Medicinal Plants Of The Asia pacific Drugs For The Future?
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MEDICINAL PLANTS
OF THE AISA-PACIFIC:
DRUGS FOR THE FUTURE?
CHRISTOPHE WIART
University of Malaya, Malaysia
World Scientific
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MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE ASIA-PACIFIC
Drugs for the Future?
Copyright © 2006 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
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...Tum cynaeis erepit ab undis
Insula, quae prisci signatur nominis usu
Aurea, quod fulvo sol hic magis orbe rubescat
Rufus Festus Avienus
AD 370
v
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Preface
Looking globally, there is a considerable interest to find cure from nature. We
all know that in some sense there are drugs awaiting discovery in nature and
especially in medicinal plants. The question that grips us is, why ? Why are
these drugs undiscovered in spite of enormous technical achievements. If the
scientific techniques of pharmacological evaluations are so well mastered, it
is natural to expect an increasing number of important drugs discovered from
plants, thus improving human health drastically. Instead, we observe that can-
cers and microbial infections are still life threatening. This observation raises
several questions:
1. What is the present rationale in terms of the research of drugs from plants?
2. Should we reconsider our strategies in assessing medicinal plants and opt
for an alternative approach?
3. In regard to the pharmacological activities measured so far, why should
these be circumjacent of plant species?
4. Do they exist above the level of the plant species, where subclasses and
orders might experience macrolevel intrinsic content?
5. Are we targeting the correct groups of lead compounds?
6. Is ethnopharmacology really used as a tool to excavate drugs, or is it a mere
transitory fashion? In other words, what role does ethnopharmacology really
play in today’s high technological world of drug discovery?
By constitutively interconnecting several aspects of phylogeny, taxonomy, eth-
nology, structure–activity relationship, molecular pharmacology and toxicology,
I attempt to answer these questions from the first principles with a premier
reference source for traditional medicine and the development of drugs from
plants, especially from the medicinal plants of a region I had the opportunity to
explore: Asia-Pacific. This may seem like an extraordinary project because the
topics of botany, chemistry and pharmacology are individual and independent
disciplines as its own. It is not clear that thumping them together will really
help us crack them open. My burden is to argue that they need to be treated
together, and to show, in a very concrete manner, how they do go hand-in-hand
in opening the little door of scientific consciousness.
vii
viii Preface
This book proposes a place for consciousness in ethnopharmacology, and
to a more general sense, an alternative approach to the discovery of drugs
from plants; an approach I would like to call phytopharmacology. The frame-
work developed here is ambitious in its scope and detail. It ties experience
with a theory of the botanical and ethnological foundations of plant bioactiv-
ities. Scholars should see it as an attempt to advance in the development
of Mark J. Plotkin’s Medicine Quest: In Search of Nature’s Healing Secrets,
by borrowing some inspiration from Cronquist’s system of taxonomy. General
readers can simply see it as an attempt to explain the why of a medicinal
property.
Within the book, I often point to the lack of pharmacological and/or toxi-
cological scientific evidences on specific plants or taxa. I believe this frame-
work should at least cause some stirs in pharmacologists, by showing that
most plants on the verge of extinction, remain yet to be assessed. No one
should rest comfortably with any assumption that the present approach in
drug discovery must lead to unreasonableness. At the next level of ambition,
I hope to challenge the readers. Pharmacologist’s strongest support has so
far been the widespread use of massive automated screenings to guarantee
the discovery of lead compounds in an acceptable way. A first challenge that
this book propose is by showing that the pharmacological profile of a given
plant or taxa is understandable and therefore predictable, we need a more
thoughtful and sensitive approach. Pharmacological activities make sense only
against a detailed background theory of botanical and chemical causation.
A second challenge is to see whether the ideas lead to fruitful avenues of
research, or whether they lead to a dead end instead. The book presents
a framework, providing a new perspective from which we could understand
nature.
At a third level, I hope to actually stimulate further research on the discovery
of drugs from the medicinal plants of Asia-Pacific. To date, there is a lack of
books on medicinal plants in Asia-Pacific, one of the richest region in terms
of biodiversity as well as a rich source for traditional medicines. This book
provides a very detailed ethnopharmacological accounting of over 400 plant
species, enhanced by more than 300 original pictures, 400 chemical struc-
tures, voucher plants, pharmaceutical interest and thousands of bibliographic
references.
I have made the book as accessible and interesting as possible to the gen-
eral public, even to those who have little or no specific training in biological sci-
ences. My intention was not to pontify, but merely to create something where
its importance lies beyond the details of its presentation. I consider this to be
primarily a book of personal thoughts. Of all my hopes, my dearest is that
Medicinal Plants of Asia–Pacific: Drugs for the Future? should provide inspi-
ration to those looking for drugs from plants. In the space of ideas, I believe
Preface ix
that this book acts as a pointer to the existence of originality, where readers
could freely explore endlessly on their own.
