy group
ECJ European Court of Justice
ELDR European Liberal Democrat and Reform group
EMU Economic and Monetary Union
EPP European People’s Party
EPP–ED European People’s Party–European Democrats
ESDP European Security and Defence Policy
EUL/NGL European United Left/Nordic Green Left
G/EFA Greens/European Free Alliance
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
IGC intergovernmental conference
IND/DEM Independence/Democracy group
JHA Justice and Home Affairs
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO non-governmental organization
PES Party of European Socialists
QMV qualified-majority voting
S&D Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats
SEA Single European Act
UEN Union for Europe of the Nations group
WTO World Trade Organization

xv
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1

Introduction: Explaining the EU

Political System
The Institutional and Policy Architecture of the EU
What Is the EU? A Political System but not a State
Two Theories of EU Politics
Structure of the Book

The European Union (EU) is a remarkable achievement. It is the result of

a process of voluntary integration between the nation-states of Europe.
The EU began in the 1950s with six states, grew to 15 in the 1990s,
enlarged to 27 in the 2000s, and is likely to grow even further. The EU
started out as a common market in coal and steel products and has
evolved into an economic, social, and political union. European integra-
tion has also produced a set of supranational executive, legislative, and
judicial institutions with significant authority over many areas of public
policy.
But, this book is not about the history of ‘European integration’, as
this story has been told at length elsewhere (for example Dedman, 2009).
Nor does it try to explain European integration and the major turning
points in this process, as this too has been the focus of much political
science research and theorizing (for example Moravcsik, 1998; Wiener
and Diez 2009). Instead, the aim of this book is to understand and
explain how the EU works today. Is the European Commission a
runaway bureaucracy? How powerful is the European Parliament? Does
the European Court of Justice (ECJ) favour some member states over
others? Why do some citizens support the EU while others oppose it? Is
there a ‘democratic deficit’ in the way the EU works? Why are some
social groups more able than others to influence the EU? Is the EU single
market deregulatory or re-regulatory? Who are the winners and losers
from expenditure policies? Does economic and monetary union work?
Has the EU extended citizens’ rights and freedoms? Can the EU speak
with a single voice on the world stage?
We could treat the EU as a unique experiment, which of course in
many respects it is since no other continent has progressed so far in the
process of supranational integration. However, the above questions
could be asked of any ‘political system’, whether domestic or suprana-
tional. Also, political science has an array of theoretical tools to answer

1
2 The Political System of the European Union

exactly these sorts of questions. Instead of a general theory of how polit-

ical systems work, political science has a series of mid-level explanations
of the main processes that are common to all political systems, such as
public opinion, interest-group mobilization, legislative bargaining, dele-
gation to executive and bureaucratic agents, economic policy-making,
citizen–state relations, and international political and economic rela-
tions. Consequently, the main argument of this book is that to help us
understand how the EU works, we should use the tools, methods, and
mid-range theories from the general study of government, politics, and
policy-making. In this way, teaching and research on the EU can be part
of the political science mainstream.
This introductory chapter sets the general context for this task. It
provides some basic background information about the policy and insti-
tutional architecture of the EU, and explains how the EU can be a ‘polit-
ical system’ without also having to be a ‘state’. The chapter then reviews
some of the basic assumptions of political science, and discusses how
these assumptions are applied in the two main theories of EU politics.

