Tel: 056-31375 P.

O Box 190

Fax: 056-30153 KAKAMEGA - 50100

E-mail: [email protected] KENYA

MASINDE MULIRO UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Department of Language and Literature Education
COURSE OUTLINE

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COURSE TITLE: SPECIAL METHODS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

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CORSE CODE: ENG 314
YEAR OF STUDY: III
SEMESTER: 1
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2024/2025
LECTURER:
EMAIL:
CONTACT:
Dr. Mark Muvango
[email protected]
0729582286
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COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course presents an overview of the theories of language acquisition, learning
and language teaching in relation to the teaching of English as a second language;
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with particular reference to the teaching of English in Kenyan secondary schools. It

also covers the various methods used in language teaching, preparation for
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instruction; issues in language teaching with particular focus on the teaching of the
four main language skills and grammar, the language classroom activities, language
testing and evaluation and the current issues and trends in second language
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teaching.

COURSE AIMS
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Participants will understand the concept of language teaching. They will develop
skills for effective pedagogical approaches in English language teaching in the
Kenyan context. It is expected that the course participants will have the knowledge
and confidence to mediate post training in English language field(s).

COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course, the learner should be able to:
i. Outline and interpret the aims and objectives of teaching English in Kenyan
secondary schools and come up with specific classroom instructional
objectives from the syllabus.
ii. Explain the approaches to English language teaching and the current

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 problems and issues in the teaching and learning of English in secondary
schools, focusing on the integrated approach to language teaching as put
forward in the 8-4-4 system of education.
iii. Explain the theories of language teaching and learning by showing their
relevance and application to classroom practice.
iv. Outline and explain the various languages teaching methodology with regard
to their theoretical foundations showing their relevance and application to
classroom practice.
v. Define and identify the various principles underlying the preparation of the
instruction process; prepare all the instructional documents required of an
English language teacher and appropriately choose and use language
teaching resources.

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vi. Identify and explain the four main language skills and select the most
appropriate and effective methods of teaching these skills.

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vii. Identify and analyze learners’ language errors and prepare remedial work.
viii. Identify and apply appropriate evaluation and testing techniques of all the
language skill areas.

COURSE CONTENT
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1. English in the World today and in Kenya
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2. Problems and issues in the teaching and learning of English language in Kenya.
 Rationale for integration of English language and Literature
 Problems in teaching and learning of English language in Kenya: Unprepared
teachers, negative attitude, poor teaching methodology, learner’s low levels of
speech, lack of resources and teaching material and heavy teaching load.
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3. Theories of language acquisition and learning

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 Behaviourist theory
 Cognitive theory
 Innateness theory
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 Monitor model (Input hypothesis)

4. Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence in Relation to Language
Teaching
 Types of Intelligences
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 Classroom Implications
 A critique of Gardner’s theory
 Advantages/Disadvantages of Gardner’s theory to language teaching
5. Methods of language teaching
 Factors to consider in the choice of a language teaching method
 Methods of language teaching
Grammar translation method, the direct method, Audio-lingual method, the
oral approach, Situational language teaching, structural method, the silent
method, the natural approach, Suggestopaedia, Communicative Language
Teaching, Integrated skills Approach, Segregated Skills Approach, Task-based
approach, Content Based approach.

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6. Preparation and organization of instructional records and materials in English
language teaching:
 The syllabus
 Schemes of work
 Lesson plans
 Lesson notes
 Record of work covered
 Teaching resources
- Advantages of schemes of work and lesson plan
- Factors to consider when constructing specific instructional objectives: Time,
SMART objectives, Bloom’s taxonomy, entry behaviour analysis and teaching
strategy

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- Factors to consider when choosing a teaching strategy: Time and space
availability,

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class size, available teaching aids and resources.
7. Teaching language skills.
 Teaching listening skills
 Types of listening
 Process of listening
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 Factors influencing listening
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 Effective listening lesson
 Teaching and learning techniques and activities in a listening lesson
 Teaching Speaking skills
 Speaking as a creative process
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 Components of speaking
 Teaching pronunciation
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 Teaching and learning activities and techniques in a speech lesson

 Teaching reading skills
 The process of reading
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 Types of reading
 Teaching and learning activities and techniques in a reading lesson
 Teaching writing skills
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 The process writing

 Types of writing
 Teaching and learning techniques and activities in a writing lesson
 Teaching grammar
 Types of grammar
 Teaching and learning techniques and activities in a grammar lesson
8. Error analysis and remedial teaching
9. Language testing and evaluation
 Importance of testing
 Types of assessment
 Modes of assessment-oral tests, written tests, structured type, objective type

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 and essay type
 Types of language tests

MODE OF DELIVERY
Lecture, discussions, class presentations and tutorials

COURSE ASSESSMENT
During the semester there shall be One Sit-in and One Take away assignment each
of which will contribute 15% of CAT mark totaling to 30%. There will be a final Two
Hour examination that will account for 70% of the total mark. The exam will have a
compulsory section and a section with a set of elective questions.

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ACADEMIC CONDUCT
1. Regular class attendance. Also punctuality is required to pass the course.

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Assignments will not be accepted after the due date without good reason.
2. APA referencing is preferred for the Take Away assignment.
3. Plagiarism is strictly forbidden. To avoid plagiarism, students are advised to

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read and familiarize themselves with the MMUST handbook on Rules and
Regulations governing university assessment.
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CORE READINGS
Aebersold, J., A & Field, M., L. (1997). From Reader to Reading Teaching: Issues and
strategies for Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge
University
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Press.
Brown, H., D. (1994). Teaching by Principles: An Integrative approach to Language
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Pedagogy. Eaglewod Ciffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc.

Cleassen, A. (1994). English Language Teaching Methods. Nairobi: Dixadis
Resources
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Curtis, A., & Park, M. (1994). A Guide to Teaching English. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta
Foundation
Gardner, H. (2011b). The Theory of Multiple Intelligences: As Psychological, as
Education,
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as Social Science. Address delivered at Jose Cela University on October, 29th,

2011.

Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Lightbrown, P., E., & Spada, N. (1993). How Languages are Learned. Oxford. Oxford
University Press
Maybin, J. (2005). Teaching Writing: Process or Genre? In Mercer, N., & Swann, J.
Learning English: Development and Diversity. (PP. 187-194). Routledge: The
Open University
Parrot, M. (1993). Tasks for Language Teachers: A Resource Book for Training and

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Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Richards, J., C., & Rodgers, T., S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language
Teaching
(2nd ed.). UK: Cambridge University Press
Ur, P. (1996). Grammar Practice Activities: A Practical Guide for Teachers.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Sign ………………………………………………Date ………………………………………….

Course Lecturer

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Received:

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Sign ………………………………………………Date ………………………………………….

APPROVED:

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Sign ………………………………………………Date ………………………………………….

CoD
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TOPIC: 1
PREPARATION AND ORGANIZATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL RECORDS AND

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MATERIALS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Instructional Planning for English Language
Forward planning in teaching is made in accordance with the syllabus to necessitate
effective teaching and learning.

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The objectives in the syllabus are outlined broadly (general or long term objectives).
Pre-active teaching period involves development of schemes of work and lesson
plans.
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Instructional planning has a number of advantages:
 For the teacher planning saves time as prior preparation enables her to teach
systematically as everything is in place.
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 The lesson plan acts as a guide and helps to show the direction one needs to
take to arrive at the set goals.
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 The teacher is able to limit the teaching to the available time (avoid
over/under teaching).
 Availability or non-availability of resource materials is determined before hand
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 Planning also gives the teacher a sense of security and confidence since she
is prepared to take the task ahead.
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The Syllabus
It contains the summary of the content and long term objectives of teaching English.
It guides the content to be taught in school.
It emphasizes the achievement of the four - macro skills of language: listening,
speaking, reading, and writing.

Schemes of Work (SOW)

It is derived from the syllabus and it is more detailed than a syllabus.
A scheme of work is a projection of what a teacher intends to cover with a class
within a specified period of time, which is usually one school term.

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A scheme of work is a public property: it is meant for use by those in the department.
It is a breakdown of a given syllabus into units that can easily be taught in each
lesson.
The sequential order in which topics appear in the syllabus should be followed in
developing Schemes of Work. However, the teacher has the discretion to rearrange
the topics to suit the level of learners.
The schemes of work also indicate long term goals and instructional objectives.

Factors that need to be taken into consideration before developing schemes of

work
The teacher should consider:
 Available time E.g. If 6 periods per week are allocated to teaching English, the

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teacher will break up the syllabus for the class concerned into topics that fit
the available time. Some books are written in unit form and follow the

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systematic flow of the content as it appears in the syllabus. Such textbooks
can help in developing a schemes of work.
 The syllabus content that needs to be taught. So developing schemes of

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work should be for a specified period of time and should include only the
content that can be covered within the allocated time.
 The school calendar. The teacher should consider events in the school during
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the given term for example speech day, mid-term, sports-day, and public
holidays. The days on which the events fall should not be planned for and
should be omitted from the schemes of work.
 The availability of resources to be used during the teaching and learning
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process.
 The methods to be used in teaching specific content. Methods to be used in
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class are decided upon before hand, not when the teacher enters the
classroom.
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The following are some of advantages of forward planning of a scheme of work

 Acts as a forecast of the amount of content a teacher intends to cover in a
given period of time. This helps to plan for the available time. It also helps to
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decide the most suitable content to be covered and at what time during the
course.
 A scheme of work gives the teacher a specific goal to pursue within that
period of time, which she strives to achieve.
 The head of department is kept abreast with the learning that is going on in
the classes she/he is not teaching.
 It ensures that every topic is covered hence there is no oversight.
 Time is budgeted for according to the needs of each topic: Difficult topics are
allocated more time while easy one given shorter time.
 It gives the teacher enough time to sort out the requirements of the subject
topics, for example, procurement of teaching and learning resources.

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  It guides a teacher in planning a lesson plan.
 In case of absenteeism when a teacher fails to report on duty, probably
through sickness, the substitute teacher is able to tell what has been covered
and how it has been covered. Remarks column will give this information.
 It is useful during transition when a new teacher has to take over a class that
was being taught by another teacher. She will know from where to start.
 School inspectors use schemes of work to assess teachers’ preparedness as
well as give guidance on their performance.

Schemes of Work Format

Different schools may have different formats
A well prepared scheme of work should have the following features:

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 Administrative details. These includes title, name of school where the SOW
will be used, name of subject, class level where it will be used, school term

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and the year in which teaching will take place.
For example ‘A Scheme of Work in English language for Form II class; Term 2;
Year 2024’

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 Below administrative details are written Term or General Objectives. These
are long term and are to be achieved after a given period of time, like one
month, or one term or even one year, after covering an area of study.
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The following is an example: ‘By the end of the term, learners should be able
to construct grammatically correct sentences using the grammatical items
learnt’.
A body of the Schemes of Work
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The body of the scheme of work is composed of the following parts:

 Week- this is the first column. Shows specific week in the timetable when a
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particular topic would be taught.

