3.

1 Digital Access and Learning

Environments
Examples of how the internet has shaped education include virtual classes, educational
assignments completed online, and learning applications. These developments transformed
schooling and expanded opportunity both in and outside the classroom. At the same time,
access gap inequalities have deepened social, regional, and educational gaps. Even so,
differences in impact have been seen in various parts of the world due to inconsistencies in
the levels of technology region, such as the Internet, during times of contention like the
COVID-19 pandemic1.

In the twenty-first century, education has changed due to the developments of tech across the
world. The Internet is changing how students learn throughout the world. Throughout
developing economies the internet is viewed as a technology, yet the impact varies greatly
based on the use of devices and the digital world. With regards to schooling, the internet has
altered and improved a multitude of practices including educational apps, online assignments,
and virtual classrooms.

The gaps created due to unequal access is likely to worsen inequality. These gaps are
generally further created by a lack of infrastructure that teaches digital literacies that are
required today’s age. Education has now become blended as traditional and online
frameworks come together through technological interaction and direct contact. Online
education enables teachers and learners to exercise as learners irrespective of physical
location anywhere in the globe. Students can attend classes, partake in many activities, group
work, project work, discussions at the comfort of their homes2.

The implementation of virtual classrooms in developing economies has had varied to

unsuccessful outcomes. The urban regions with advanced infrastructure aceptar the use of
these tools, allowing for flexible learning and access to more resources. Unfortunately, the
rural regions with poor internet access and low levels of digital literacy lag behind, worsening
the education divide. For instance, students in urban schools in Nairobi were able to
participate in virtual lessons during the pandemic, whereas a majority of students in northern
Kenya’s rural areas lacked access to any form of online education.

1
Strengths and Weaknesses of Online Learning | University of Illinois

Springfield. www.uis.edu/ion/resources/tutorials/overview/strengths-weaknesses.

2
“The Change Education System Needs.” Times of India Blog, 8 Jan.

2023, timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/thethoughts/the-change-education-system-needs-48986.
The ability to complete assignments and take exams online are yet another example of the
difference internet access has made. Teachers can now set coursework, quizzes, and exams
online, and grading can be done much quicker and more efficiently. This streamlines the
work processes and opens the door to personalized learning pathways where students can be
given tailored tasks based on their performance. In countries like India, the capability of
doing online homework and learning at one’s own pace has been made available through
platforms such as BYJU's and Diksha. Those without a reliable internet connection or
devices, however, do not have access to these resources, thus academically distancing
themselves from their peers further highlighting the underlying inequalities.

Educational applications and e-learning platforms add extra avenues for peeling back layers
of knowledge. Apps like Khan Academy, Coursera, and Duolingo make quality instructional
materials available to anyone who can connect to the web. For developing economies, these
applications have the ability to revolutionize education by expanding access to materials and
tools that were once part of elite institutes. In certain African countries, mobile learning
applications have greatly aided in reaching students in hard-to-reach regions. However, from
the lack of smartphones to the expensive cost of mobile data, accessibility issues continue to
hinder the potential of these resources for the poorest communities.3

In essence, the capabilities of the internet to enrich education are unparalleled, but the
disparity in availability creates yet another layer to systemic inequities. The digital divide
ensures that urban, affluent students are over proportionately benefitting to an unsustainable
degree compared to those residing in rural areas or are from lower-income families.

Significance During Emergencies (For example, COVID-19)

The use of digital tools and access to education made the retainment and level of instruction
drastically clearer during the time of COVID-19. With schools closing their doors globally to
curb the spreading of the virus, there was a mad rush to shift these educational systems to
online platforms. The pandemic indeed served as a “stress test” when evaluating the
infrastructure put in place for education worldwide.

The tragic scenario of students being left helpless during the depths of the pandemic's global
crisis exemplifies the consequences of unforeseen school closures. Not having stable internet
access or a digital device meant that students with a basic educational infrastructure had no
choice other than to rely on traditional offline learning resources. Such students had access to

3
Ghosh, Koushik. “Impact of Diksha App as an Electronic Resource in English Language Teaching

Learning Process in Different Kendriya Vidyalayas’ of India.” Journal of Physics Conference Series,

vol. 2286, no. 1, July 2022, p. 012019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2286/1/012019.

virtual classrooms, educational apps, recorded lectures, and online discussion forums which
meant that education was barely disrupted for them4.