The Institutional and Policy Architecture of the EU

When six European states decided in the early 1950s to place their coal
and steel industries under collective supranational control, few would
have expected that this would have led within half a century to a new
continental-scale political system. Box 1.1 lists the key stages in this
process. A few of the stages are worth highlighting. In the 1960s,
Western Europe became the first region in the world to establish a
customs union, with an internal free-trade area and a common external
tariff, and also the first genuinely supranational public spending
programme: the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). The pace of inte-
gration then slowed until in the mid-1980s the then 12 member states
agreed to the launch the programme to create the first continental-scale
‘single market’ by the end of 1992; which involved the removal of inter-
nal barriers to the free movement of goods, services, capital, and labour,
a single European competition policy, and a single European currency
(the euro). As a consequence of the single market, in the 1990s the new
‘European Union’ adopted common social and environmental policies,
common policies on the movement of persons between the member
states and across the EU’s external borders, and began to coordinate
national macroeconomic, justice and policing, and foreign and security
policies.
The EU does not have a ‘constitution’ in the traditional meaning of
this term: a single document setting out the basic rules and principles of
the organization. A ‘Constitutional Treaty’ was agreed in 2004, but was
rejected by referendums in France and the Netherlands in 2005. Even
 Introduction: Explaining the EU Political System 3

without the Constitutional Treaty, though, the EU Treaty, and the prac-
tices and norms that have evolved around how the EU works, can be
thought of as the basic ‘constitutional architecture’ in that they have
established a clear division of policy competences and institutional
powers in the EU.
There are five main types of EU policy:

1 Regulatory policies: these are rules on the free movement of goods,

services, capital and persons in the single market, and involve the
harmonization of many national production standards, such as envi-
ronmental and social policies, and common competition policies.
2 Expenditure policies: these policies involve the transfer of resources
through the EU budget, and include the CAP, socio-economic and
regional cohesion policies, and research and development policies.
3 Macroeconomic policies: these policies are pursued in European
Monetary Union (EMU), where the European Central Bank (ECB)
manages the money supply and interest rate policy, while the Council
pursues exchange rate policy and the coordination and scrutiny of
national tax and employment policies.
4 Interior policies: these are rules to extend and protect the economic,
political, and social rights of the EU citizens and include common
asylum and immigration policies, police and judicial cooperation,
and the provisions for ‘EU citizenship’.
5 Foreign policies: these are aimed at ensuring that the EU speaks with
a single voice on the world stage, and include trade policies, external
economic relations, the Common Foreign and Security Policy
(CFSP), and the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP).

Box 1.2 describes how these policies fit together in a ‘catalogue of

competences’. The EU level has exclusive responsibility for creating and
regulating the single market, and for managing the competition, external
customs and trade policies that derive from this task. The EU level is also
responsible for the monetary policies of the member states whose
currency is the euro, the CAP and the common fisheries policy. In these
areas, the EU governments no longer have power to make policy at the
national level.
Next, a range of policies are ‘shared’ between the European and
national levels, where EU policies generally supplement existing or
ongoing policies at the national level, for example in the areas of labour
market regulation, regional spending or immigration and asylum. The
third area of policies is best described as the ‘coordinated competences’,
in that these are policies where primary competence remains at the
national level, but the national governments have accepted that they
need to coordinate their domestic policies collectively at the European
level because there are spill-over effects on each other from keeping
Exploring the Variety of Random
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poika muistuttaa olennoltaan aivan Jormoa ja sillä on niin
elämänhaluinen ääni.

Olin odottanut että kirjoittaisit jotain rauhallista ja lohduttavaa,

kun sinä yksin tiedät mitä minun sydämeni eniten kaipaa. Miksi
paadutat sydämesi? On siellä rakkautta minulle, kun vain pyyhit
pölyt ja roskat pois niinkuin minä ja annat epäitsekkäisyyden valon
siihen langeta.