 Lesson: The column contains the specific lesson in the week when teaching
will take place
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 Topic/ content: This is the third column where topics and subtopics from the
syllabus are indicated. This is shown for every lesson in the week.
 Instructional objectives: This is found in the fourth column. Instructional
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objectives are short term, to be achieved within the lesson. The stem: ‘By the
end of the lesson, learners should be able to…. ’ should be written at the head
of the column. The objectives are written in terms of learners’ observable
behavior.
 Learning activities: The activities are all that goes on in the classroom to
promote learning and teaching. The learning activities depend on the
objectives and content already stated in column 3 and 4 respectively. The
learning activities are aimed at achieving the set objectives.
 Resources: These are teaching and learning materials and they are written in
the sixth column. They may be informed of books or objects or audio-visual
aids and other printed materials. The choice of resource materials should be
based on the content to be taught and the objectives to be achieved.

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  References: There are other materials used by the teacher to enrich the
teaching. They may be in form of other textbooks, charts, and articles that
learners do not have but which the teacher possesses.
 Remarks: This is the last column used for self evaluation. It contains
summarized comments made by the teacher after teaching each lesson. The
teacher writes down whether the lesson was a success, failure or partly
successful, giving a brief reason why the situation was the way it was.
Advantages of Schemes of Work
 It helps the teacher see how parts are related to the whole
 It’s preparation encourages teamwork and cooperation within the department.
 Facilitates a more economical use of resources – in ordering of materials,
inviting guest speakers

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 Ensures continuity and will assist the new teacher

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 Offers the teacher continuous guidance for example he may adjust teaching
pace
 Facilitates proper administration in ordering materials and ensuring each is
sufficiently utilized.

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The following is a sample of a scheme of work bearing the nine columns already
filled.
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SAMPLE SCHEMES OF WORK
TITLE: SCHEME OF WORK FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE - FORM 1
YEAR: 2024
TERM: 1
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SCHOOL: FURAHI SECONDARY SCHOOL

General Objectives
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By the end of the term/course, the learners should be able to:

i. Listen with understanding and respond appropriately.
ii. Speak intelligibly and pronounce words and sentences accurately and
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fluently.
iii. Use a common core vocabulary appropriately and effectively.
iv. Write coherently, logically and creatively using grammatical structures of
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English.
v. Read intensively and extensively for information and pleasure, grasping
literal and inferential meanings and relate them to their own experiences.
vi. Understand and appreciate literature appropriately for their level of
development, such as proverbs, stories, plays, poems and songs.
vii. Take and make notes, locate information effectively, summarize and
interpret charts, diagrams and tables.

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ENGLISH FORM 1 SCHEMES OF WORK – TERM 1

W LS TOPIC SUB – OBJECTIVES LEARNING/TEACH LEARNING/TEACH REFERENCES REMAR

K N TOPIC ING ACTIVITIES ING RESOURCES KS
1 REPORTI REPORTING REPORTING REPORTING REPORTING REPORTI
NG NG

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LISTENIN Punctuation By the end of the lesson, the  Listening to the  

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Audio tapes Advancing
2 1 G AND learner should be able to: sounds /i/ and  Charts in English
SPEAKIN  Pronounce correctly the /i./ Book 1
G sounds /i/ and /i./  Asking and students

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 Demonstrate the answering book Page
difference between questions 1
spelling and  Discussion in  Teachers
groups guide page

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pronunciation in English
17-18
 Gateway
secondary
revision
page 1-4

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and 12
 Old
AR integrated
English,
teachers
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Book page
1
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2 READING Comprehen By the end of the lesson, the  Reading  Stories  Advancing
sion learner should be able to:  Discussion in  Dictionary in English
 Read a given groups  Resource Book 1
passage and  Writing person students
answer the  Asking and  anecdote book Page

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W LS TOPIC SUB – OBJECTIVES LEARNING/TEACH LEARNING/TEACH REFERENCES REMAR
K N TOPIC ING ACTIVITIES ING RESOURCES KS
questions answering 5
provided questions  Teachers
guide page

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19
 Gateway

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secondary
revision
page 58
 Old

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integrated
English,
teachers
Book page

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3 STUDY Using a By the end of the lesson, the  Reading  Dictionary  Advancing
SKILLS dictionary learner should be able to:  Discussion  chart in English
 Arrange words as  Asking and Book 1
they should be in answering students
a dictionary questions book Page

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 Give meaning of
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words from the  Teachers
dictionary guide page
 Give classes of 19
words from the  Gateway
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dictionary secondary
revision
page 58
 Old
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integrated
English,
teachers
Book page

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W LS TOPIC SUB – OBJECTIVES LEARNING/TEACH LEARNING/TEACH REFERENCES REMAR
K N TOPIC ING ACTIVITIES ING RESOURCES KS
2-6
 New
integrated

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English
students

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book page
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4 READING Comprehen By the end of the lesson, the  Reading the  Stories  Advancing
sion learner should be able to: comprehension  anecdotes in English

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 Read a given  Listening to the Book 1
passage and comprehension students
respond to the  Discussion in book Page
questions given groups 5-7

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appropriately  Writing the  Teachers
comprehension guide page
answers 19
 Gateway
secondary

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AR revision
page 64
 Old
integrated
English,
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teachers
Book page
 New
integrated
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English
students
book page
5 GRAMM Parts of By the end of the lesson, the  Discussion in  A – Journal  Advancing

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W LS TOPIC SUB – OBJECTIVES LEARNING/TEACH LEARNING/TEACH REFERENCES REMAR
K N TOPIC ING ACTIVITIES ING RESOURCES KS
AR speech learner should be able to: groups  Charts in English
 Identify the nine  Asking and Book 1
parts of speech answering students

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 Demonstrate the questions book Page
ability to use the  Note taking 7-9

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various parts of  Explanations  Teachers
speech in guide page
sentences 20-21
 Gateway

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secondary
revision
page 75-
129

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 Old
integrated
English,
teachers
Book page

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AR  New
integrated
English
students
book page
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6 WRITING Handwriting By the end of the lesson, the  Writing letters  Video tapes  Head start
learner should be able to: of the alphabet  Charts secondary
 Demonstrate the in ascending  Text books English
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ability to write order book 1 –

legibly  Discussion in students
 Develop a good groups book page
writing posture 6-7

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W LS TOPIC SUB – OBJECTIVES LEARNING/TEACH LEARNING/TEACH REFERENCES REMAR
K N TOPIC ING ACTIVITIES ING RESOURCES KS
 Demonstrate the  Teachers
correct way of guide page
holding a pen 3

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 Demonstrate the  Advancing
correct way of in English

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shaping letters of Book 1
the alphabet students
book Page
9-11

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 Teachers
guide page
20-21
 Gateway

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secondary
revision
page 75-
129
 Old

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AR integrated
English,
teachers
Book page
 New
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integrated
English
students
book page
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 LESSON PLAN
A lesson plan (LP) is a work plan detailing what is to be covered in a single or double
lesson.
It takes the teacher step by step through the lesson.
It guides the teacher on the time available, the learning activities and the resources
to use in the classroom.
A lesson plan translates the objectives in the schemes of work into specific
instructional (short term) objectives to be achieved within the lesson(s).
As far as possible, the way the topics follow each other in a scheme of work should
be the way they follow each other in subsequent lesson plans.

Faces of a Lesson Plan

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1. Introduction
This is the initial stage of the lesson when learner is introduced to the topic.

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The teacher can start by greeting learners and taking the roll call.
She then starts the actual teaching by arousing interest or motivating the learners
through, for example, set-induction, telling anecdotes or narrating a short story or an
event related to the day’s topic.

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Reviewing what was learnt in the previous lesson can do this. This stage is allocated
very little time, between 5-10 minutes.
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It is important to note that motivation should not be limited to the initial stage only
but should be encouraged throughout the lesson.
2. Development Phase
This is the main body of the lesson plan and it is allocated about two thirds of the
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teaching time.
It shows the progression of the lesson.
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Most of the resources are also used at this stage.

During this phase, the teacher creates opportunities and conditions that enable the
learners to acquire new knowledge or learn new skills. The teacher should progress
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step by step.
Learner should be given tasks to enable them to apply the new knowledge being
acquired.
3. Conclusion
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This is the last phase of the lesson.

The teacher signals the conclusion of the lesson by rounding off the lesson.
This may be done through giving a summary of the lesson.
This can be done by going through the main points, correcting mistakes, asking
questions, giving written tasks and assignments to be done in class or as homework.
This phase is allocated less time than the development stage for example 5-10
minutes.

Functions of Lesson Plans:

 It helps the teacher to think logically through the various stages in relations to
the time available

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  A lesson plan helps the teacher to refer to what you have planned in order to
avoid digressing
 It acts as a record of what a class has done.

A Sample of Lesson Plan:

MASINDE MULIRO UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Faculty of education
LESSON PLAN
Name of Student: Wanjala Tom Reg. No. ED/003/2020

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Name of School: Elimu Sec. School. Zone: Bungoma East
Class Roll Subject Time Date

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1W 44 /40 ENGLISH 10.20-11.00 12/8/2024
AM
TOPIC: Grammar Sub topic: Simple Past Tense - Regular Verbs

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Objectives: By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:
a) Identify different forms of regular verb-ending with –ed and (b) Use the
regular verbs to construct sentences of their own
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Learning Aids: Pupils, Blackboard and chart showing diagram of regular verbs
References: New Integrated English Form 1 pg. 126
LESSON PRESENTATION
STAGE/TIME TEACHER’S ACTIVITIES LEARNER’S ACTIVITIES
I Introduction Learners give examples of
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05 Mins Review the previous sentences in simple

lesson by asking the present tense for example
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learner to construct They are playing.

sentences using simple
present tense they learnt.
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II DEVELOPMENT Learners to listen carefully

20 Mins Explaining to learners how and give examples of
simple past tense is used simple past tense
in a sentence construction correctly e,g
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E.g It shows us the action The cows ran yesterday

which has taken place wildly.
already.
Ask the learners to point The learners to make
out regular verbs and use sentences using the
them to construct regular verbs e.g
sentences e.g danced The players danced
vigorously
II Let learners in groups of 5 Learners to discuss and
10 Mins to write one paragraph write one paragraph using
using regular verbs. regular verbs correctly.
Let the whole class to Discussing their group
discuss about what they work and correcting where

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 have written in their necessary.
groups,
IV Conclusion Listening carefully and
5 Mins Making an overview about answering the teacher’s
regular verbs and ask questions.
questions.
Giving an assignment to Do the assignment of
attempt/write sentences in writing sentences in their
the past tense. past tense.

BB PLAN

ROUGH WORK 1W ENGLISH 12/8/2024 ILLUSTRATIONS

Verbs REGULAR VERBS

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 Regular pattern The boys played football.
Regular verbs Irregular Mark danced yesterday.

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 Are in the past
verbs tense

-en e.g written

wrote

Self Evaluation VA
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Learners participated actively. Assignments marked and revised.

Specific Objectives in Teaching and Learning English

In the construction/development of specific instructional objectives, the teacher
should consider the following:
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1. Time allocated for a lesson: Secondary school lessons are 40 minutes and
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therefore your objectives should be achieved within 40 minutes.

2. Consider SMART Objectives, whereby:

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S – Specific

M – Measurable

A – Achieved
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R – Realistic

T – Time-bound

 In the specific objectives the teacher must come up with specific

classroom instructional objectives depending on the class level and the
topic.

 The objectives should be measurable and therefore the teacher must

come up with the terms that show the level of mastery of content such
as mention, identify, list, name, highlight, explain, state e.t.c

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 Avoid verbs that generalize the mastery of content in learners such as:
know,

understand

 These objectives should be achieved by the end of a 40 minutes lesson.