Christophe Wiart Pharm. D.
Associate Professor of Pharmacognosy
Department of Pharmacy
University of Malaya
50603 Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
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Contents
Preface vii
Foreword xxxi
Farnsworth
Foreword xxxiii
Etkin
Foreword xxxv
Williamson
Class MAGNOLIOPSIDA Cronquist, Takhtajan & Zimmermann 1966,
the Dicotyledons 1
I. Subclass MAGNOLIIDAE Takhtajan 1966 1
A. Order MAGNOLIALES Bromhead 1838 2
1. Family HIMANTANDRACEAE Diels 1917 nom. conserv.,
the Himantandra Family 2
Galbulimima belgraveana (F. Muell.) Sprague . . . . . . . . 2
2. Family ANNONACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom. conserv.,
the Custard-apple Family 4
Anaxagorea javanica Bl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Annona muricata L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Artabotrys suaveolens Bl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Cananga odorata (Lamk.) Hook. f. & Thoms. . . . . . . . . 11
Cyathostemma argenteum (Bl.) J. Sinclair . . . . . . . . . . 13
Desmos chinensis Lour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fissistigma species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Goniothalamus macrophyllus (Bl.) Hook. f. & Thoms. . . . 17
Mitrella kentii (Bl.) Miq. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Orophea polycarpa A. DC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Polyalthia cauliflora Hook. f. & Thoms. var. beccarii (King)
J. Sinclair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
xi
xii Contents
Pyramidanthe prismatica J. Sinclair
(Hook. f. & Thoms.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Uvaria grandiflora Roxb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3. Family MYRISTICACEAE R. Brown 1810 nom. conserv., the
Nutmeg Family 27
Horsfieldia irya (Gaertn.) Warb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Knema globularia (Lamk.) Warb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Myristica iners Bl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
B. Order LAURALES Lindley 1833 31
1. Family LAURACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom. conserv.,
the Laurel Family 31
Cassytha filiformis L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Cinnamomum iners Reinw. ex Bl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.BV. Robinson . . . . . . . . . . . 36
C. Order PIPERALES Lindley 1833 37
1. Family CHLORANTHACEAE R. Brown ex Lindley 1821 nom.
conserv., the Chloranthus Family 37
Chloranthus eliator R. Br. ex Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Sarcandra glabra (Thunb.) Nak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2. Family PIPERACEAE C. A. Agardh 1825 nom conserv.,
the Pepper Family 40
Piper cubeba L. f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Peperomia pellucida (L.) HBK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
D. Order ARISTOLOCHIALES Lindley 1833 44
1. Family ARISTOLOCHIACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.
conserv., the Birthwort Family 44
Apama corymbosa (Griff.) Willd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Apama tomentosa (Bl.) O. Ktze. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Aristolochia indica L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Aristolochia tagala Cham. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Asarum sieboldii Miq. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Thottea dependens Klotzsch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
E. Order RANUNCULALES Lindley 1833 52
1. Family RANUNCULACEAE A.L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.
conserv., the Buttercup Family 52
Coptis japonica (Thunb.) Mak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Ranunculus sceleratus L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Contents xiii
2. Family BERBERIDACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.
conserv., the Barberry Family 57
Berberis thunbergii DC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Caulophyllum robustum Maxim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3. Family LARDIZABALACEAE Decaisne 1838 nom. conserv.,
the Lardizabala Family 62
Akebia quinata (Thunb.) Decne. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4. Family MENISPERMACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.
conserv., the Moonseed Family. 63
Fibraurea chloroleuca Miers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Pericampylus glaucus (Lamk.) Merr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
F. Order PAPAVERALES Cronquist 1981 67
1. Family PAPAVERACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.
conserv., the Poppy Family 68
Argemone mexicana L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Chelidonium majus L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2. Family FUMARIACEAE A. P. de Candolle 1821 nom.
conserv., the Fumitory Family 72
Corydalis incisa (Thunb.) Pers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
II. Subclass HAMAMELIDAE Takhtajan 1966 75
A. Order URTICALES Lindley 1833 75
1. Family CANNABACEAE Endlicher 1837 nom. conserv., the
Hemp Family 75
Cannabis sativa L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Humulus scandens (Lour.) Merr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2. Family MORACEAE Link 1831 nom. conserv., the Mulberry
Family 80
Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Parartocarpus venenosus (Zoll. & Mor.) Becc. ssp.