En olisi saanut tätä kirjettä kirjoittaa, sillä kuume piirittää minun

sänkyäni ja saa nähdä, pääsenkö sen kidasta elävänä. (Orjo ei
aavistanut, kuinka kuolemanheikko Mirjam parka todella oli!) Yötä
päivää saan sitä vastaan taistella — (jatkui uskollisen vaimon kirje),
yöllä se ei anna lepoa, päivällä ei rauhaa ja aina sillä on kita auki
valmiina nielemään. Oi Orjo, kirjoita minulle sitä mitä tiedät minun
sieluni halajavan ja mitä voit antaa! Enhän ole äitinä liikoja pyytänyt
— lapsukaisia minulla on kauhean ikävä —! Kansanopistonjohtajan
paikkaa koetetaan sinulle hommata. Lähetän sinulle ensi kuussa
vähäsen "lehmä-rahaa." Miten minä sinulle kirjoittaisin että
ymmärtäisit, kuinka suuresti tarvitsen sielullisesti sinun apuasi.
Minun sydänjuureni ovat kasvaneet kiinni, rakas Orjo! Kannan syliisi
pienen poikamme ja revityn ja aina toivossa palavan sydämeni — ne
ovat minun joululahjani sinulle otatko ne vastaan? —

(Kivienkin olisi pitänyt vuotaa verta tästä liikuttavasta vaimon

kirjeestä). Anna jokaiselle lapselle suutelo ja kuiskaa korvaan että se
oli äidiltä ja anna Keijon suudella sinua kummallekin poskelle ja
suulle — se on myöskin

Äidiltä.

Jumala teitä kaikkia siunatkoon.

 Saatuaan tämän kirjeen lyijykynällä kirjoitetuksi, vaipui Mirjam,
kuolemankaltaiseen horrokseen — niin heikko hän oli.

Jumala ei kuitenkaan hänen sallinut vielä kuolla.

Sanoimme jo että sielujen maailmassa olisi luullut kivienkin

hikoilevan verta tai huutavan apua tällaisen kirjeen jälkeen. Mutta
Orjo Korelius oli itse sairas, sydämeltään sairas ja rikkirepeytynyt
mies, eikä hän jaksanut vastata hyvän vaimonsa hätähuutoon sillä
tavalla kuin Jumala käski. Hän oli vakuutettu siitä että Mirjam
pikaisella kotiintulollaan taas lankeaisi samaan hermostukseen, joka
vain kiihdyttäisi aviomiehen tuskia ja pahentaisi sitä helvettiä, jona
hän oli alkanut omaa avioliittoansa salaisesti pitää.

Mies parka tuskin tiesi mitä teki. Kyllä hän vastasi Mirjamin
sydänsanoihin omillakin sydänsanoillaan, mutta heti perään hän
lennätti ankaran määräyksen että Mirjamin nyt vihdoinkin piti tulla
järkiinsä ja sijoittua jonnekin muualle asumaan muutamiksikaan
kuukausiksi että hän, Mirjam, tulisi terveeksi ja että Orjo kotona
ehtisi suorittaa ne tärkeät työt, jotka mies tunsi olevansa velkaa
itselleen ja isänmaalleen. Tässä ei vielä sinään olisi ollut mitään
pahaa, mutta Orjo lankesi taas entiseen helmasyntiinsä: puhumaan
avioerosta. Puhumaan avioerosta Mirjamille, vaimolleen, joka häntä
niin sydämellisesti rakasti ja kaipasi juuri synnytettyään kuudennen
lapsensa?!

Tuskin hän, mies polo, itsekään edes aavisti, kuinka julmana hän
esiintyi! Ja heikkoon Mirjam parkaan sattui tämä erämaasta heitetty
pommi keskelle verilämmintä sydäntä — maailma pimeni hänen
silmissään.
 Mutta hän kokosi viimeiset voimansa, viimeisen ryhtinsä rukoillen
kaikkien pyhien nimessä viimeistä armoa mielestään kovalle
kohtalolleen. Ja silloin kun Orjo vähin häntä odotti, silloin — heti
toinnuttuaan — hän sieppasi lapsen, joka vielä ei ollut kolmenkaan
viikon ikäinen, ja istui rekeen. Ja 35 asteen pakkasessa, avonaisessa
reessä, hän lähti ajamaan yli 200 kilometriä kohti sitä paikkaa, joka
kuitenkin oli hänen kotinsa, hänen lastensa ja hänen miehensä koti
— hänen ainoan elämän kohtalonsa tyyssija, jota eivät pahat voimat
saaneet häneltä kieltää. Hän tunsi kaikki oikeutensa ja
velvollisuutensa syvästi — se olisi kauhea aviomies, joka ei ottaisi
häntä vastaan?