The teacher should come up with an objective he/she can ensure the
learners achieve within a given time.

 The objectives for a lesson are supposed to be as realistic as possible.

A teacher must come up with objectives that the learners can relate to
the happenings in the society from where the text is situated.

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 A teacher must ensure that each objective crafted must be tied to a

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particular time or within a given lesson.

3. The teacher should also ensure that the objectives are to the levels of
Bloom’s Taxanomy, the six levels are:

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KNOWLEDGE – Ability to identify, define, state and recall fact in language. For
example, types of adverbs,
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COMPREHENSION – Ability to identify, describe and explain phenomena,
events or issues,

APPLICATION – Ability to relate what is read in passages to contemporary

life and use known knowledge to apply to a new situation,
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ANALYSIS – Ability to compare and contrast , perceive casual relationship

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between people, events, and ideas in the text,

SYNTHESIS – Ability to summarize a story and draw conclusions at the end

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of the story as well as showing links between events for example, tracing the
development of the theme of traditions in Ole Kulet’s Blossoms of the
Savannah,
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EVALUATION – Ability to give personal opinions and defend and justify them.

4. Entry Behaviour Analysis – Entry behaviour is learners background

information in terms of knowledge, ability, motivation, interest, religious and
social concerns. The results of the entry behaviour analysis will determine the
choice of texts, methods, activities and resources for your classes.

They will also enable you to make modifications in your original instructional
objectives to suit your specific group of learners.

5. The teaching Strategy. This is the last step in system approach to teaching
English. Each teacher has ascertained the ability of students he/she is

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 handling.

Factors to Consider when Choosing a Teaching Strategy

1. Time and space availability. You have to consider if you have enough
time within which to implement your methods and activities.

2. Available aids and resources. Teaching aids and resources are

important in enhancing learning but if not properly prepared, planned
and implemented, they become extraneous to teaching and learning,
teaching aids and resources. Examples of teaching aids – charts,

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books, teacher’s own notes, newspapers, video tapes, sound clips e.t.c.

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Examples of resources: chalk/lesson plan.

Consider if you have enough textbooks, visuals e.t.c before planning to

include them in your lesson.

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3. The class size. For example when you wish to use methods like reading
aloud and discussions and there are no textbooks in your class this
couldn’t be the appropriate form.
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So look for a method of teaching that bigger class that would capture
the attention and interest of the learners e.g. dramatization, mimicry.
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AR

GARDNER’S THEORYOF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

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What is Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences?

Howard Gardner is an American psychologist who propounded the Theory of
Multiple Intelligence which suggests that there is not one but various types of
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intelligences. It challenges the old belief that there is only one type of intelligence.
He declared that learning occurred through many types of intelligences and that
people had various levels of each.
The theory claims that human beings have different ways in which they process data,
each being independent.
The theory suggests that the learning process should be tailored to an individual’s
strengths. Every person has a different type of ‘intelligence.’
Howard Gardner suggested that there are eight types of intelligences include:
musical- rhythmic, visual – spatial, verbal-linguistic, logical – mathematical, bodily –
kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic. In 2009, he also suggested
two additional types of intelligence, namely, existential and moral.

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He suggested that his theory meant to ‘empower learners’ and not limit them to a
single learning modality.

Eight Types of Intelligences Defined by Gardner

1. Musical – rhythmic intelligence: According to Gardner, a person with higher
musical – rhythmic intelligence can be a good a musician, conductor, composer,
singer etc.
2. Visual-spatial intelligence: Such people can visualize objects better, such as
images, illustrations, maps, charts, videos and the like. Include professions such as
an architect, pilot, surgeon, graphic artist, interior decorator, photographer, interior
designer etc.
3. Verbal-Linguistic intelligence: Include professions such as teachers, writers,

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public speakers, newscasters, lawyer, journalist and actors. They have a high
degree of verbal – linguistic intelligence which enables them to master the use of

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words, both verbally and in written form. Characteristics of people with linguistic
verbal intelligence:
 Remember spoken and written information
 Enjoy reading and writing
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 Debate or give persuasive speeches
 Are able to explain things well
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 Use humour when telling stories
4. Logical-Mathematical intelligence: Include professions ranging from scientists to
mathematicians, statisticians, computer analyst and accountants.
5. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: include farmers, mechanics, carpenters, dancers,
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physical therapist and athletes possess good hand-eye coordination and agility.
6. Interpersonal intelligence: Include professions in coaching, customer service,
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mental health counseling, sales, etc. Potential careers choices: teacher,

psychologist, salesperson, public relations
7. Intrapersonal intelligence: People with intrapersonal intelligence like to better
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understand and evaluate their own emotions, motivations, and relationship with
others. Potential career choices: therapist, psychologist, counselor, entrepreneur,
clergy
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8. Naturalistic: Biologists, gardeners, biologists, farmers, animal trainers and

geologists have an in-depth understanding of nature. These people have real
intelligence that allows them to be in tune with nature.

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences and Education

Gardner believes that people should be taught in school to help them reach their
vocation and vocational goals following their spectrum of intelligence.
Leaders can use Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences to allocate tasks,
encourage their team members to focus on what they are best at and promote their
creativity. Leaders who can rise above their insecurities are true leaders, who can
uplift a team to perform at its best.

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While people possess more than one type of intelligence, according to Gardner, his
emphasis seems to enable people to unlock their true potential.

Educational Implications of Multiple Intelligence Theory

The educational implications of multiple intelligence theory in the classroom are as
follows:
1. Students should not be assessed identically because people may have
different types of intelligences. Individuation posits that because each person
differs from other another there is no logical reason to teach and assess
students identically.
2. Technology can be used in the modern age to assess the different types of
intelligence present in individuals. Technology has now made it possible for

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more people to access a variety of teachings and assessments depending on
their needs.

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3. Topics should not be taught in a monotonous way. It should be taught in
different ways.
4. A wide variety of approaches and activities must be used for learning so that
learners can think in different ways. Presenting a variety of activities and

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approaches to learning helps reach all students and encourages them to be
able to think about the subjects from various perspectives, deepening their
knowledge of that topic (Gardner, 2011b).
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5. Different ways of demonstration must be used for teaching a topic.
6. Different types of intelligence should be taken into account when teaching
students.
7. Teachers should not limit the potential of learners by focusing only on one
type of teaching method.
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Common misconception about the Theory of Multiple Intelligences

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A common misconception about the Theory of Multiple Intelligence is that it is

synonymous with learning styles. Gardner states that learning styles refers to the
way an individual is most comfortable approaching a range of tasks and materials.
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For example, someone with linguistic intelligence may not necessarily learn best
through writing and reading. Classifying students by their learning styles or
intelligences alone may limit their potential for learning.
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Research show that students are more engaged and learn best when they are given
various ways to demonstrate their knowledge and skills, which also helps teachers
more accurately assess student learning.

Advantages of Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

It challenges the old belief that there is only one type of intelligence.
The advantages of Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory are as follows:
 It enables children with different abilities to succeed.
 It enables teachers to understand the varying interests, talents and needs of
students.
 It increases the involvement of parents in the learning process of learners.

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  It enables students to demonstrate their strengths and weaknesses.
 It enables students to solve problems and have a positive attitude towards
learning.

Disadvantages of Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory

 Many psychologists believe that the theory does not have enough empirical
evidence.
 Some critics consider his multiple intelligence theory to be too broad.
 It may not be possible to teach students according to their intelligence type.
 The theory only takes talents and abilities into account.
 It may be impractical to take every student’s intelligence type into account.

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A Critique of Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence Theory
These critics argue that Gardner’s definition of intelligence is too broad and that his

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eight different ‘intelligences’ simply represent talents, personality traits and abilities.
Gardner’s theory also suffers from a lack of supporting empirical research. There is a
lack of evidence to demonstrate that learning according to your ‘intelligence’
produces better educational outcomes.

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It is not new. Critics of multiple intelligence theory maintain that Gardner’s work isn’t
groundbreaking – that which he calls ‘intelligences’ are primary abilities that
educators and cognitive psychologists have always acknowledged.
MU
It isn’t well defined. Some critics wonder if the number of ‘intelligences’ will continue
to increase. These opposing theorists believe that notions such as bodily –
kinesthetic or musical ability represent individual aptitude or talent rather than
intelligence.
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Critics also believe that Multiple Intelligence Theory lacks the rigor and precision of a
real science. Gardner claims that it would be impossible to guarantee a definitive list
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of intelligences.
It is culturally embedded. Multiple Intelligence Theory states that one’s culture plays
an important role in determining the strengths and weaknesses of one’s intelligence.
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Critics counter that intelligence is revealed when an individual must confront an

unfamiliar task in an unfamiliar event.
It defeats national standards. Widespread adoption of Multiple Intelligence pedagogy
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would make it difficult to compare and classify student’s skills and abilities across
classrooms.
It is impractical. Educators faced with overcrowded classrooms and lack of
resources see multiple intelligence theory as utopian.

TOPIC 2

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METHODS OF LANGUAGE TEACHING
1. Grammar – Translation Method
This method assumes that ‘the target language is primarily a system of rules to be
observed in texts and sentences and to be related to first language rules and
meanings.
The first language is maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the
second language.
It approaches language first through detailed knowledge of its grammar rules. This
is followed by an application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences
and texts into and out of the target language, such as from mother-tongue to English
and vice versa.
In this approach, the language learning is seen as a mere memorization of facts so

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as to manipulate the morphology and syntax of the target language.
Its major focus is reading and writing.

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Grammar translation method is characterized by a number of activities:
 It involves explanations of grammar rules using examples.
 There is also emphasis on memorization and accuracy.

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Some of the limitations are lack of real communication and fluency, especially
in speech. This could also lead to confusion as the word order in the two
languages might be different.
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2. The Direct Method
This method was popular between 1940 and 1960’s and was used in writing many
second language (L2) primary textbooks.
The direct method rejects the use of the first language as a point of reference in
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learning the target language.

The emphasis in this method is ‘on phonetics and on a scientifically established
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coherent grammar.
This method possesses certain characteristics, one of them being its emphasis on
teaching directly using the target language.
.M

There is also emphasis on aural and oral skills. This means pronunciation and
spoken forms of language are stressed.
There is use of demonstration and association of ideas using real objects or pictures.
DR

There are a number of limitations in using the direct method.

 Much of the material was not based on realistic spoken language. It was
therefore, often artificial and related to classroom use only.
 It failed to recognize practical realities of many classroom situations. For
example, there was the problem of teachers who did not have the native –
speaker fluency and yet they were expected to teach directly in the target
language.

3. The Audio – Lingual Method

It emphasizes ‘the interpretation of language learning in terms of stimulus and
response, operant conditioning, and reinforcement.

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The method rests on the assumption that language learning is basically habit –
formation.
It lays emphasis on spoken forms of the target language such as oral proficiency.
Mimicry and memorization where learners imitate native speakers and learn
dialogues and responses by heart are common.
Attaining perfect pronunciation is more important than meaning and speech is given
high priority. Lastly, there is no explicit learning or teaching of grammar.

The method has some limitations:

 It produces native – like language behavior but not true competence. Learners
lack pragmatic competence as they lack the ability to know when, where and
how to use the language.

