PHY 103: General Physics III

BEHAVIOUR OF MATTER

LECTURE 1
Recommended Texts and Materials

 PHY 103 Lecture notes (Slides)

 Modern Engineering Physics by A. S. Vasudeva;
 Physics
for scientists and engineers 5th edition by
Serway and Beich;
 Essential Principle of Physics by Whelan and
Hodgson;
 Physics part 1 and 2 by Hallidey and Reslick;
 Advanced level physics by Nelckon and Parker.
 Course Contents
 Heat and temperature (temperature scales).
 Gas laws. General gas equation.
 First Law of thermodynamics (heat, work and internal energy,
reversibility).
 Thermodynamic processes (adiabatic, isothermal, isobaric).
 Zeroth law of thermodynamics.
 Kinetic theory of gases.
 Molecular collisions and mean free path.
 Elasticity (Hooke's law, Young's, shear and bulk moduli).
 Course Contents Contd.

 Second law of thermodynamics (heat engines and entropy)

 Thermal conductivity.
 Hydrostatics (Pressure, buoyancy, Archimedes‘ principles).
 Bernoulli's equation and incompressible fluid flow.
 Surface tension (adhesion, cohesion, viscosity, capillarity,
drops and bubbles)
The following terms are keys to studying Heat and
Thermodynamics:
➢ Temperature
➢ Heat
➢ Thermal Contact
➢ Thermal Equilibrium
➢ Zeroth Law
➢ Temperature scales
➢ Thermometers
➢ Thermodynamic processes
 Temperature and “Zeroth Law” (cont’d)
HEAT is the transfer of energy from one object to another
object as a result of a difference in temperature between
them.
Conditions necessary for energy to flow between bodies
(i)The two bodies must be in thermal contact;
(ii) Despite being in thermal contact, they must not be in
thermal equilibrium
Note: Heat always flow from a higher temperature body to a
lower temperature body
 Two objects are said to be in thermal contact with each
other if energy can be exchanged between them.
 Temperature and “Zeroth Law”
(contd)
Zeroth Law of thermodynamics
 This law states that if two objects A and B, which are not in
thermal contact, are separately in thermal equilibrium with a
third object C, then objects A and B are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
 This law allows the development of thermometers. Object C is
our thermometer in this case.
 For example, the length of a mercury column (object C in the
zeroth law as defined above) may be used as a measure to
compare the temperature of the two other objects.
 Temperature and “Zeroth Law” contd.

Thermal equlibrium
 This is a situation in which two objects would not exchange
energy by heat or electromagnetic radiation if they were in
thermal contact.

 Inother words, This occurs when two objects in thermal

contact with each other cease to exchange energy by the
process of heat or by electromagnetic radiation.
 Thermometer and temperature scales
•For Instance, if a metal tray and a plastic bottle are brought out from the same
freezer,
Definitely, the two objects are at the same temperature but will feel different
when touched because they have different thermal conductivities.
• The object with the higher conductivity (the metal tray) will feel colder than
the one with lower conductivities (plastic bottle) if we touch them.

Inference: our senses is a qualitative indicator of temperature but it is

unreliable and could be misleading.

Thermometers: These are devices used to measure the temperature of a

system.
Thermometer and temperature scales

Temperature of an object depends on measuring devices for its

measurements and on the temperature scale adopted.
The Most common temperature scales are:
❖ Thermodynamic (Kelvin)
❖ Celsius
❖ Fahrenheit
Though few scales have been used, there are many types of
devices for measuring temperature.
Thermometer and temperature scales

 All thermometers are based on the principle that some physical

properties change as temperature changes. This properties are
known as the thermometric properties.
 Some of the physical properties that change with temperature
(thermometric properties) are:
➢ The volume/length of a liquid
➢ The length of a solid
➢ The pressure of a gas at constant volume (as in constant-
volume gas thermometer)
➢ The volume of a gas at constant pressure (as in constant-
pressure gas thermometer)
Thermometer and temperature scales
contd.