Ja kuitenkin: kuinka hän vapisi, värisi, Mirjam raukka, jo yksistään

tuon kamalan ajatuksen edessä että Orjo ei häntä vastaan ottaisi?

Saattoiko hänen Orjonsa olla niin sydämetön?

Ei, ei, tuhatkertaa ei.

Onni oli vieläkin palaava heidän kotiinsa, heidän kauniiseen,

kalliiseen Korpilinnaansa, jonka arvon hän vasta maailmalla,
vierasten jaloissa, oikein tajusi.

*****

Orjo oli näinä tammikuun pakkaspäivinä, tuntiessaan henkistä

erakkuutta, valjastanut poronsa ja kiidättänyt naapuripitäjään. Sieltä
oli hän palannut parin reippaan toverin kanssa kotiinsa ja rientänyt
illan tullen vanhaan pappilaan 80-vuotisen isänsä nimipäiville.
Keskellä yötä porotoverukset nyt, ajellen jääulappaa, palasivat
Korpilinnaan. Kytkiessään poroaan patsaaseen kummasteli Orjo,
miksi talon vierashuoneen akkunasta pilkoitti tuli keskellä yötä.
 Hän hyökkäsi katsomaan… Kun mies tempasi oven auki,
hämmästyi hän mitä näki: Siinä istui Mirjam, hajalla hiuksin,
kauniina, kalpeana, nöyränä, pelokkaana vapisten ja odottaen
vuoteen reunalla valkoisessa yöpuvussaan, ja hänen ympärilleen oli
ladottu kaikenlaisia tuliaisia ja herkkuja, vartavasten Orjolle ja
lapsille.

— Mirjam? Sinäkö se olet? Herra Jumala…

Vaimo raukan silmät paloivat. Hän odotti — ja vapisi — nytkö,

nytkö Orjo oli antava hänelle viime iskun? Mutta seuraavassa
silmänräpäyksessä oli Mirjam Orjon sylissä ja aviomies puristi
vaimoansa kuumasti rintaansa vasten.

— Jumala siunatkoon sinua että kuitenkin tulit! mies sanoi.

— Rakas Orjo!

Mirjam sukelsi yhä tiiviimmin miehensä syliin ja suuteli häntä

rajusti.

Vieraat järjestettiin yläkertaan nukkumaan. Aviomies, jota vaimo

kutsui, laskeusi alakertaan.

Siinä oli taas kaksi maailman onnellisinta ihmistä, maailman

hetkellisesti onnellisin mies ja hetkellisesti onnellisin vaimo. Kaikki
kauhea oli unhoitettu, kaikki kamala pois pyyhkäisty. Luottamus ja
rakkaus oli palannut, kumpikin kiitti Jumalaa, että asiat olivat
niinkuin olivat: että oli heillä koti talviyön pimeässä korven keskessä,
koti — ja kuusi tervettä lasta.

— Voi Orjo, kuinka minä olen kiitollinen että otit minut vastaani
kuiskaa Mirjam tunkien päänsä miehen povea vasten.
 — Pulmuseni, anna anteeksi kauheat aikomukseni! puhuu
aviomies suudellen vaimoansa.

Mirjam, hänen Mirjaminsa, on aarre ja ihme vaimojen sarjassa.

Vaikka hänellä on ollut niin kova elämä kuin ainoastaan Mirjam itse
sen tietää, niin on hän sentään säilyttänyt sulonsa ja viehätyksensä.
Ja Mirjam itsekkin kertoo hymyhuulin, miten tohtori siellä
kaupungissa, kun hän tuli ilmoittautumaan synnytykseen, oli
erehtynyt hänen suhteensa ja kysynyt: "Onko se rouvan ensimäinen
lapsi?" Niin nuorelta, tyttömäiseltä hän oli näyttänyt seitsemän
lapsen äiti, Mirjam Korelius.