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 When this method is used in the classroom, it can be very boring and

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repetitive.
 It works well with highly motivated adults learners who have an argent reason
to learn the language. They have to be prepared to spend 20 hours a week on
it. Such time is not available in institutions like schools where other subjects
have to be taught.

4. Situational Language Learning

VA
MU
This approach was heavily influenced by behaviorism theory.
This approach is still common in many textbooks, especially in the developing
countries. Indeed, there are teachers who favour this approach and see teaching of
grammar as merely oral practice, memorization of sentence patterns and written
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practice.
It emphasizes teaching new grammatical structures as well as vocabulary in some
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authentic situations.
Situational language teaching approach gives no emphasis to oral practice in an
effort to perfect proper pronunciation.
.M

The method also encourages reading and writing exercises based on the new
vocabulary and grammatical structures.
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5. Communicative Language Teaching/Functional Approach

It was introduced in the 1970’s and more in the 80’s and 90’s.
The aim of the communicative language teaching approach focused on the
communicative proficiency of the learner.
Proponents of communicative language teaching argue that it is important to look at
the communicative aspects of language rather than mere mastery of structures,
when teaching and learning language.
Learners are expected to discover the rules of language underlying a functional
expression (inductive) instead of the teacher teaching the rules (deductive).
The teachers should create opportunities where learners will feel the need to
communicate, which means they should have a purpose in communicating.

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It is also true that learners will stagnate at the level of mechanical responses and
their vocabulary level will remain limited.
Communication language teaching persuades teachers to abandon teacher –
centered, frontally controlled classrooms in favour of learner – centeredness.
Normally there is cooperative learning where individual activities give way to group
and pair work. This encourages interaction where the learners make meaningful use
of language. This approach also sees spontaneous dialogues as a major classroom
activity. Students are also encouraged to contribute in discussions, either verbally or
in the written form.
The teacher acts as a facilitator of the communication process by creating
opportunities for everyone to participate.

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6. The Audio – Visual Method
In the learning situation, the second language learner would be expected ‘to absorb

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in a global fashion the utterances he hears on the tape.
In the context he sees on the screen, in other words, not to analyses.
It is different from the audio – lingual method in that it refuses the concept of ‘pure

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practice without attention to meaning and outside a context.’

7. The Reading Method

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This method had a strongly pragmatic basis. According to this theory of language
teaching, learning a language could be achieved through training in reading
comprehension.
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9. Task - based language Teaching and Learning Method

It uses authentic real world communicative activities that allow learners to interact
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with each other to resolve linguistic problems and achieve defined goals.
In addition, through encouraging conversational interaction, task allows learners to
practice speaking and to hear language.
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Factors to Consider in the Choice of a Language Teaching Method

 Objectives
 Content
DR

 Resources available
 Learners’ abilities and interests, and
 Class size

Factors influencing the Teaching of English/ Problems and issues currently

affecting English language in teaching and learning
1. Teacher as role model. To begin with, the teachers hold the opinion that the
learning and teaching of English is suffering because there is no role model for the
language learner. The practitioners in schools argue that better role models are
found in teachers with a good language background. Also some expressed the view
that their training in phonetics is hampered by lack of language laboratories. These

25
inadequacies probably affect the results in the national exams.
2. Learner’s levels of speech. The majority of the teachers have the view that the
problem should be addressed by improving the curriculum/syllabus at primary level.
The objective of this would be to express the pupils to both the spoken and written
language.
3. Teaching oral literature. Some teachers in secondary schools lack confidence
when teaching oral literature. Their colleagues, the newly trained teachers have
literary skills and have learnt oral literature in school and college. This probably led to
the overloading of teachers. It has enhanced the bias of teachers for literature and
not language.
4. Resources and teaching material. Well established schools with better resources
perform well. Resources such as books, class-texts, a library, audio – visual aids and

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accessories. Established schools are also more aware of the use of new resources
for language learning and teaching. It is noted that the average ratio of students to a

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text in Kenya is rising. The situation is worse for the rural schools
6. Heavy teaching load. When teachers are overloaded they cannot help the weak
students in class. In the ideal situation teacher of English should handle only 2
classes; in the extreme 3.

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7. The status of English. There is no doubt that English today does not enjoy a
privileged status. MoE should not withhold the support needed to make English
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develop in relation to the role it performs.

TOPIC 4
THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING
K

1. The Monitor Model (Input Hypothesis)

It was developed by the University of Southern California’s Steven Krashen. Krashen
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is a specialist in language development and acquisition.

There are five components which form Krashen’s theory as:
a) The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis
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b) The Monitor Hypothesis

c) The Natural Order Hypothesis
d) The Input Hypothesis
e) The Affective Filter Hypothesis
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a) The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis

According to Krashen, adults have two major ways of learning a language by:
acquisition and learning.
By acquisition – The acquired system relates to the unconscious aspect of language
acquisition.
To him, the way a person learns a language is a sub conscious process. He notes
that acquisition takes place in informal situations.
Learning – He views learning as an active conscious process of learning a language.
The emphasis is on error detection, rule learning, retention of knowledge and skill.
He suggests that learning takes place in formal situations e.g. a classroom. For

26
example, studying the rules of syntax is part of the learned system. However,
Krashen privileges the acquired system over the learned system.

b) The Monitor Hypothesis

To monitor is to check, scrutinize, keep an eye on, observe etc.
According to Krashen, language monitoring is a process that is only available in
conscious learning.
A monitor acts as a form of editor which alters utterances produced through
acquisition. When second language learners monitor their speech, they are applying
their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and initiate their
communication.
Some language learners over – monitor and some use very little of their learned

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knowledge and are said to under – monitor.

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Monitor Types/User:
i. The Monitor over – user
Such an individual attempts to monitor all the time, consciously checking output with

because of fear of inaccuracy.

Characteristics of their speech
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the knowledge of the rules of form in mind. He is inhibited in verbal performance
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 Keep on pausing all the time i.e. while reading or speaking
 They have false starts
 Keep hesitating in their speech/never fluent
 Concerned so much about the correctness of what they say
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 Lose track of what their colleague is saying

ii. Monitor under – user:
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This user, almost never applies the monitor. This may have two different causes:
 One cause may be that the performer has simply not learned how to monitor
yet. He lacks the knowledge of grammatical rules to apply as a monitor.
.M

 Secondly, may be personality problems.

This individual focuses on meaning and does not care about the correctness or rules
of the language. Characteristics:
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 Use many words to express an idea to emphasize meaning

 Not hesitant, they are carefree
 Krashen feels that most extroverts are under – users
 Self confident
iii. The Optimal monitor user
This user is second language performer that only monitors when appropriate. He
does not let the monitoring interfere with communication so that a fluent dialogue
can develop. They show adequate concern with the language. They are moderate
and careful in the way they use and correct language.

Classroom Implications of the Monitor Hypothesis:

27
  The teacher should give the learner enough time in order that they may think
about and use the rules of a language effectively.
 Present rules of a language in a systematic way to ease acquisition
 Emphasize the importance of form when teaching a language – how, what is
said.
 The teacher needs to understand the different kinds of students in terms of
using the monitor

Question: What would be the classroom implications of The Monitor Hypothesis to

an English language teacher?

c) The Natural Order Hypothesis

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This hypothesis argues that there is a natural order to the way second language
learner acquires their target language. The order that the learners follow has four

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steps:
 They produce single words
 They string words together based on meaning and not syntax.

letters, full stop e.t.c.

VA
 They begin to identify elements that begin and end sentences e.g. capital

 They begin to identify different elements within sentences and can rearrange
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them to produce questions.
According to this hypothesis, grammatical structures are acquired in predictable
order and not necessarily learnt.
Some items are acquired faster and others later eg. –ing progressive marker while s-
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possessive marker and s- third person singular marker later.

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Classroom Implications of the Natural Order Hypothesis:

 The teacher should be guided by L1 structures to teach L2
 The teacher should encourage communication between and among learners
.M

in a classroom
 The teacher should teach from simple to complex; known to unknown
 Consider learner differences
 Ensure learners understand the structures before they apply them
DR

Question: What would be the classroom implications of the Natural Order

Hypothesis to an English language teacher?

d) The Input Hypothesis

Input hypothesis argues that learner’s progress along the natural order only when
they encounter second language input/structures that is one step beyond where they
are in the natural order (structures that are at our next level) i.e.
i - Current level of competence of a person
l – The new level/next level of competence
Therefore, i + l = Input (comprehensible input) that can be understood.

28
If the new information is accepted, then the learner has received input and forms a
new language hypothesis e.g.
i - Nouns form plural by adding –s
l - not all nouns add –s to form plural – others add –es, ies
and others remain the same e.g.
community (ies), family (ies)
This whole process occurs through the use of comprehensible input.
Classroom implications:
 The teacher should make sure that a previous concept is understood by the
learners before a new language structure/concept is introduced
 The teacher should move in a progressive manner from one item to another
for students to understand better e.g nouns introduction, types, constructing

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sentences using nouns forming plurals the nouns the noun phrase
 The teacher should provide sufficient input to enable learners acquire the new

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language structure/ concepts.

e) The Affective Filter Hypothesis

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This domain deals with feelings, attitude, emotions and the general state of the mind
of the language learner. According to Krashen, a person can’t acquire language if
there is something causing a mental block. This mental block is referred to as
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affective filter i.e. barrier to communication.

High up (-vely motivated)

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AR

Input-----------------Filter----------------------------LAD---------------------Acquisition (Output)
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Down low (+vely motivated)

Language acquisition devise

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The affective filter will facilitate the input absorption to the LAD when one acquires
motivation, attitude, is self confident and the state of the mind is right.
Therefore, motivation, self-confidence and anxiety all affect language acquisition, in
effect raising or lowering the ‘stickiness’ or ‘penetration’ of any comprehensible input
that is received.
Classroom Implications:
 The teacher should provide a stimulating and favorable language learning
conditions for learners to understand and acquire language.
 Avoid threatening situations in a classroom situation
 Avoid blocks or barriers to language in a language learning situation e.g.

29
 environment
 Lead the learner know why it is important to learn a language
 Consider learner differences e.g. fast and slow learners

2. The Cognitive Theory

The theory was propounded by a group of psychologists who drew heavily on the
work of linguist Naom Chomsky.
They talked about competence and performance as related to the idea of langue
and parole meaning language and speech respectively.
Competence – The abstract part of language. The knowledge is stored in the mind.
Performance – realization of the abstract part of the language in the actual
production of utterances.

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Competence and performance are related since what one knows will tend to be

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used in producing/comprehending language. However, how a learner or speaker
performs depends on many things apart from his /her competence.
We can also look at language as consisting of particular rules that can be generated
in a particular language.

VA
In all languages, the rules and structures that are generated are recursive i.e. can be
used over and over again to produce different sentences.
It is the competence a child gradually acquires which allows the child to be creative
MU
user of the language by using it differently in different circumstances.
Classroom Implications:
 Rules should be taught first
 In performance, the teacher should allow for creativity in language (both in
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written and oral form). Learners have different cognitive and competence
levels i.e. practice and creativity in language use
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 The teacher should expose the learner to plenty of reading and listening
material to enhance practice and creativity in language use.
 The teacher should rate his/her learners’ competence level through their
.M

performance
 Give students time to process it before changing the stimuli. Ask only one
question at a time
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 Keep descriptions short to prevent overloading students’ working memories

3. Behaviourist Theory
Behavourists believed that second language learners acquired the appropriate
language behaviours through repetition and reinforcement. For example, they
believed that learners of English as a Second Language (ESL) would learn the plurals
form most effectively by producing it repeatedly in their own speech.
As such, in classrooms, teachers often required learners to repeat linguistic forms in
production drill (e.g. two cats, three dogs, five cows, and so on) without necessarily
paying much attention to meaning.