Private schools in South Africa, for example, made certain that their students continued to
receive instruction by switching to online teaching. By leveraging online resources, private
institutions attempted to bridge the learning gap exposed by the pandemic. Unfortunately, for
many students in rural under-resourced public schools, the lack of devices, internet, and
electricity meant that basic online learning was impossible. As such, a large percentage of
learners went offline for months.

UNICEF reports suggest that the 2020 pandemic related school closures rendered at least 463
million students inactive, a concerning trend that disproportionately affected children from
developing countries. In Sub-Saharan Africa and some parts of South Asia, the combination
of socio-economic hurdles and a lack of sustainable digital resources meant that learners were
destined to fall behind at an alarming rate, exacerbating already-existing educational
inequalities.5

The crisis emphasized the merger of gender inequality with access to technology. In most of
the developing economies, girls were less likely to have access to digital devices and internet
services compared to boys. This gap was the outcome of socio cultural norms that
deprioritized girls’ education which made it very difficult for them to learn remotely during
the lockdowns.

Besides, the pandemic also brought to the forefront the degree of digital exclusion that not
only the students but also the teachers faced. Many educators in the developing countries did
not possess the requisite digital skills to teach online classes. There was either a total lack of
higher education programs for teacher training or too many gaps in available remote
education, which hindered the quality of professional development programs aimed at
fostering remote teaching techniques.

4
---. “Perspective Chapter: The Digital Divide in a Global Emergency – How Technology Is Shaping

Academic Performance in Diverse Communities.” IntechOpen eBooks,

2024, https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113923.

5
Hass, Danielle, et al. “EMERGENCY ONLINE LEARNING &Amp; THE DIGITAL DIVIDE: AN

EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF COVID-19 ON MINORITY

STUDENTS.” Marketing Education Review, vol. 33, no. 1, Oct. 2022, pp. 22–

37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10528008.2022.2136498.
Some governments and NGOs tried to tackle those issues with alternative solutions like
educational radio and television programs. For instance, in Bangladesh the government
started the Amar Ghore Amar School program which broadcast educational content through
national television. These initiatives, although helpful, did not effectively replace the
interactivity and depth that online learning is able to offer.6

In addition, the psychological effect of the pandemic on education is a factor that cannot be
overlooked. Extended school closures and the lack of access to remote learning led to an
increase in dropouts, particularly among marginalized populations. The pandemic also
economically strained many countries, forcing children into child labor, especially in India
and Nigeria. This made it harder for children to return to school, even when schools
reopened.

Hence, the pandemic underscored that having digital technology is not a luxury or privilege,
but an essential part of the right to education. A developing economy with inadequate internet
infrastructure is likely to deepen the divides in education access between rich and poor, urban
and rural, and male and female. Without focused government action, digital divides will
persist, leading to further crises like COVID-19 disproportionately impacting already
vulnerable groups.

Chapter 4: Impact on Employment

The digital evolution of economies worldwide has increased the significance of internet
accessibility as it pertains to employment opportunities. The most contemporary forms of
workforce participation, like freelancing and the gig economy, have proliferated due to
technological advancements and the COVID-19 pandemic. Entirely remote positions are now
available in nearly all fields like marketing, content writing, and customer service, many of
which provide flexible hours and competitive pay. This highlights a growing trend in
employing digitized business operations.

This transforms access to employment opportunities from a geographical to a skills-based

challenge. Employed individuals need to possess a range of skills spanning from basic
computer literacy all the way to specialized coding, data analytics, and effective use of
communication tools. In developing countries, access to digital avenues is not available 7.
6
The Digital Divide in Emergency Management. www.qualcomm.com/news/onq/2013/03/digital-

divide-emergency-management.

7
---. “The Impact of Digital Economy on High-quality Economic Development: Research Based on the

Consumption Expansion.” PLoS ONE, vol. 18, no. 12, Dec. 2023, p.

e0292925. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292925.
With modern economies taking shape, not only has Education been transformed but all
aspects related to basic skills formation and retraining have too undergone massive change. In
equal measure, the vocabulary and social significance of work were also altered. When high
school students are asked what they want to be at their age, the vast majority would say that
they dream to become Content Creators or Social Media Influencers specializing in Fashion
or Beauty. A decade earlier, this comparison would show the dream profession as a Doctor,
Scientist or Researcher.

Rural as well as urban populations are affected by the gap of the digital skills alongside the
gap of social mobility. Speaking of social mobility, this gap can be understood as differences
in basic standards of living and access to goods and services relates to the income inequalities
available in society. This gap also varies inside societies, as in the case of relative
deprivation.

