Assignment 4(meteorology )

2) Meteorological codes are essential for

standardizing and simplifying the transmission of
weather information across different countries and
sectors. They allow meteorologists, mariners,
aviators, and other users worldwide to communicate
weather data in a universal shorthand, ensuring
clarity and consistency regardless of language or
local practices. This universality is crucial because
weather systems do not recognize international
boundaries, and accurate, timely data exchange is
vital for safety and operational decisions in aviation,
shipping, agriculture, and more.
Contents of a Ship’s Weather Code
A ship’s weather code, specifically the WMO FM 13-X Ships’ Synoptic Code, consists of
several standardized groups, each representing specific meteorological and oceanographic
elements. The main sections and their contents are:
Section 0: Identification and Position
• Report identifier (BBXX)
• Ship’s call sign
• Date and time of observation (UTC)
• Wind speed indicator
• Ship’s position (latitude and longitude, including quadrant)
Section 1: Meteorological Data
• Precipitation and weather data indicators
 • Height of base of the lowest cloud
• Horizontal visibility
• Total cloud amount
• Wind direction and speed
• Air temperature (dry bulb)
• Dew point temperature
• Sea level pressure and pressure tendency
• Present and past weather
• Cloud types and amount
Section 2: Additional Data
• Ship’s course and speed
• Sea surface temperature
• Ocean wave data (period, height, direction)
• Ice data (if present)
• Wet-bulb temperature
These codes ensure that all critical weather and oceanographic data are reported in a
consistent, internationally recognized format, enabling effective global weather monitoring
and forecasting

3)
4) In the Northern Hemisphere, if you stand with your back to the wind, low
pressure will be to your left and high pressure to your right. In the Southern
Hemisphere, this relationship reverses: low pressure is to the right and high
pressure to the left. This occurs because winds circulate counterclockwise
around low-pressure systems in the Northern Hemisphere (clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere) due to the Coriolis effect

Cautions When Applying the Law

1. Equatorial regions: The Coriolis effect weakens near the equator, making the law
unreliable in latitudes below ~5°.
2. Proximity to storm centers: Wind direction becomes chaotic near the core of low-
pressure systems, reducing accuracy.
3. Local topography: Mountains or valleys can distort wind patterns, leading to
misleading conclusions.
4. Surface friction: Near the ground, wind direction deviates from theoretical
predictions due to terrain and friction, creating angles <90° relative to the pressure gradient.
5. Not a standalone tool: The law provides general guidance and must be used with
modern instruments (e.g., barometers, weather forecasts) for precise navigation

5) Radiation Fog forms overnight when the ground loses heat by radiation under
clear skies and calm winds, cooling the air near the surface to its dew point. This
causes moisture in the air to condense into fog, usually in sheltered valleys or
near water. It is typically patchy, forms close to the ground, and dissipates after
sunrise as the sun warms the surface.
Advection Fog occurs when warm, moist air moves horizontally (advects) over a colder
surface, cooling the air to saturation. Unlike radiation fog, it can form under cloudy skies and
moderate to strong winds, and often moves with the wind. It can last for days and is common
near coasts where warm air passes over cold ocean currents.
Summary:
• Radiation fog: formed by ground cooling at night, calm conditions, clear skies,
localized, dissipates after sunrise.
• Advection fog: formed by warm moist air over cold surface, can occur with wind
and clouds, moves with air flow, can persist longer.

6) Importance of Each Component of the Earth’s Atmosphere

Nitrogen (78%)
• Maintains atmospheric stability by diluting oxygen, preventing rapid combustion.
• Essential for plant life as a raw material for proteins via the nitrogen cycle.
Oxygen (21%)
• Vital for respiration in animals and humans.
• Supports combustion, making it necessary for burning fuels.
Argon (0.93%)
• Inert gas, does not react easily; helps maintain atmospheric pressure and stability.
Carbon Dioxide (0.04%)
• Key greenhouse gas, traps heat and regulates Earth’s temperature.
• Used by plants in photosynthesis to produce food and release oxygen.
Water Vapour (variable, ~1%)
• Drives weather processes like cloud formation and precipitation.
• Regulates temperature by absorbing and retaining heat (greenhouse effect).
Ozone (mainly in the stratosphere)
• Absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation, protecting living organisms.
• Prevents excessive UV from reaching Earth’s surface, enabling life to thrive.
Dust and Aerosols
• Act as nuclei for cloud formation, aiding the water cycle.
• Influence weather and climate by reflecting or absorbing sunlight.
Trace Gases (neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen, etc.)
• Some, like methane, are potent greenhouse gases, affecting climate.
• Others contribute to atmospheric chemistry and processes