30
Behaviourists also claimed that errors produced by the second language learner
(such as mistakes in word order) could be attributed to interference from the
learner’s first language.
Many errors produced by L2 learners can be traced to their L1.
Classroom Implications:
The teacher must:
 Appreciate the students after a correct response
 Comment students for good work
 Failure to do homework resulted in punishment
 Students who fought were immediately referred to the principal

4. Innateness Theory

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According to proponents of the innateness theory, the brains of all human children
are biologically set up to recognize the patterns of whatever human language they

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are exposed to by their parents and care takers.
This ability to intuitively figure out the rules of the language is guided by the
biological resources of the brain. Chomsky called these resources the Language
Acquisition Device (LAD).

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Children’s language abilities develop over time. LAD is an integrated part of the
human brain, aspects of which are spread throughout the brain though
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concentrated in the left hemisphere.
Chomsky declared that the human brain is ‘hardwired’ for language acquisition.
Language is a result of the interaction of the LAD and the child’s environment.
All children learn to speak their parent’s language except for those with very severe
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development issues.
Flaws/challenges in the Theory:
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 There is incredible regularity in terms of the patterns of language acquisition

and the order of certain grammatical structures a cross all types of children
and languages.
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 Also, the level of education was irrelevant: Children of parents who have PhDs
in linguistics acquire the basic structures of their native languages no quicker
than children of unschooled parents.
 Differences in culture also seem to play no part in the acquisition process.
DR

 Differences in IQ have little effect on acquisition: Children with IQs as low as

30 fully acquire language.

TOPIC 5
TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS
Teaching Writing Skills
Writing process is a recursive process. That is, while you are revising, you might have
to return to the prewriting step to develop and expand your ideas
The Writing Process involves different stages, namely:
i. Prewriting

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 ii. Drafting
iii. Revising
iv. Proof reading/editing
v. Publishing and presenting

Stage 1: Prewriting ( brainstorming and organize ideas)

This is a stage of experimentation and rehearsal
In prewriting you jot down all your ideas, no matter how trivial they may seem.
Prewriting is the stage in which you not only decide what your topic is, but
 You refine, focus, and explore your topic
 You gather information about your topic
 You make notes about what you want to say about it

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 You think about your audience and your purpose. Your audience is
whoever will read your work.

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Prewriting involves:
 Free writing – writing freely without worrying about grammar, pronunciation,
spelling, logic or anything

others.
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 Brainstorming – is a technique one use to generate ideas. One idea can spark

 Clustering – each time you write something, draw a circle around it and draw
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lines to connect those circles to the main idea in the centre
 Collecting information – you can begin the process of collecting information
with the following activities: asking questions, doing library research,
observing, and interviewing
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Stage 2: Drafting (use ideas to write a rough draft)

When you write a draft, your goal is to organize the facts and details you have
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accumulated into unified paragraphs.

Make sure each paragraph has a main idea and does not bring in unrelated
information.
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The main idea should be stated in a topic sentence, and it must be supported by
details that explain and clarify it. Details can be facts and statistics, examples, or
incidents, or sensory details.
To make your sentences interesting, vary their length
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Stage 3: Revising (make changes to improve writing)

The purposes of revising are to make sure that your writing is clear and well
organized, that it accomplishes your goals, and that it reaches your audience.
The revision stage is the point at which you can:
 Improve paragraphs – you might add specific details to make your writing
more lively
 Use self – evaluation and peer evaluation
 Check content and structure
 Make sure the language is specific and descriptive
 Check unity and coherence

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  Check style and tone
When revising, many writers adopt the A.R.R.R. approach:
 Add: the average novel has between 60,000 and 100,000 words. If not, go
back to your notebook that you kept for additional scenes and any additional
details
 Rearrange: consider the flow, pacing and sequencing of your story
 Remove: You might need to eliminate passages that don’t quite fit.
 Replace: ask a friend to take a look and give you feedback and if something is
not working rewrite it and replace it.
Stage 4: Proof reading/editing (proof read and correct mistakes)
The purposes of proof reading are to make sure that you have spelled all words
correctly and that your sentences are grammatically.

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Proof read your writing and correct mistakes in capitalization, punctuation and
spelling.

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Stage 5: Publishing/ Presenting (write and present final product)
This is the stage at which you share your work with others.
You might read your work aloud in class, submit it to the school newspaper, or give it
to a friend to read.
Examples of Mechanics of writing
 Spelling
VA
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 Capitalization
 Comma (,)
 Full stop (.)
 Parenthesis ( [ ] )
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 Apostrophe ( ’ )
 Dashes/hyphen (-) – It is a short line used to join two or more words into one.
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Types of Writing
Types of writing: expository, persuasive, narrative, descriptive,
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argumentative/discursive, impressionistic, and dramatic writing:

1. Narrative writing
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It is a story or an account of an event.

It needs a beginning, middle and an end.
It will also need a setting, a conflict, a solution, characters and, perhaps dialogue.
An interesting story has originality; and originality does not depend on the frantic
invention of far – fetched episodes and improbable details.
It depends on your ability to be creative, inventive and use imagination to good effect.
The story should be as alive as you are.

2. Descriptive Writing
An effective written description is one that presents a clear picture to the reader.
Descriptive writing is used to help a reader see what you see, hear what you hear and

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feel what you feel.
Good descriptive writing involves these skills:
 Using your senses to observe
 Selecting precise details
 Organizing your ideas

3. Expository writing
The goal of expository writing is to explain or inform.
The following approaches can be used alone, or they can be combined in any
expository piece of writing:
 Definition
 Compare – contrast

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 Process
 Cause – effect

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Defining a term or an idea is one approach to expository writing.
For personal definition, you might use real – life example and vivid details – this will
express your personal feelings about the idea or term.

VA
Organize your definition – you might start with the basic definition and move to a
broader sense of the term or begin with details and examples and conclude with the
basic definition.
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In comparing, you explain how two things are similar while contrasting, two things
are explained how they are different.
Explaining a process – make the order clear, before you write about a process,
gather information through research, observation, or interviews. List the steps of the
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process in chronological order. Use transition words to help make the order of the
steps clear for the reader. Examples of transition words in explaining a process: First,
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then, after, next, later,

While, and finally etc
Using cause – and – effect relationships – show one cause and one effect. It may
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explain a series of effects resulting from a single cause. It can also present multiple
causes and multiple causes and multiple effects.
Use transition words like: so, if, then, since, because, therefore, and as a result to
clarify the relationships.
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4. Persuasive writing
One purpose of persuasive writing is to make readers, listeners, or viewers think or
feel a certain way about an idea or a product. Another purpose is to make people
take action.
Often persuasive writing begins by stating the writer’s goal. Then evidence –
information to support that goal – follows.
Finally, there is usually a reminder of what the writer wants you to do or think.
In most persuasive writing, the writer states an opinion or urges an action and then
offers reasons to convince readers to accept the opinion or support the action.
Reasons are often supported by facts, statistics, and examples.

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One way to build an argument is to list reasons that support your opinion.
Persuading people to change their attitudes or to take action requires evidence.
Evidence comes in two forms: facts and opinions.
Facts are statements that can be proved.
An opinion is a personal belief or feeling. It can’t be proved.

5. Argumentative/Discursive writing
A discursive composition is one in which the writer arrives at a conclusion by
reasoning.
Qualities of discursive/ argumentative writing:
o A genuine interest in the subject under discussion;
o The ability to see both sides of an argument and to present opposing views

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clearly, coolly, and fairly
o The temperament to take account of objections while calmly and rationally

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coming down in favour of a considered opinion; the determination to move
steadily through conflicting arguments and to present a clear conclusion at
the end.

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Discursive writing requires expounding the arguments for and against and making a
reasoned choice between them.
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6. Impressionistic writing
The act of writing is a means of communication in which we are trying to impress
someone.
Examiners want to know how you perceive and respond to the subject that has been,
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set only if it is applicable to something that you have experienced.

You will be required to perceive and respond to a photograph, line – drawing or
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extract from a poem.

The formalities of language have to be observed, the style of approach in
impressionistic writing depends upon individual.
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7. Dramatic writing
It involves the astute awareness of how people speak to one another and the ability
to capture their speech rhythms with the right combination of our own words.
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Teaching and Learning Techniques and Activities in a Writing Lesson

1. Dictation:
It involves reading out words, groups of words or sentences to the class and asking
the learners to write them down.
The teacher may read a passage with difficult words to spell and ask the learners to
write them down as they listen. Such words may include: Surprise, Pronunciation,
Wednesday etc
The teacher can then ask the learners to construct sentences using these words.
This will give them opportunity to practice not just the spelling but also the meaning
of the word.

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 2. Extensive reading
Extensive reading helps learners to remember spelling of words. The teacher can
advise learners to use words that they have read.
This helps the learners to visualize them, that is, try to recall what the words look like
in print.

3. Use of the dictionary

The teacher should encourage learners to always look up a word whose spelling they
are not sure of in a dictionary.
Sometimes a word may have two acceptable spellings. The learner can choose one
of them.

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4. Using jumbled sentences

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Jumbled sentences can be used in Form Two to teach the skill of paragraph building
to achieve objective, ‘The learner should be able to develop paragraphs using
different devices’.

5. Using pictures
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Using of pictures is good method of training the learners on the skills of writing
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sentences.
The following steps would help the teacher use this method:
Step 1: The teacher will identify the topic to focus on, for example, child labour.
Step 2: The teacher then sources for pictures that are related and can be put
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together in a given order to constitute a logical story.

Step 3: The teacher will either paste the pictures on a manila paper or on the board in
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an order that learners can tell the story.

Step 4: Learners will then generate sentences on each picture and combine them to
come up with a paragraph for each picture. They can then join the paragraphs to
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make a complete story.

Teaching Listening Skills

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Process of listening/ stages of listening include:

I. The receiving process, involves hearing and attending.
II. The understanding process, is the process during which the listener
determines the context and meaning of the words that one heard.
III. The evaluating process, is the listening process during which the listener
critically assesses the information they received from the speaker. It allows
the listener to form an opinion of what they heard and, if necessary, to begin
developing a response.
IV. The responding process, is when the listener provides verbal and/or non-
verbal reactions to what she hears. Non-verbal signals include gestures such
as nodding, making eye contact, tapping a pen, fidgeting, scratching or

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 cocking their head, smiling, rolling their eyes, grimacing, or any other body
language.
V. The remembering process, occurs as the listener categorizes and retains the
information she’s gathering from the speaker. The result – memory allows the
person to record information about people, objects and events for later recall.
This happens both during and after the speaker’s delivery. Memory is
essential throughout the listening process. Remembering previous
information is critical to moving forward.