— Ja nyt me nukumme aina yhdessä — kuiskaa Mirjam

onnekkaana — minä en anna sinun nukkua yksiksesi yläkerrassa.
Kuuletko, joka yö, joka yö — me emme eroa koskaan eikä mitään
pahaa saa enää tulla meidän väliimme.

— Sitä minäkin toivoisin, Mirjam, sanoo Orjo, ettei mitään pahaa

tulisi meidän väliimme. Että meidän avioliittomme vain kirkastuisi
ilta-aurinkoonsa mennessä. — Mutta ei se käy laatuun, huomauttaa
hän, aina nukkua yhdessä. Kyllä minun täytyy siellä yläkerrassa…

— Voi, voi! valittaa Mirjam.

— Tule sinä sinne niin usein kuin haluat, sanoo Orjo.

———

— Ja tämä on meidän viimeinen lapsemme!

— Niin olkoon.

— Emme saa enää…!

 — Emme saa.

Ja aviopuolisot nukahtavat toistensa syleilyyn. Kuuluu vain heidän

yhtäaikainen hengityksensä. Tähdet kiiluvat taivaan korkeudessa.
Pakkanen paukahtelee honkaisen talon nurkissa.

Mutta etehisen takana, avarassa tuvassa, kirahtaa se viimeinen,

pitkältä matkalta tuotu poikalapsi. Elämänoikeutta hänkin huutaa.

40.

Orjon ja Mirjamin avioelämässä oli nyt kuudennen lapsen jälkeen

tullut eräänlainen sielullinen "kesäpäivän seisaus." Sen korkeammalle
ei heidän aurinkonsa enää voinut nousta, valoa oli yllinkyllin, jos he
sitä tahtoivat ja taisivat hyväkseen käyttää. Heidän oli kiireesti sitä
hyväkseen käytettävä saadakseen nauttia sen viljalajin hedelmistä,
jonka kohtalo oli heidän elämänpeltoonsa kylvänyt. Heillä oli jo niin
paljon kokemusta rakkauden kalliin vainionsa hoidosta, että jos he
sen laiminlöisivät, niin he saisivat iänkaiken sitä katua.

He tiesivät että maailma vilisi täynnä onnettomia avioliittoja —

monta monituista kertaa he olivat kiitos sydämessään nukahtaneet
toistensa rintoja vasten ja tunteneet että he ympäristöönsä nähden
olivat onnellinen pari. Mirjamin sydän, joka avioliiton alkuvuosina
usein oli aika-ajoittaisella kylmenemisellään tai kovuudellaan
tuottanut Orjolle sanomattomia kärsimyksiä ja kauheita aavistuksia,
oli nyt 12-vuotisen yhdyselämän vaiheiden ja vaikeuksien jälkeen
alkanut kiintyä yhä syvemmin mieheen, jonka hän tunsi elämänsä
kohtalon jakajaksi ja jonka hän ennenkaikkea tunsi omakseen.
 Orjo Korelius oli puhdas naisista — tämä, Mirjamin mies, ei ollut
koskaan kuulunut kenellekään muulle naiselle eikä saisi koskaan
tulevaisuudessakaan tulla kuulumaan kenellekään muulle. Ei edes
hetkellisesti! Se oli Mirjamin harras usko, se oli hänen avioelämänsä
perustuslaki.

Kuinka outoja kärsimyksiä olikaan Mirjamille aiheutunut viime

aikoina, kun Orjo oli julkisuudessa päästänyt jonkun varomattoman
ihailusanan joistakin muistakin naisista kuin hänestä! Kuinka saattoi
aviomies edes sanoilla ylistää toisia naisia? Se oli Mirjamille
käsittämätöntä, Orjo selitti avomielisesti, mitä hänen sydämessään
liikkui.