One reason why entire populations are being left behind is the lack of awareness of current
trends and how new technology can change identity within a given population. Some neglect
the use of social media platforms as they consider themselves technologically ill-equipped to
navigate the virtual space8.

4.1. Gender Differences in Employment and the Associated Gaps

Across the globe, the gap between the formal and informal economies, as well as between the
digital and traditional economy, is very large. Examining the set of informal work concepts,
one may note that, in contrast with formal employment, they have much more flexible
boundary definitions, allowing to meet many people, entrepreneurs, and classes who lack
proper representation or attention in imaginary strata. I would like to shift ‘informal’ in the
previously mentioned phrase to ‘flexible’.

Both the lack of connectivity and the relevant skills and resources needed to succeed are
absent for individuals in tech-based and hybrid roles. For instance, props to companies in
Lagos and Nairobi for wanting to hire computer-literate folks, but what about the rural
population stuck in a never-ending cycle of no internet and computers? And even among the

8
Li, Qingjun, and Shuliang Zhao. “The Impact of Digital Economy Development on Industrial

Restructuring: Evidence From China.” Sustainability, vol. 15, no. 14, July 2023, p.

10847. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410847.
urban poor, having a PC or smartphone is hit or miss. Add in the lack of digital skills
training? Good luck9.

These gaps result in socio-economic inequalities with the population having poorer education
and income locked out into the poverty cycle. The wealthier, better-educated population in
urban areas zooms into the new digital economy.

4.2 Both Job Search, and Online Platforms

Searching for jobs and applying is nearly completely online. The nowadays well-known
options of LinkedIn, Upwork, national job portals, and others serve as the go-to for
promotions and professional networking. Videophone interviews are increasingly becoming
the norm of the future, and everyone expects to send in an application online, so digital
portfolios are a must.

Employing digital platforms incurs substantial disadvantages for job seekers in developing
economies. This is largely due to the lack of reliable internet access in rural communities and
the absence of devices in low-income urban areas. Smartphones and proper internet data
plans are prerequisites that many individuals are unable to afford, meaning inflicted barriers
severely hinder access to job searching platforms.10

Furthermore, the low social wage labor and poor communities face results in lack of ability to
afford baseline necessities. Lack of skills like navigating online applications, creating digital
CVs, or responding to email job offers becomes another setback, forming a vicious cycle
Marginalized job seekers are unable to escape. Due to increasing advertisement and
management of formal employment opportunities online, competition becomes non-existent
for emerging technologically driven professional environments.

The interplay of the above results in systemic unemployment and underemployment for low-
income and rural jobseekers. The disparity between the digitally connected and unconnected

9
Xiao, Anran, et al. “Bridging the Digital Divide: The Impact of Technological Innovation on Income

Inequality and Human Interactions.” Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, vol. 11, no. 1,

June 2024, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03307-8.

10
The Digital Divide: Bridge the Gap to Find Your Best Candidates | Criteria Corp. 5 Dec.

2023, www.criteriacorp.com/blog/the-digital-divide-bridge-the-gap-to-find-your-best-candidates.
becomes increasingly pronounced, hindering social mobility for already struggling
marginalized groups profoundly.

4.3 Informal Sector vs. Formal Digital Economy

Another aspect of how the digital divide impacts employment opportunities is how it deepens
the chasm gap between employees stuck in the informal sector and those who have
transitioned into the formal digital economy. Informal employment, which is unattractively
characterized by meager wages and no job security or social protections, forms a substantial
chunk of the economy in most developing countries.

Without the internet and basic digital competencies, most manual workers find themselves
stuck in obsolete low-paying jobs such as street vending, menial labor, or domestic work,
which require no advanced skills. Not only do those jobs yield minimal income, but they also
stifle any chance of meaningful advancement.

Formal employment, which includes areas such as online retail, digital marketing, and fintech
industries, is far more lucrative and offers a plethora of new opportunities. Such sectors offer
increased wages, advanced career opportunities, and even healthcare and pension schemes.
Unfortunately, these digitally, tech-forward sectors necessitate prior internet access, device
availability, and the most basic level of digital literacy, which many marginalized
communities lack11.

The lack of internet access Handy needing, and devoid of archaic work responsiveness
hinders an individual strikes ask the work these people, modifying the era to daunting tasks
such free block and animation ultra centrics, geometry, etc. Hence, the separation either of
void qualifications results prohibiting those fulfilling minimum requirements ranges
hindering uniting reality stagnated donning levels collapse prospects.

In essence, facilitates eludes the ability grants difficulty cases confined controls promptly
plunging still masked conditions slowly seemingly appearing imprisonment.