Factors Influencing Listening

1. Environmental Factors
 Physical environment –The teacher should arrange the tables or desks in a

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manner that affords every child the same opportunity to hear and be heard.
Too great a distance between speaker and listener impedes communication.

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The teacher should use a pleasant voice, give clear, concise directions, and be
a good listener himself.
 Social environment: children who have an opportunity to be heard will more

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readily listen when someone else has the floor.
The teacher should set an example for listening as well as provide
opportunities for teaching listening and plan specific activities to promote it.
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2. Physical factors
If he is fatigued, hungry, worried, or ill he will find listening extremely difficult.
The child who is in excellent physical condition is potentially a better listener
than one in poor physical condition.
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3. Psychological factors
Psychological factors involving personality traits, attitudes, and biases may
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also contribute to poor listening.

Among psychological ‘deaf – spots’ are areas of sensitivity when the learner
is caught up in the afternoon – laden words used by the speaker. These cause
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him to react emotionally, and listening comprehension deteriorates.

4. Experiential factors
We listen with our experience. Knowing the interests of all the children is
helpful in planning the listening program. The child who has had varied and
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rich experiences is interested in many facets of living when he comes to

school.
As he enjoys new experiences, he will become not only a better listener, a
better conversationalist, but a more effective student.

Teaching and Learning Techniques and Activities in Listening Lesson

1. Narration/story telling: Narration can be used to teach listening
comprehension The teacher will narrate the story, use pre – recorded
material, radio program or even use a resource person.
2. Reading aloud: it can be used to teach note taking. At this level the
material chosen should have simple language and the content accessible

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 to the learners.
While reading aloud the teacher should pay attention to:
- Correct pronunciation
- Voice projection
- Stress
- Intonation
3. Dramatization
It can be used to teach listening comprehension.
The following is an illustration of how a poem can be used to teach listening
comprehension using the dramatization method.
a. The teacher gives pre-reading tasks such as:
Note the various things that the ‘lazy man’ does in the poem.

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Note the sequence of the lazy man’s activities
Note the other characters mentioned in the poem

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b. The will divide the class into two groups before reading the poem aloud
c. The teacher reads the poem aloud slowly and clearly as the learners listen.
d. The learners provide answers to the tasks outlined in Number 1.

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e. The learners, in groups, dramatize the poem particularly focusing on the
mannerisms of the lazy man.
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Qualities would an English language teacher consider determining a good listening
lesson:
 They pay attention to the teacher who is teaching.
 Students keeping an eye contact.
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 Students showing interest by nodding or smiling at appropriate times

 They make sure that they understand what has been said by repeating it in
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their own words

 Students making sure that they understand what has been said by repeating it
in their own words for example, a good listener might say, ‘so you mean
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that……?’
 They let the other person finish his or her thoughts without interrupting
 They ask questions if anything is not clear when the speaker has finished
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Teaching Speaking Skills

Teaching Pronunciation:
Teaching of English pronunciation should be concentrated on those features of the
English language that are not found in the learner’s native language.
Particular note should therefore be put on:
i. Accentuation (the stress – timed rhythm of utterances, with weak syllables.)
ii. Intonation, and

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 iii. Vowels and consonants
Doff (1988) identifies the following common problems, on which focus should be
placed in planning a pronunciation teaching program:
a. Difficulties in pronouncing sounds which do not exist in the learner’s own
language such as the consonant in ‘the’ /d/ and the vowel /3:/ ‘in bird.’
b. Confusion of similar sounds such as the long /i:/ and short /i/
c. Use of simple vowels instead of diphthongs such as /o:/ instead of /ou/
d. Difficulty in pronouncing consonant clusters as in desks, rhyme and rhythm.
e. Tendency to give all syllables equal stress, and a flat intonation

Teaching and Learning Activities and Techniques in Speech Lesson

1. Minimal Pairs: a minimal pair is a pair of words, which differ in pronunciation

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in only one sound such as:
Cap/cup Lead/read Shoe/sue Pet/bet

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These are best taught in their contexts so as to show learners their usage in
sentences. This also helps to bring out the meaning

2. Auditory Discrimination

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Another method of teaching pronunciation is by asking learners to listen carefully as
the teacher utters a word, either singly or in a sentence, then ask them to identify the
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uttered word. This is called auditory discrimination.
The assumption here is that the teacher is a good model and that his/her
pronunciation is correct.
However, if the teacher is not quite sure of his/her pronunciation, it would be
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advisable to use a taped cassette with the sounds being taught. Such resources may
be obtained from KICD (Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development).
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3. Tongue twisters
Saying tongue twister is enjoyable and frequent practice helps learners to learn the
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right articulation and to get rid of pronunciation errors in a relaxed atmosphere,

without tension when mistakes are made.

4. Dictation
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The teacher may also use dictation to teach pronunciation of words. The passage or
sentences selected for dictation should contain a substantial number of words in
which the teacher is interested.

5. Drama
Drama may be in form of role – play, mime and simulation. It usually involves verbal
communication, an activity that helps learners in the development of the speaking
skills.
The learner is expected to adopt the role of a character and to project, for instance
that character’s way of dressing, physical features and behavior.

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 6. Mime
In mime, the participants perform actions without using words. However this
naturally develops into ‘talk’, especially in cases where other learners are asked to try
to guess what one mimes.

7. Simulation
Simulation presents learners with an opportunity to discuss a specific problem or
related problems within a defined and restrictive setting.
Choose topics that can easily develop into an argument, for example, the topic that
deals with gender issues, school administration and love matters.

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Teaching Reading Skills
The Process of Reading/The process of Teaching Reading

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1. The child must know the language that he is going to learn to read. This
means that the child can speak and understand the language at least to a
certain level of skill before he starts to learn to read, coz the purpose of

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reading is to help him get messages from print that are similar to the
messages he can already understand if they are spoken. But language
learning is a life long process, and normally there are many aspects of human
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language the individual learns solely or mainly through reading. Foreign born
children sometimes learn English mainly through learning.
2. The child must learn to dissect spoken words into component. In order to be
able to use the alphabetic principle by which English words are spelled, he
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must be able to recognize the separate sounds composing a word and the
temporal order in which they are spoken – the consonants and vowels that
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compose the spoken words. For example in hearing the word ‘straight’, the
child must be able to decompose the sounds into the sequences /s,t,r,ey,t/.
3. The child must learn to recognize and discriminate the letters of the alphabet
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in their various forms (capitals, lower case letters, printed, and cursive). (He
should also know the names and alphabetic ordering of the letters). This skill
is required if the child is to make progress in finding correspondences
between letters and sounds.
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4. The child must learn the left – to – right principle by which words are spelled
and put in order in continuous text. This is a very general principle, although
there are certain aspects of letter – sound correspondences that violate the
principle e.g. the reverse order of wh in representing the sound cluster /hw/.
5. The child must learn that there are patterns of highly probable
correspondence between letters and sounds, and he must learn those
patterns of correspondence that will help him recognize words that he already
knows in his spoken language or that will help him determine the
pronunciation of unfamiliar words. There are few if any letters in English
orthography that always have the same sound values; nevertheless, spelling
tend to give good clues to the pronunciation of words. Often a letter will have

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 highly predictable sound values if it is considered in conjunction with
surrounding letters.
6. The child must learn to recognize printed words from whatever cues he can
use – their total configuration, the letters composing them, the sounds
represented by those letters, and/or the meanings suggested by the context.
By ‘recognition’ we mean not only becoming aware that he has seen the word
before, but also knowing the pronunciation of the word. This skill is one of the
most essential in the reading process, because it yields for the reader the
equivalent of a speech signal.
7. The child must learn that printed words are signals for spoken words and that
they have meanings analogous to those of spoken words. While decoding a
printed message into its spoken equivalent, the child must be able to

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apprehend the meaning of the corresponding spoken message. As is the case
of adult reading, the spoken equivalent may be apprehended solely internally,

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although it is usual, in early reading efforts, to expect the child to be able to
read aloud, at first with much hesitation, but later with fluency and expression.
8. The child must learn to reason and think about what he reads within the limits
of this talent and experience.

Types of Reading
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1. Intensive reading
The study of prescribed literary texts is covered under intensive reading
It is recommended that the teaching of reading be integrated with the teaching of
other language skills and grammar.
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In the syllabus, the content for intensive reading involves the study of: novels, plays,
short stories, poems, and oral literature.
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Intensive reading refers to careful reading, which allows one to see all the details in a
text.
The following are key areas that the teacher should focus on in the study of literary
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texts:
a. Reading the text and appreciation of the plot. This involves the following:
 The learners to read the text silently
 The learner reads aloud significant sections of the text
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 The learners to dramatize sections of the text

 The teacher guides the learners to write a summary of the events in the
text
 The teacher uses ‘wh’ questioning to enhance the learning and
understanding of the plot (these questions include what happened,
where, when, who e.t.c)
b. Appreciation of the characters in the text.
c. Awareness of the themes in the text.
d. Awareness of the style used in the text:
e. Appreciation of the relevance of the text to the learner’s experiences. The
teacher should guide the learners to relate the experiences in the text to their

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 own experiences. This include:
 asking learners questions
 Hold group discussions and debates on the relevance of the
experiences in the text.
 Learners can creatively rewrite some scenes from the text to express
the way they would take place in their community.

2. Extensive reading
In extensive reading the learners read a variety of literary and non – literary
materials on as many different subjects as possible.
In the syllabus, extensive reading should be used to familiarize the learner
with different types of writing including creative, expository, argumentative

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and descriptive writing. It is covered through reading of materials such as:
newspapers, novels, journals, plays, periodicals, short stories, magazines,

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anthologies, and newsletters
Extensive reading should also facilitate the study of the contemporary and
pertinent issues in the society. This may be achieved through extensive

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reading of literary and non – literary materials on issues such as: children’s
right, child labour, environment, HIV/AIDS, moral issues, human rights e.t.c.
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3. Scanning
It is a quick reading, focusing on locating specific information
Scanning involves quick eye movements, not necessarily linear in fashion, in
which the eyes wander until the reader finds the piece of information needed.
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Scanning is used when a specific piece of information is required, such as a

name, date, symbol, formula, or phrase, is required. The reader knows what
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the items looks like and so, knows when he has located what he was
searching for.
Role of the teacher: The teacher selects passages that do include specific
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information. The teacher also needs to remind students that as they read
carefully to find the required information, they should pay particular attention
to tittles and key words.
Role of the student: the student forms questions before reading. What
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specific information are they looking for?

4. Skimming
Is a quick reading to get:
- To know the general meaning of a passage
- To know how the passage is organized, that is, the structure of the text
- To get an idea of the intention of the writer
Skimming is more complex task than scanning because it requires the reader to
organize and remember some of the information given by the author, not just to
locate it.

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Skimming is used as part of the SQ3R method of reading, often for speed reading.
This method involves the student in surveying, questioning, reading, reviewing, and
reciting. Skimming is used for the initial survey and for reviewing.

Role of the teacher:

- Before the students start reading, the teacher should guide students to
ask themselves the following questions: what kind of audience was the
text written for? Was it, for example, the general public, technical
readers, or academic students? What was the author’s purpose? Was it,
for example, to persuade, to inform or to instruct?
- What type of the text is it? Is it, for example, a formal letter, an
advertisement, or a set of instructions?