8) a) Local Winds
Local winds are winds that blow over small, specific areas for short durations, typically
influenced by local geography and temperature differences. Examples include sea breezes
(from sea to land during the day), land breezes (from land to sea at night), anabatic winds
(upslope during the day), and katabatic winds (downslope at night). These winds can affect
local weather and climate, and are distinct from large-scale global winds.
b) Air Mass
An air mass is a large body of air with uniform temperature and humidity characteristics,
covering hundreds or thousands of kilometers. Air masses form over source regions like
oceans or continents and influence the weather when they move, often causing changes in
temperature, humidity, and precipitation.
c) Iceberg
An iceberg is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off from a glacier or ice shelf
and floats in the ocean. Only a small part of an iceberg is visible above water, with the
majority submerged. Icebergs are hazards to ships, especially in the North Atlantic.
d) ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone)
The ITCZ is a belt of low pressure near the equator where the trade winds from both
hemispheres converge. This zone is characterized by frequent thunderstorms, heavy rainfall,
and is a key driver of tropical weather patterns. Its position shifts seasonally with the
movement of the sun.
e) Weather Charts
Weather charts are graphical representations of meteorological data, such as pressure,
temperature, wind, and precipitation, over a specific area at a given time. They help
meteorologists analyze and forecast weather patterns, showing features like high and low
pressure, fronts, and storm systems.

9) Signs of Having an Iceberg in the Vicinity and Methods of Detection

Visual Signs:
• Sudden drop in sea surface temperature.
 • Sudden drop in sea surface temperature.
• Presence of growlers or smaller ice fragments in the water.
• Unusual white or blue shapes on the horizon, especially in cold regions.
• Fog or mist, which often forms around icebergs due to the temperature difference
between the cold ice and warmer air.
Modern Detection Methods:
• Radar: Shipborne radar can detect the large, hard surfaces of icebergs, though
small or low-lying icebergs (growlers) may be missed, especially in rough seas.
• Satellite Remote Sensing: Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) from satellites like
Sentinel-1 is widely used for iceberg detection, as it works in all weather and lighting
conditions. SAR detects icebergs based on their higher backscatter intensity compared to
open water.
• Aerial Surveillance: Aircraft equipped with radar or microwave radiometers can
distinguish icebergs from ships by analyzing differences in depolarization and reflected
signals.
• Automated Detection Algorithms: Machine learning and adaptive thresholding
techniques (like CFAR) are increasingly used to process satellite images and automatically
identify icebergs, even in large or complex sea area

10) The meteorological conditions likely to cause both fresh and seawater ice accretion on
vessels include the following:
• Air Temperature: Ice accretion typically occurs when air temperature is at or below
about -2°C. For rapid seawater ice accretion, temperatures often need to be below -4°C,
with more severe icing below -9°C.
• Sea Water Temperature: Seawater temperatures must be close to or below +4 to
+5°C for seawater ice to form from spray.
• Wind Speed: Strong winds (above Beaufort scale 5, i.e., roughly >8-10 m/s) are
critical as they generate waves and spray, which freeze upon contact with the vessel. Wind
speeds of 10-15 m/s cause rapid ice accumulation, and above 16 m/s can cause very fast ice
build-up.
• Wave and Sea State: Higher waves and swell increase spray generation, enhancing
ice accretion on exposed surfaces.
• Humidity and Precipitation: High relative humidity, fog, freezing rain, drizzle, or sea
fog accelerate ice formation by providing moisture that freezes on contact.
• Ship Movement and Orientation: Ice accretion is faster when the ship is moving
against the wind and waves, increasing spray impact. Moving with the wind reduces ice
accretion.
 • Freshwater Ice Accretion: Occurs mainly from freezing fog, drizzle, rain, or snow,
leading to ice on superstructures and equipment. This can happen even without seawater
spray but requires subfreezing air temperatures