Therefore, the entire structural division limits elevation associated freedom to bounded
confines fluid spaces digitally, locked paradoxically sideways movement fluid parts while
granting a small world sharp to endure grew lower employed society.12

4.4 Gendered Employment Gap

11
“MAX Report Finds Digital Divide Denies 1 in 3 Job Seekers Employment Opportunities.” Maximus

Australia, www.maxsolutions.com.au/about-max/news/max-report-finds-digital-divide-denies-1-in-3-

job-seekers-employ.

12
“The Digital Divide in Job Hunting.” WorkRise Network, www.workrisenetwork.org/working-

knowledge/digital-divide-job-hunting.
The digital divide disproportionately impacts employment opportunities along gender lines.
The lack of access to digital technologies imposes additional burdens on women in the
workforce in developing economies.

Women's lack of access to smartphones, computers, and affordable internet impedes their
participation in the digital job market. In addition, sociocultural norms in many countries
restrict women’s use of new technology. Concerns about propriety or the control of a
woman's mobility often lead families to limit a woman’s access to digital technology.

This constrains women’s economic empowerment which results in lower participation of

women in employment. Evidence indicates that employment levels, income, and economic
independence among women increase with access to digital tools.

A glaring example is the tech divide among women in South Asia. Women in South Asia are
36% less likely to use mobile internet compared to their male counterparts. With lower
mobile internet access, women face barriers to participating in the emerging digital
economies of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Even when women are literate, they

Moreover, even after women access the internet, they encounter additional challenges like
harassment, absence of women-focused technological education programs, and sociocultural
constraints regarding their movement and free time. All these factors work together to ensure
women remain excluded from both the formal and digital worlds of work.

Bridging the gaps in technology and communication services is critical for women’s
employment prospects and overall economic development. Giving women digital access and
skills can bring inclusive development, increased family earnings, and enhanced community
strength13.

Chapter 7: Challenges and Criticisms

Despite progress to equal out the disparities in internet access and bridge the digital divide in
developing economies, there still exists a multitude of challenges. Though barriers termied as
technical do exist, there are deeper social, political, and financial impediments to the
modernization and progress. While new construction and infrastructural projects are being
put into place, accompanied by a growing access to the internet, the problems concerning the

13
Bisello, Martina, and Massimiliano Mascherini. “The Gender Employment Gap: Costs and Policy

Responses.” Intereconomics, 2017, www.intereconomics.eu/contents/year/2017/number/1/article/the-

gender-employment-gap-costs-and-policy-responses.html.
basic principles such as sustainability, and the rise of ‘digital elitism’ still persist. In this
chapter, these issues are analyzed to show the consequences that have resulted due to the
attempts at increasing accessibility through digital inclusion.

7.1 Sustainability of Digital Infrastructure Projects

There has been an increase in the number of digital projects initiated in the developing
economies in a bid to improve connectivity to the Internet. The construction of new undersea
cables, addition of broadband to new areas and programs for rural Wi-Fi hotspots are set to
provide the regions lacking internet access. Despite these advances, the usefulness and
sustainable nature of these initiatives is dubious.

To begin with, the reliance on the new sources of cash from foreign countries to foster
growth and the investment due to the lack of domestic funds poses a dilemma towards the
long term sustainability of the grants offered. The risk that the funds will run out or be shifted
towards other more necessary sectors ispose is very real14.

Second, there is frequently a misalignment between the infrastructure and its usage. Even
after establishing connectivity, the absence of local programs for digital literacy, pertinent
content, and low-cost access points can lead to minimal adoption levels. Infrastructure alone
does not lead to development because of the lack of skill development; this results to “ghost
networks” — access that is touted to exist but practically does not, or is underutilized.

Moreover, less developed areas experience frequent flooding, unpredictable weather outages,
and harsh weather conditions that can cause considerable infrastructural damage and service
disruption. Digital infrastructures with no climate adaptive designs, will risk their long-term
viability.

In order to implement sustainable digital infrastructure projects, they should be integrated

within comprehensive socio-economic blueprints focused on funding maintenance, building
community training, and creating environmental planning toward adaptive resilience
frameworks.15

14
Avtalion, Ziv, et al. “Digital Infrastructure as a New Organizational Digital Climate

Dimension.” Applied Sciences, vol. 14, no. 19, Sept. 2024, p.

8592. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14198592.

15
Abdullahi, Iliyasu, et al. “Role of Digital Strategy in Managing the Planning Complexity of Mega

Construction Projects.” Sustainability, vol. 15, no. 18, Sept. 2023, p.