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The teacher should make the following clear to students before assigning a
skimming exercise:

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- The purpose of the exercise
- How deeply the text is to be read
Role of the student:

ii.
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- Students read through the text in the following manner:
i. Read the title if any
Read the introduction or the first paragraph
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iii. Read the first sentence of each of the following paragraphs
iv. Read any headings or sb – headings
v. Look at any pictures or phrases that are in boldface or italics
vi. Read the summary or last paragraph.
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Students must locate facts that are expressed in sentences, not single words.
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To improve skimming, readers should read more and more rapidly, to form
appropriate questions and predictions and then read quickly.
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Activities a teacher can use to enhance learner understanding of a passage at each

of the following stages of teaching reading:
i. Pre – reading
ii. During reading
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iii. After reading

Pre-reading Activities
Discussion: create a discussion about the topic. Teacher prepares for sentences
expressing opinions about the topic, then sticks them in for corners of the classroom.
Students go and stand near the opinion they disagree with the most. The group
explains why they disagree about the topic.
Ask students to work in pairs. Challenge them to talk in English for 1 minute about a
topic. Repeat with a new topic, students change roles.
Find quotation about the topic, students discuss the quotation. What does it mean?
Why/why not?

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Guessing from words, before students look at the text they are going to read, the
teacher writes 5 or 6 words from the text on the board and asks the students to
guess the topic.
Guessing from the pictures or objects which are connected to the story and ask the
students read the text to check.
Pictionary, select some of the key words from the text. Put the class into two or
three groups. In turn a learner from each group (at the same time) comes the
whiteboard. They are told the word and they have to draw the word. They are not
allowed to use letters or numbers in their drawing. The other students try to guess
the word and earn points for their team. This can get very lively indeed.
Guessing from sentences, the teacher dictates three sentences from the passage.
Students write them down and check with a friend. Then the teacher asks how these

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sentences might be connected. What is the text about?
Speed chatting, prepare one or two single questions related to the topic of the

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reading. Ask the class to make two rows facing each other. Then encourage your
learners to ask each other the questions, but warn them that they only have 60
seconds to do so. Once the 60 second s are up, one of the rows rotates so each

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learner has a new partner. Repeat the process several times.
Find a short video relating to the topic of the reading. I would suggest something
around three minutes long. After watching the video yourself, prepare some simple
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discussion questions. Play the video and then ask the students to talk with a partner
about what they saw.
Brainstorming, the teacher gives the title of the reading to the learners and students
have to share all their knowledge about the topic. The goal of this activity is to help
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learners create expectations about what they are about to read and then see if their
expectations were met. For example if you have to teach about ‘Diet and exercise to
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stay healthy’, students can take turn to talk about the topic, as they read they can
confirm their expectations.
False or true, let’s take the example of the title ‘ diet and exercise to stay healthy’, you
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can come to the classroom and read a few statements and ask them if they think
those statements are true or false. Don’t reveal the answers and let them confirm if
they were right or wrong when they are doing the reading.
Introducing the vocabulary in the context of ESL classroom, it will be always
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important to introduce key vocabulary so students don’t get discouraged by

unknown words while they read. Introducing vocabulary doesn’t have to bring boring
task, you can easily create a word with key vocabulary and see if students can tell
you something about those words.
KWL Charts, just have students write everything they know about the topic (K column)
and everything they want to know (W column) and what they learned after the
reading (L column).
Prepare some quotes related to the topic and ask students to comment on them.
They don’t have to do that as a class, they can make groups of 3 to 5 people and
then a member of each group can share the ideas with other groups.

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During Reading Activities, these are activities that help students to focus on aspects
of the text and to understand it better. Examples during/while reading activities:
Identify topic sentences and the main idea of the paragraph. Remember that every
paragraph usually includes a topic sentence that identifies the main idea of the
paragraph.
Distinguishing between general and specific ideas
Identify the connectors to see how they link ideas within the text.
Check whether or not predictions and guesses are confirmed. A reading class might
start with one of these pre-reading activities. Some pre-reading tasks might go
beyond its stage.
Skim a text for specific information. This is the ability to locate the main idea with a
text, using this reading strategies will help students to become proficient readers.

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Answer literal and inferential questions. Literal simply refers to what the text says
and inferential is using the text as a starting point to get a deeper meaning.

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Infer the meaning of new words using the context, all language learners rely on
context to decipher the meaning of a word, a reading strategy used quite a lot when
you do extensive reading.

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Coding text involves teaching students a method of margin marking so they can
place a question mark next to a statement they don’t understand or an exclamation
mark next to something that surprised them.
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Student – to – student conversation, you can ask students to have a conversation
after they have finished a paragraph or a stanza of a poem so they can clear up any
confusions they might have.
Scan a text for specific information; you scan when you look for your favourite show
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listed in the TV guide, when you look your friend’s phone number in your contact list.
This technique is key if you need to find information in a hurry.
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After reading/post reading activities: it helps students understand the text further,
though critically analyzing what they have read and these are carried out after your
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have implemented successfully pre-reading activities and while reading activities.

Examples of after reading /post reading activities:
Creative writing: ask students to choose 10-15 words from the text. You can provide
categories for the words e.g. the most interesting words/the most important words.
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Students then write a text using the words.

Areas of interest: ask students to say which part of the text is the most
important/interesting and which part is not interesting or important.
Creative discussions: prepare 4 to 5 simple questions and ask students to talk about
those questions for 3 minutes and after that ask one member of each pair to go and
talk to another person of the group.
Quiz your classmates: ask your students to prepare 5 questions about what they
read, once they have then ready, you can tell the students to make groups of 4 and
then they can ask those questions to each other.
Find related news: after students have finished reading, they can browse on the
internet for a news related to something they read; for example let them find why

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obesity makes a person very vulnerable for heart disease.
Prepare a survey: students can prepare a survey about the information they just read,
students can prepare questions from the text.
Parts of the speech: ask students to spot the different parts of the speech from the
reading, then they question their classmates asking questions about parts of speech
e.g. how did you use that word in a sentence?
Questions from pictures: teachers show a collage and ask student to look at the
collage carefully and how some of the pictures relate to the reading they did.

Teaching Grammar Skills

What is grammar?

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Grammar is the structure and system of a language consist of syntax and
morphology or Grammar is the set of rules which help us to understand language.

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Types of grammar
Descriptive Grammar: Specialists in descriptive grammar (called linguists) study the

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rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. It
describes ones basic linguistic knowledge. It explains how it is possible for you to
speak and understand, and it tells what you know about the sounds, words, phrases
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and sentences of your language.

Prescriptive Grammar: Prescriptive grammarians lay out rules about what they
believe to be the ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’ use of language. Prescriptivists should be
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more concerned about the thinking of the speakers than about the language they use.
Prescriptivists, for the most part, seem to pay little attention to the history of the
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language and to care less about the fact that all dialects are rule governed and that
what is grammatical in one language may be ungrammatical in another language.
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Comparative Grammar: The analysis and comparison of the grammatical structures

of related languages. The theory of grammar is a theory of human language and
hence establishes the relationship among all languages’’.
And comparative is the name for the grammar used when comparing two things. The
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two basic ways to compare are using as … as or than.

Generative Grammar: a grammar (or set of rules) that indicates the structure and
interpretation of sentences which native speakers of a language accept as belonging
to the language.
The basic areas of study include phonology (the study of the sound patterns of
language), morphology (the study of the structure and meaning of words), syntax
(the study of the structure of sentences), and semantics (the study of linguistic
meaning).
Linguist Naom Chomsky introduced the concept of generative grammar in the 1950s.
Simply put, a generative grammar is a theory of competence: a model of the
psychological system of unconscious knowledge that underlies a speaker’s ability to

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produce and interpret utterances in a language. A good way of trying to understand
Chomsky’s point is to think of a generative grammar as essentially a definition
competence: a set of criteria that linguistic structures must meet to be judged
acceptable.

Mental Grammar: The generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker
to produce language that other speakers can understand. ‘All humans are born with
the capacity for constructing a mental grammar, given linguistic experience; this
capacity for language is called the Language Faculty.
On one way to clarify mental or competence grammar is to ask a friend a question
about a sentence. Your friend probably won’t know why it’s correct, but that friend
will know if it’s correct. So one of the features of mental grammar or competence
grammar is this incredible sense of correctness and the ability to hear something
that ‘sounds odd’ in a language.

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Performance Grammar: A description of the syntax of English as it is actually used

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by speakers in dialogues. ‘Performance grammar thus far centers attention on
language production; it is to my belief that the problem of production must be dealt
with before problems of reception and comprehension can properly be investigated.’’

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Traditional Grammar: The collection of prescriptive rules and concepts about the
structure of language that is commonly taught in schools. ’We say that traditional
grammar is prescriptive because it focuses on the distinction between what some
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people do with language and what they ought to do to with it, according to the pre-
established standards… the chief goal of traditional grammar, therefore, is
perpetuating a historical model of what supposedly constitutes proper language.’
Largely prescriptive, traditional grammar presents rules and regulations as to the
correct way words should be used.
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Transformational Grammar: a theory of grammar that accounts for the

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constructions of a language by linguistic transformations and phrase structure.

Generative Grammarians assert that if preschool children of limited intelligence can
generate thousands of new sentences based on the early sentence structures they
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have learned, there must be an underlying process which can be explained and
taught.
‘in transformational grammar, the term ‘rule’ is used for a precept set down by an
external authority but for a principle that is unconsciously yet regularly followed in
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the production and interpretation of sentences. A rule is a direction for forming a

sentences or a part of a sentence, which has been internalized by the native
speakers.’
Though it is certainly true, as many writers have pointed out, that the sentence –
combining exercises existed before the advent of transformational grammar, it
should be evident that the transformational concept of embedding gave sentence
combining a theoretical foundation upon which to build.

Universal Grammar: The system of categories, operations, and principles shared by

all human languages and considered to be innate. ‘Taken together, the linguistic
principles of Universal Grammar constitute a theory of the organization of the initial
state of the mind/brain of the language learner – that is, a theory of the human
faculty for language.’ The laws that pertain to all human languages, representing the

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universal properties of language, constitute a Universal Grammar.

Structural Grammar: It analyses the living spoken language to ascertain the basic
structure of English sentences, the stress and intonation patterns which signal
meaning, and the words which operates as signals to indicate parts of speech.
That the system of language is constituted of three levels or strata (Halliday, 1974):
Semantic
Lexicogrammatical
Phonological
There must be devices in language for differentiating subject and object, for example,
but for the listener who does not yet know.

Reference Grammar
It tries to be as thorough and comprehensive as possible so that it might serve as a

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reference for those interested in establishing grammatical facts.
Grammar includes everything speakers know about their language – the sound

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system, called phonology; the system of meanings, called semantics; the rules of
word formation, called morphology; and the rules of sentence formation, called
syntax. It also, of course, includes the vocabulary of words – the dictionary or lexicon.