11) Ships Performance Curves are graphical representations showing the relationship
between various operational parameters of a ship, primarily focusing on speed, power, and
fuel consumption. They are essential tools for analyzing, monitoring, and optimizing a
vessel’s performance throughout its operational life.
Key Aspects of Ships Performance Curves:
• Speed-Power Curve: Shows how much engine power is required to achieve different
ship speeds. It helps identify if the vessel is performing as expected or if there is increased
resistance due to hull fouling or damage.
• Fuel Consumption Curve: Plots fuel consumption (liters per nautical mile) against
speed, helping to find the most economical speed (ECO speed) where fuel use is minimized
for a given distance.
• Performance Monitoring: By comparing actual operational data with baseline
curves from sea trials, operators can detect performance degradation, such as increased hull
resistance or engine inefficiencies.
• Operational Optimization: Enables ship operators to adjust speed and loading
conditions to reduce fuel costs and emissions while maintaining schedule reliability.
• Troubleshooting: Helps identify issues like propeller damage, hull fouling, or engine
problems by deviations from expected curves.

12) The salinity of surface seawater is influenced by several key factors:

• Evaporation: Increases salinity by removing water and leaving salts behind. High
evaporation rates in hot, dry regions (like subtropics) lead to higher salinity.
• Precipitation: Decreases salinity by adding freshwater, diluting the salt
concentration. Equatorial regions with heavy rainfall have lower salinity.
• Freshwater Influx from Rivers: Large rivers (e.g., Ganges, Amazon) deliver
freshwater to the ocean, reducing salinity near their mouths.
• Freezing and Melting of Ice: Formation of sea ice excludes salt, increasing salinity
in surrounding water; melting ice adds freshwater, lowering salinity, especially in polar
regions.
• Ocean Currents: Transport water masses with different salinity, redistributing salt
content horizontally and vertically.
• Wind and Atmospheric Pressure: Winds can pile up water or move it away, affecting
local salinity; high-pressure stable air zones with high temperature often have higher salinity.
• Temperature and Density: Salinity, temperature, and density are interrelated;
changes in temperature or density can influence salinity distribution

13) The Sun and Moon both create tides on Earth through their gravitational pull, but the
Moon has a stronger effect because it is much closer to Earth, despite the Sun being far
more massive.
• Moon’s Effect: The Moon’s gravity pulls on Earth’s oceans, creating two tidal
bulges: one on the side closest to the Moon and one on the opposite side. As Earth rotates,
these bulges move around the globe, causing most coastlines to experience two high tides
and two low tides each day.
• Sun’s Effect: The Sun also exerts a gravitational force on Earth’s oceans, producing
solar tides. However, because the Sun is much farther away, its tidal effect is less than half
that of the Moon.
• Spring and Neap Tides:
• When the Sun, Moon, and Earth are aligned (during new and full moons), their
gravitational forces combine, resulting in spring tides-higher high tides and lower low tides.
• When the Sun and Moon are at right angles (first and third quarter moons), their
forces partially cancel each other, causing neap tides-lower high tides and higher low tides.

14)

High clouds: Cirrus, Cirrostratus, Cirrocumulus

Mid clouds: Altostratus, Altocumulus
Low clouds: Stratus, Stratocumulus, Cumulus
Clouds with vertical development: Nimbostratus, Cumulonimbus

15)

Voluntary Observing Fleet (VOS) under IMD

The Voluntary Observing Fleet (VOS) under the India Meteorological Department (IMD) is
part of an international scheme coordinated by the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO). In this program, merchant ships, naval vessels, and selected foreign ships voluntarily
collect and transmit meteorological observations while at sea. IMD supplies these ships with
meteorological instruments and provides support through Port Meteorological Officers for
equipment calibration and maintenance.
The main objectives are to:
• Collect marine meteorological data from ocean areas, especially where fixed
observation stations are absent.
• Contribute to the Global Observing System (GOS) for weather forecasting, climate
studies, and maritime safety.
Type and Nature of Information Collected
The VOS fleet collects and reports a wide range of meteorological and oceanographic data,
including:
• Atmospheric Pressure
• Air Temperature
• Sea Surface Temperature
• Wind Direction and Speed
• Humidity
• Cloud Type, Amount, and Height
• Visibility
• Present and Past Weather Conditions
• Sea State (waves, swell)
• Ice Observations (if any)
This data is transmitted in near real-time to meteorological offices and is crucial for:
• International weather reporting and forecasting
• Storm warnings
• Climate monitoring and research
• Enhancing maritime safety
The observations from the VOS fleet are especially valuable in remote ocean areas, filling
critical gaps in global weather data coverage.

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