Hänellä oli ikävä.

Ikävä — Mirjamin kanssa kahdenkesken? Ei! hän kaivannut mitään

muuta kuin vierasta seuraa, erämaan henki, — väitti hän, oli
tukahduttava.

Näin tuli Mirjamiin mustasukkaisuus. Tämä mustasukkaisuus

kehittyi sairaloisuuteen saakka, ennenpitkää se nousi sellaiseen
huippuun että aviomieskin kauhistui. Mitä, mitä ihmettä Mirjam
oikeastaan luuli Orjosta?

Orjo Koreliusko voisi tulla uskottomaksi?

Itse hän ei sitä koskaan — tämä mies — uskonut tahtomallakaan

voivan tapahtua. Siinä määrin olivat hänen siveydelliset ihanteensa
jo lapsuudesta saakka kiteytyneet hänen puhtautta harrastavaan
sydämeensä.

Oihonna?
 Eihän hän kieltänytkään haaveilujansa, mutta hän oli
lukemattomat kerrat huomannut että käytännössä haave oli
mahdotonta. Niin oli ollut tähän asti.

Sellaista naista ei tullut hänen eteensä, joka saisi hänet

unohtamaan rakkaudenliittonsa Mirjamin kanssa — — —

Mutta jospa vielä oli tuleva?

———

Ja niin oli koittanut heidän avioelämänsä kolmastoista vuosi, jolloin

kumpikin kaihosi jotakin suurta vapauttavaa ratkaisua.

Mikä se oli oleva, sitä he eivät kumpikaan tienneet.

Kuolemako? Uusi elämäkö? Vai joku harvinainen tapaturma? — —

—

Hiljaisessa Korpilinnassa riehui suuri sielullinen taistelu. Hätä oli

molemmilta puolilta niin hirvittävä että koko elämänjärjestys meni
nurin.

— Ei, minä en kestä! vaikeroi Mirjam sukeltaen miehensä syliin.

— Ei, en minäkään! vakuutti Orjo työntäen itkevän vaimonsa pois

ja ollen hänelle ankara omantunnon vaivoihin saakka.

Mikä, mikä ihme vaivasi Mirjamia? Ja mikä, mikä ihme vaivasi

Orjoa? Ei kumpikaan selvästi ymmärtänyt. Vielä yksi kuukausi — ja
kumpikin sen ymmärsi.

Toinen nainen oli ilmestynyt Mirjamin ja Orjon väliin. Toinen

nainen, jota ei kumpikaan tuntenut. Ja niinkuin hukkuva, hirveässä
hädässä pelastustaan hapuileva, haaksirikkoon tuomittu, tarttui Orjo
Korelius tämän naisen käteen.

Rakkaus? Uusi Rakkaus?

Hän, mies, tahtoi elää, elää, elää! Mihin jäisi Mirjam, Mirjam parka
kuusine lapsineen? Sitä ei hukkuva mies jaksanut loppuun asti
ajatella…

*****

Se, mikä ennen oli ollut uskomatonta, se tuli nyt uskottavaksi.

Tutkimattoman kohtalon hyökyaalto oli temmannut mukaansa
erämaan yksinäisen miehen.

"Minäkin tahdon elää!" mies huusi kaikkien kuullen ja salaperäinen

virta vei häntä hurjaa vauhtia pois Korpilinnasta…

Mies kuuli Mirjamin sydäntä särkevän valitushuudon — tyrmistyi,

tahtoi pelastaa, auttaa, temmata mukaansa, mutta — Mirjam ei
hievahtanut, ei lähtenyt, ei uskaltanut… Mies näki Mirjamin vain
viuhtovan valkoista liinaa, jonka kyynelet olivat kastelleet läpimäräksi
— kuuli viimeisen valitushuudon, viimeisen varoitushuudon… Sitten
hän ei enää mitään kuullut eikä nähnyt. Henkensä silmillä vain
aviomies kaiken ymmärsi. Ja rukoili Jumalalta armoa. Mutta —
Jumala ei kuullut hänen rukoustaan. Jumala ei kuullut…

Ja tämä oli nyt Mirjamin ja Orjon avioliiton loppu.