forbesii (King) Jarret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
B. Order FAGALES Engler 1892 86
1. Family FAGACEAE Dumortier 1829 nom. conserv., the
Beech Family 86
Castanea crenata Sieb. & Zucc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Castanopsis cuspidata (Thunb.) Schottky . . . . . . . . . . 88
xiv Contents
Lithocarpus elegans (Bl.) Hatus. ex Soepadmo . . . . . . . 89
Quercus acutissima Carruthers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
III. Subclass CARYOPHYLLIDAE Takhtajan 1966 91
A. Order CARYOPHYLLALES Bentham & Hooker 1862 91
1. Family AIZOACEAE Rudolphi 1830 nom. conserv., the
Fig — marigold Family 91
Tetragonia tetragonioides (Pallas) O. Ktze. . . . . . . . . . . 92
Trianthema portulacastrum L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2. Family CACTACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.
conserv., the Cactus Family 95
Opuntia dillenii (Ker — Gawl.) Haworth . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Pereskia bleo DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3. Family CHENOPODIACEAE Ventenat 1799 nom. conserv.,
the Goosefoot Family 99
Chenopodium album L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4. Family AMARANTHACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.
conserv., the Amaranth Family 103
Achyranthes aspera L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Achyranthes bidentata Bl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Amaranthus spinosus L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Celosia argentea L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Cyathula prostrata (L.) Bl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Deeringia amaranthoides (Lamk.) Merr. . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Gomphrena globosa L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5. Family MOLLUGINACEAE Hutchinson 1926, nom. conserv.,
the Carpet - weed Family 119
Mollugo pentaphylla L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6. Family CARYOPHYLLACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.
conserv., the Pink Family 121
Drymaria cordata Willd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Polycarpaea corymbosa Lamk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Saponaria vaccaria L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Silene aprica Turcz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Contents xv
B. Order POLYGONALES Lindley 1833 127
1. Family POLYGONACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.
conserv., the Buckwheat Family 127
Polygonum barbatum L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Polygonum chinense L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
IV. Subclass DILLENIIDAE Takhtajan 1966 132
A. Order DILLENIALES Hutchinson 1926 132
1. Family DILLENIACEAE Salisbury 1807 nom. conserv., the
Dillenia family 132
Acrotrema costatum Jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Dillenia excelsa (Jack) Gilg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Dillenia indica L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Tetracera indica (Houtt. ex Christm. & Panz.) Merr. . . . . . 136
B. Order THEALES Lindley 1833 138
1. Family DIPTEROCARPACEAE Blume 1825 nom. conserv.,
the Meranti Family 138
Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Dipterocarpus intricatus Dyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Miq. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Dryobalanops aromatica Gaertn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Hopea odorata Roxb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Shorea sumatrana (van. Sl. Ex Foxw) Sym. . . . . . . . . . 145
2. Family THEACEAE D.Don 1825 nom. conserv., the
Tea Family 146
Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Ktze. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3. Family CLUSIACEAE Lindley 1826 nom. conserv., the
Mangosteen Family 149
Calophyllum inophyllum L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Lour.) Bl. . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Garcinia mangostana L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Hypericum japonicum Thunb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Mesua ferrea L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
C. Order MALVALES Lindley 1833 160
1. Family ELAEOCARPACEAE A. P. de Candolle 1824 nom.
conserv., the Elaeocarpus Family 160
Elaeocarpus grandiflorus Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
xvi Contents
Elaeocarpus sphaericus (Gaertn.) K. Sch. . . . . . . . . . . 162
Elaeocarpus stipularis Bl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
2. Family BOMBACACEAE Kunth 1822 nom. conserv., the
Kapok-tree Family 164
Durio zibethinus Murr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
D. Order LECYTHIDALES Cronquist 1957 166
1. Family LECYTHIDACEAE Poiteau 1825 nom. conserv., the
Brazil-nut Family 166
Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
E. Order NEPENTHALES Lindley 1833 168
1. Family NEPENTHACEAE Dumortier 1829 nom. conserv.,
the East Indian Pitcher-plant Family. 169
Nepenthes ampullaria Jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
2. Family DROSERACEAE Salisbury 1808 nom. conserv., the
Sundew Family. 170
Drosera burmannii Vahl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Drosera indica L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
F. Order VIOLALES Lindley 1833 173
1. Family FLACOURTIACEAE A. P. de Candolle 1824 nom.
conserv., the Flacourtia Family 174
Casearia grewiaefolia Vent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Flacourtia rukam Zoll. & Mor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Hydnocarpus species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Pangium edule Reinw. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Xylosma congesta (Lour.) Merr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2. Family BIXACEAE Link. 1831 nom. conserv., the
Lipstick-tree Family 179
Bixa orellana L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3. Family ANCISTROCLADACEAE Walpers 1851 nom.
conserv., the Ancistrocladus Family 181
Ancistrocladus tectorius (Lour.) Merr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4. Family CARICACEAE Dumortier 1829, nom. conserv., the
Papaya Family 183
Carica papaya L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5. Family CUCURBITACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.
conserv., the Cucumber family 186