13809. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813809.
7.2 Affordability of Data and Devices Despite Availability
Even when the internet and other digital services are physically available, affordability
continues to be a major barrier. In many developing economies, smartphones, laptops, mobile
data, and even broadband subscriptions are cost-prohibitive when compared to other average
income expenses.

The reports of the Alliance for Affordable Internet (A4AI) show that in low-income
countries, basic smartphones are beyond the reach of the average citizen. Consumption of
household internet also makes it very difficult to support living expenses. This might include
excessive drain on funds for household internet access, sometimes up to 10-15%, which is
clearly above the recommended affordability mark internationally benchmarked at 2% of
disposable income16.

Affordability assumes a skewed access towards urban and relatively more affluent
populations, while rural poorer communities get excluded. This sort of phenomena is referred
to as “first-level digital divide,” meaning access and subsequently “second-level divide,”
referring to lack of quality access or purpose-based engagement such deeper level divide
ushers.

Additionally, devices with construction that is meant to be low-cost may have been budgeted
and designed in such a manner that they become obsolete, functionally restricted, or lack
durability. Such phenomenon impacts the ability to fully participate with available
educational, employment, or enterprise opportunities. For instance, an example of basic
already low-powered and overly affordably crafted is a smartphone equipped with
insufficient processing power designed to easily support basic communicational functions or
participation in mor17.

7.3 Privacy Concerns and Digital Surveillance in Online

Education/Work Platforms

16
Reddick, Christopher G., et al. “Determinants of Broadband Access and Affordability: An Analysis of

a Community Survey on the Digital Divide.” Cities, vol. 106, Sept. 2020, p.

102904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102904.

17
World Development Report 2021 team. World Development Report 2021: Data for Better Lives |

Connecting the World. wdr2021.worldbank.org/stories/connecting-the-world.

Remote work and online education have given rise to a myriad of new opportunities, bringing
with them concerns regarding privacy in absence of knowledge or control over one’s digital
footprint. Users have become marked for surveillance and exploitation, through the
harvesting of comprehensive personal data, ranging from educational performance metrics to
precise geolocation and even browsing habits.

In developing economies with loose or poorly enforced regulatory structures, individuals are
especially prone to exploitation. Advanced Free educational apps often come at the cost of
extensive data collection which is often unaccompanied by informatioin regarding data usage,
commercial or otherwise. The gig economy further aggregates the issue, with workers
subjected to constant monitoring devoid of any transparent consent mechanism or recourse.

In certain regions, commercially driven surveillance masquerades as educational or

employment facilitation. For example, remote learning platforms repurposed for broader
surveillance purposes during the pandemic are an undermined trust in digital initiatives.

This presents a systemic risk to citizens, as lack of digital literacy paired with insufficient
laws enabling data protection creates electronics systems. Such attitudes erode the trust in
systems designed to augment the quality of life and can hinder an entire population.

7.4 Digital Elitism – Exclusion of Non-Users from

Economic Growth Narratives
Elitism, or the digital gap, where the privileged connected individuals are given preferential
treatment while everyone else continues to be ignored, is an example of a damaging
consequence brought forth by rapid digitalization. Unlike this example, the lack of internet
usage in rural areas due to socioeconomic status and underrepresentation of women on the
online work platform.

The same phenomena can be observed in prospering as well as under developed countries.
Policymakers and entrepreneurs recognition of digital consumption as an achievement is a
success in itself while failure of recognizing the gap such stories leave is termed a downfall.
The rise of online developers and remote workers has added to this issue, where entire parts
of the population are non-existent.

Struggling to pay the bills, face unrecognized hardships like traditional agriculture, where
crops are cultivated and marketed by one individual, Handicrafts, or local markets, defines
the economy. Women, the oldest portion of the population, and people who live in rural areas
have been socially termed invisible and become the most ignored and weakest area devoid of
any recognition.

Under developing countries are bound to face such consequences. Lack of attention towards
helping women and elderlies along the youth is bound to lead entire new regions to being
overlooked, giving rise to create policies that are not only benesficial themselves, but also
extend limited tools at an extensive serving rate for the people. The benchmarks Ellison
focuses on alongside proficient coding, AI, and education on it is also focused toward aiding
basic domestic activities required to ensure a functioning concept of farming for everyone in
the upper rural regions.

Along with this feedback loop, the newcomers who are operating in the digital world to make
a mark for themselves are encouraged further through digital elitism which inherently
motivates the already dominantly self-sufficient world that has everything under their control.