Orjon ääni kadotuksesta.

 (Epiloogi.)

Älkää tuomitko tulevia ennenkuin olette lukeneet sen

"Tunnustuksen", jonka Erämaan Lapsi vielä on velkaa yhteiskunnalle.
Niin totta kuin Jumala on Rakkauden Isä, niin totta toivon vielä
voivani kaiken kertoa alusta loppuun saakka, mitä minulle
tapahtunut on sen jälkeen kun Mirjamistani erosin.

Oi Mirjam! Täällä maan alla maaten väsyneenä taisteluihini en

löydä sopivia sanoja pyytääkseni sinulta anteeksi mitä kauheita
kärsimyksiä sinulle lienenkin tuottanut. Sen tiedän vain, että olet
uskollisin nainen, mitä milloinkaan olen elämäni polulla kohdannut,
perheen äiti, josta olen ylpeä viimeisellä tuomiolla. Suokoon
Elämämme Herra, että sinun kaltaisia aviopuolisoita edes
tulevaisuudessa kasvaisi tämän maan tyttäristä! Kuolema ja kirous
kaikille, jotka avioliiton häpäisevät! Mirjam! Kasvata pienet
tyttäremme yhtä lujiksi kuin olet itse ollut ja opeta pikkupoikamme
miehiksi, jotka ajoissa ymmärtävät sukupuolielämän hirvittävät
vaarat.

Ja usko minua Mirjam parka: minua ei ole saastuttanut avioero

sinusta, vaan minä olen syösty helvetilliseen kärsimykseen ja sanoin
kuvaamattomaan rangaistukseen vain siitä syystä, etten onnellisina
vuosinamme sinua oikein arvostanut. Tuota sinun lujuuttasi ja
kaunista uskollisuuttasi!

Rangaistukseni ja kärsimykseni tietää saaden sinä kenties olet

ojentava puhtaan kätesi vetääksesi viimeisellä hetkellä miehen ylös
maan uumenista?
 En tiedä, rakas Mirjam, kannattaako se enää, mutta sanon tämän
vain, jos se sinua lievittää.

Itse en näe lohdutusta missään. Itse en enää eheäksi saa sitä

mikä on rikki revitty. Totisesti minun elämäni kirkkaimmat tähdet
ovat sammuneet sakeaan sumuun. Rohkenenko tämän sumun
sisästä ylistää Elämäni Herraa korkeistakin hetkistä?

Niin. Rakkautta, naisen hellivää rakkautta olen hulluuteen saakka

kaivannut kaiken elämäni iän — siksi on minulle näin käynyt. Lienen
niitä sieluja kaikkeudessa, joille ei ole ollut eduksi syntyä tälle
planeetalle.

Vaan jos se on totta, että ihmisten sielut sikiävät uusiin ruumiisiin,

niin täytyy vielä kerran minunkin saada uudestaan elää maan päällä.
Silloin on Orjo Korelius vihdoin onnellinen!

Tässä ensimäisessä vaelluksessaan ei hän näet ole löytänyt sitä

naista, joka olisi vastannut hänen palavaan, sammumattomaan
rakkauden kaihoonsa.

Anna anteeksi esitunnustukseni, Mirjam. Kiiruhdan lisäämään: Sinä

kuitenkin olit vaimoni ja sellaisena sinua kunnioitan, säälin ja
rajattomasti ihailen.

Mutta toista minä rakastan. Intohimoisesti, hulluuteen saakka

rakastan minä sitä toista, joka tuli Sinun ja minun väliin. Ja minä
kysyn Kaikkeuden Herralta: onko tällainen rakkaus syntiä?

(Hailuoto 27/6 1917.)

 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVIOLIITTO:
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