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Teaching and Learning Techniques And Activities in a Grammar Lesson.
Using pictures – They can be sketches drawn by the teacher or they could be wall
charts or cuttings from the newspapers, magazines and brochures. Pictures that can
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be used in this case are:
 A picture of eleven players and a soccer ball.
 A picture of learners seated at their desks and a teacher teaching.
 A picture of many people watching a game.
 A pictures of soldiers in uniform and armed for a battle.
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Step 1: the teacher asks the learners to study the pictures. The pictures should be
clear enough for the learners to identify the objects in the pictures.
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Step 2: the teacher asks the learners to give one word for the objects in each
pictures. For picture one, for example, it is ‘team.’
Step 3: When the learners have supplied all the nouns/names, i.e ‘team’, ‘class’,
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‘spectators’, ‘army’, the teacher can then move on to explain to the learners that army,
class, spectators, and team are Collective Nouns. These are names of a number (or
collection) of persons or things taken together and spoken of whole as one whole.
Stage 4: the teacher can then ask the learners to give examples of other such
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nouns. For example: mob, flock, family, nation, and committee.

The teacher should then ask the learners to write sentences using these
collective nouns.

Substitution tables: using of substitution tables is a good method of practicing

structures in the teaching of grammar. This method can be used to teach noun
phrases. The following steps describe how to use substitution tables:
Step 1: The teacher shows a substitution table on the board.

The strange cow ate a rotten mango

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The naughty boy ate the teacher’s chapati
…… … ……
…… … ……
Step 2: The teacher asks learners to generate sentences using the substitution table.
Step 3: The teacher writes the sentences on the board
a. The strange cow ate a rotten mango.
b. The naughty boy ate the teacher’s chapatti.
c. The naughty boy ate a rotten mango.
d. The strange cow ate the teacher’s banana.
Step 4: The teacher explains what noun phrases are and their functions as illustrated
in the substitution table.
Step 5: The teacher asks the learners to generate other noun phrases that can fit in
the substitution table.

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Completion exercises: Completion exercises require the learners to complete

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sentences. They can either be done orally or be written. They are quite useful in
practicing clause/sentence construction. Below is an example of such an exercise:
Complete the following sentences. The first one is done for you.
a. If the skirt does not fit her, she will try on another one.

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b. If he word hard ………………………………………...
c. If he had woken up early ………………………………

Demonstrations: Demonstrations are useful for introducing the meaning of a

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structure. Demonstration method, in this case, may be used either to introduce
Present Perfect or may be used to reinforce the learner’s understanding of the same.
The teacher may do the following:
Step1: The teacher rubs the chalkboard, and then says: ‘I have rubbed the chalkboard.
Step 2: the teacher peels an orange and then says: ‘I have peeled an orange.’
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Step 3: the teacher asks a learner to close the window and then says:
‘John has closed the window.’
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Step 4: the teacher asks a learner to walk out of the class and then says:
‘Mary has walked out of the class.’
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Hot seating: In hot seating the teacher presents a scenario involving some
characters and then asks a student to assume the role of one character. Other
students then ask him/her interrogative questions to account for his/her behavior.
The teacher writes some of the questions asked during the hot seating on the board
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and uses them as a basis for teaching the structure of interrogative sentences.

Difference between the deductive and inductive methods of teaching formal

grammar:
A deductive method of teaching formal grammar involves the learners being given a
general rule, which is then applied to specific language examples and honed through
practice exercise, while an inductive method of teaching formal grammar involves
the learners detecting, or noticing, patterns and working out a ‘rule’ for themselves
before they practice the language.
A deductive approach (rule driven) starts with the presentation of a rule and is
followed by examples in which the rule is applied while an inductive approach (rule-
discovery) starts with some examples from which a rule is inferred.

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Reasons why Grammar is handled separately from the four main language skills
Grammar cuts across all the four language skills thus necessary for all the language
skills.
It is the backbone of all the four language skills
It stipulates the rules that govern language which should be basic for any language
activities or skills
Through grammar, one is able to communicate, read, write and listen objectively.
It wide and thus requires its time.

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TOPIC 6
MODES OF ASSESSMENT

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Modes of assessment are:
i. Formative assessment
ii. Summative assessment

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Formative assessment: This is assessment that is carried out during a programme
of instruction, its main objective being to provide the learners with feedback on how
they are doing and thus help them to learn more effectively. Examples of formative
assessment include:
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 Diagnostic assessment carried out at the end of a particular learning session
or section within a wider programme in order to establish how much has been
learned e.g. via an oral test, short written test or practical test.
 Course work that is set in order to give the students practice in carrying out a
particular activity and/or provide them with feedback on progress.
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 Discussion between a student and a mentor or tutor regarding work done

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and/or progress made.

Summative assessment: This is assessment that is normally carried out at the end
of a programme of instruction or section thereof in order to establish or measure
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what the learner has received. It generally does count towards a final grade, mark or
award. Examples of summative assessment include:
 Written, practical or oral examinations conducted at the end of a programme
of instruction.
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 Continuous assessment such as intermediate test, assessed course work or

assessment of work placement carried out during a programme of instruction.
 Diagnostic assessment that is carried out in order to predict future
performance or act as a vehicle for selection.

Types of Assessment
Formative assessment is a range of formal and informal assessment procedures
used by teachers during the learning process so they can modify teaching and
learning activities to improve pupil attainment. Formative approaches aim at
improving learning.

Summative assessment come at the end of a learning sequence and is used to

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acknowledge record and report on pupils’ overall achievement at a given point.
Summative assessment captures a record of learning at the end of a period of study.
The information from formative assessment, supplemented by class tests or tasks,
helps to ensure dependable summative assessment

Diagnostic assessment is used to identify individual strengths, areas for

improvement and to inform next steps.

Evaluative assessment is concerned with the overarching performance of

arrangements in a department, school or system.
Types of language tests
Placement tests are administered in order to make decisions about where a student
should be placed within a language instructional program. In most cases, language

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learners with similar language abilities should be grouped together. The instructor
can then work with individuals who are at approximately the same level of

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development on language skills and can help them strengthen those skills.

Diagnostic tests are prepared in order to discover the strengths and weaknesses of

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language learners. This information is useful to language instructors in helping the
trainees make improvement in their language skills.
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Achievement tests provide an opportunity to test the language skills of the learners
when the testing objectives are ‘tied not to the instructional objectives, but to
abilities in a language regardless of any specific instruction in it.

Language aptitude tests seek to provide some indication of an individual’s ability to

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learn a language. Aptitude tests are used as a screening device to exclude some
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individuals from language study or an initial placement test, thus allowing a language
program to group learners scoring high or low on the aptitude test in separate
classes. But caution should be used when administering an aptitude test. Some
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factors such as language learning strategies, attitude, motivation and personality

factors may not be measured in aptitude tests.

Progress test is an achievement like test. It is closely related to a particular set of

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teaching materials or particular course of instruction. Progress tests help examiners

in general and language teachers in particular to assess the degree of success of
their program and teaching and therefore to identify their shortcomings and
weaknesses respectively. Progress tests can also be diagnostic to some degree, in
the sense that they help identify areas of difficulties encountered by learner’s in
general.

Proficiency tests, is devised to measure how much of a language someone has

learned. It is not linked to any particular course of instruction, but measures the
learner’s general level of language mastery.

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Discrete – point - test, is also called discrete-item test, is a language test which
measures knowledge of individual language items, such as a grammar test which
has different sections on tenses, adverbs and prepositions. Discrete – point tests
are based on the theory that language consist of different parts such as speech
sounds, grammar and vocabulary and different skills such as listening, speaking,
reading and writing and these are made up of elements that can be tested separately.

Cloze test, also alternately referred to as cloze procedure, consists of a set of

techniques for measuring, for example, reading comprehension. In a cloze test
words are removed from a reading passage at regular intervals, leaving blanks. For
example, every fifth word may be removed. The reader must then read the passage
and try to guess the missing words.

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Characteristics of a good test

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Reliable: reliability refers to the accuracy of the obtained test score or to how the
obtained scores for individuals are to what would be their ‘true’ score, it could ever
know their true score. Thus reliability is the lack of measurement error, the less

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measurement error the better. The reliability coefficient, similar to a correlation
coefficient, is used as the indicator of the reliability of a test. The reliability
coefficient can range from 0 to 1, and the closer to/the better. Generally, experts
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tend to look for a reliability coefficient in excess of 70.

Valid: validity refers to whether there is an expectation that scores on the test have a
demonstrable relationship to job performance. There are a number of ways of
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evaluating validity including: content, criterion related etc

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Practical: a good test should be practical. A practical test constitutes balancing of a

number of factors including:
- Length – a shorter test is generally preferred.
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- Time- a test that takes less time is generally preferred.

- Low cost
- Easy to administer
- Easy to score
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- Differentiates between candidates, a test is of little value if all the

applicants obtain the same score.
- Adequate test manual – provide a test manual offering a adequate
information and documentation
- Professionalism is produced by test developers processing high levels of
expertise.

Socially sensitive: a consideration of the social implications and effects of the use of
a test is critical. Tests should be designed with an eye toward the minimization of
adverse impact. Also should be universal testing.

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Candidate friendly, tests should be designed to look professional and be easy to
administer. Furthermore, the candidate should see a clear connection between the
examinations and the job.

Factors to consider when setting a test:

- Number of learners
- Syllabus
- The level of abilities
- Time
- Objective of funds
- Availability of personnel
- Class size

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Importance of Testing/Purpose of Language Tests

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For feedback: Language tests and educational tests pinpoint strength and
weaknesses in the learned abilities of the student. We may discover through testing
that a given student has excellent pronunciation and fluency of oral production in the
language of interest, but that he/she has a low level of reading comprehension.

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For diagnosis purpose: This use of tests, frequently termed diagnostic testing, is of
value in that it provides critical information to the student, teacher, and
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administrator that should make the learning process more efficient. Without specific
information thus made available, the teacher might persist in teaching pronunciation
to this student and fail entirely to address a weakness in the area of vocabulary.

Screening and selection: Another important use of test is to assist in the decision of
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who should be allowed to participate in particular program of instruction. In every

instructional program, teaching staff and facilities are limited in number and capacity.
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It becomes a matter of serious concern to find an equitable means of determining

who should be allowed to participate when there are more applicants than spaces
available. Such selection decisions are often made by determining who is most likely
to benefit from instruction, to attain mastery of language or content area, or to
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become the most useful practitioner in the vocational domain represented. In order
for such decisions to be fair, our test must be accurate in the sense that they must
provide information that is both reliable and valid. In the area of language testing, a
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common screening instrument is termed an aptitude test (Carroll, 1965). It is used to

predict the success or failure of students prospective in a language – learning
program.

Placement: In this case tests are used to identify a particular performance level of
the student and to place him or her at an appropriate level of instruction. It follows
that a given test may serve a variety of purposes; thus the placement exam may be
used to assign students to level as well as to screen students with extremely low
English proficiency from participation in regular instruction.

Program evaluation: It is another common use of tests, especially achievement tests,

is to provide information about the effectiveness of programs of instruction. In this
way the focus of evaluation is not the individual student so much as the actual

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program of instruction. Therefore, group mean or average scores are of greater
interest in this case than are isolated scores of individual students. Often one or
more pretests are administered to assess gross levels of student proficiency or
‘entry behavior. ‘The difference between pretest and post test scores for each
student is referred to as gain scores. Frequently, in program evaluation tests or
quizzes are administered at intervals throughout the course of instruction to
measure ‘en route behavior.’ If the results of these tests are used to modify the
program to better suit the needs of the students, this process is termed formative
evaluation. The final exam or post – test is administered as part of evaluation, the
importance of sensitive, reliable, and valid tests is obvious.
PREPARED BY: DR. MARK W. MUVANGO

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