➢ The electric resistance of a conductor (as in

resistance thermometer)
➢ The colour of an object
➢ The emf of a thermo couple
TEMPARATURE SCALES
❖ Kelvin (Thermodynamic) scale
Characteristics of the Kelvin Scale
• On this scale, Ice point has temp. of 273.15 K
• Triple point of water is defined as 273.16 K
 Triple point of water is the temp. at which saturated water
vapour, pure water (distilled water from which dissolved air
has been driven out) and melting ice are in equilibrium.
 In other words, Triple point of water can be said to be as the
temperature at which liquid water, gaseous water and solid
water coexist in equilibrium
Kelvin Scale contd.
 The difference in the values of triple point and ice point temperatures is
due to:
(1) pressure difference: ice point pressure is 760 mmHg
while triple point pressure is 4.6 mmHg
(2) Removal of dissolved air from distilled water used for
triple point.
• The steam point on this scale is 373.15 K
 The scale is divided into 100 equal degrees between the ice and steam
points (Fundamental interval) .
• 0 K (or its equivalence, -273.150C) is referred to as absolute zero.
ABSOLUTE ZERO TEMPERATURE is the temperature at which the pressure
of a gas is zero. At a lower temperature, the pressure becomes negative.
❖ Celsius Scale
Characteristics of Celsius Scale
• Ice point is defined as 0oC
• Steam point is 100oC at 760mmHg
 The scale is divided into 100 equal degrees between the two
points (Fundamental interval).
 i.e. the number of division on this scale is the same with that
of kelvin scale.
 Relationship between kelvin (TK) scale and Celsius (TC)
scale
 TK = TC +273.15 or TC = TK -273.15 (1)
NOTE: The difference of two temperatures on Celsius scale is
the same as the difference of their corresponding temperature
on kelvin scale. This can be shown as follows:
 Iftwo temperature T1C and T2C on Celsius scale have their
corresponding kelvin scale temperature as T1K and T2K
respectively, then, using eqn (1) above
T1C = T1K - 273.15 (i)
T2C = T2K - 273.15 (ii)
Subtract equation (i) from (ii)
T2C - T1C = T2K - T1K (iii)
 Fahrenheit Scale
Characteristics of fahrenheit Scale
• Ice point is defined as 32oF
• Steam point is 212oF at 760mmHg
• The scale is divided into 180 equal degrees between the two points.
Relationship between fahrenheit (TF) scale and Celsius (TC) scale
9
𝑇𝐹 = 𝑇 + 32 (2)
5 𝐶
 Making 𝑇𝐶 the subject of the relation, we have,
5
𝑇𝐶 = (𝑇𝐹 −32) (3)
9
9
NOTE: The difference of two temperatures on the Fahrenheit scale is
5
times the difference of their corresponding temperature on Celsius scale.
This can be shown as follows:
9
𝑇1𝐹 = 𝑇1𝐶 + 32 (i)
5
9
𝑇2𝐹 = 𝑇2𝐶 + 32 (ii)
5
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we have,
9
𝑇2𝐹 − 𝑇1𝐹 = (𝑇2𝐶 −𝑇1𝐶 ) (4)
5

NOTE: it is also possible to show otherwise between the two

scales.
 STEPS TAKEN TO DEFINE A TEMPERATURE SCALE
i. choose a given body of a given substance

ii. Select the thermometric property of the body

iii. Select two fixed points and measure the values of the thermometric
properties at the two fixed points as 𝑋𝐿 and 𝑋𝑈 respectively;

iv. Measure the thermometric properties at the degree of hotness of

interest as 𝑋𝑚 ;
V. And allot a value to Tm to the degree of hotness as follows

𝑋𝑚 −𝑋𝐿
𝑇𝑚 = 𝑁 + 𝑇𝐿 5
𝑋𝑈 −𝑋𝐿
N= Fundamental Interval
 Example 1
A constant volume gas thermometer records a pressure of 240mmHg at lower
fixed point of pure water and 300mmHg at upper fixed point of the same water.
Calculate the room temperature when the gas pressure is 280mmHg.
Solution
Using equation 5 above,
𝑋𝑚 −𝑋𝐿
 𝑇𝑚 = 𝑁 + 𝑇𝐿
𝑋𝑈 −𝑋𝐿
N = 100
𝑋𝑚 = 280mmHg
𝑋𝑈 = 300mmHg
𝑋𝐿 = 240mmHg
𝑇𝐿 = 0oC
𝑇𝑚 = ?
280−240 40
𝑇𝑚 = 100 + 0 = 100 = 66.70oC
300−240 60
 ASSIGNMENT
 (1) The resistance of the element of a platinum
resistance thermometer is 2.00 Ω at the ice point
and 2.73 Ω at the steam. What temperature on the
platinum resistance scale would correspond to a
resistance of 8.43 Ω?
 (2) If the electrical resistance from a platinum at
0oC is 10.5Ω and 12.8 Ω at 100oC. Calculate the
temperature when the resistance is 11.75Ω.
 Conversion formula between two Temperature scales
Examples of temperature conversion formulae are equations (1) and (2) in the
9
previous slides: TC = TK - 273.15 and 𝑇𝐹 = 𝑇𝐶 + 32.
5
 These can be derived using the following simple method:
Step 1
➢ Draw two equal vertical lines to represent the two scales whose conversion
Formula you wish to establish
➢ Step 2
➢ On one of the lines, label the lower point (TAL) and upper point (TAU) for the
ice and steam points of one scales respectively.
➢ On the second line, label the lower point (TBL) and upper point (TBU) for the ice
and steam points of the second scales respectively as shown in the figure below:
since the scales are of the same length, the reference temperature TA on the scale
A and its corresponding TB on the scale B should be at the same distance from
TAL and TBL so also from TAU and TBU respectively. therefore we can write
𝑇𝐴 −𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑇𝐵 −𝑇𝐵𝐿
= (6)
𝑇𝐴𝑈 −𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑇𝐵𝑈 −𝑇𝐵𝐿
 Examples
Let us consider kelvin and Celsius temperature scale
For Celsius, the ice (lower) point and the steam (upper) point are respectively 00C and
1000C.
On kelvin scale, the two points are 273.15k and 373.15K respectively.
Therefore we can say

𝑇𝐴 −𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑇𝐵 −𝑇𝐵𝐿 𝑇𝐶 −0 𝑇𝐾 −273.15

= correspond to =
𝑇𝐴𝑈 −𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑇𝐵𝑈 −𝑇𝐵𝐿 100−0 373.15−273.15

𝑇𝐶 𝑇𝐾 − 273.15
=
100 100

100𝑇𝐶 = 100(𝑇𝐾 − 273.15)

Therefore,
s𝑇𝐶 = 𝑇𝐾 − 273.15
Which is the formula to convert Celsius temperature to its corresponding kelvin scale temp.
NOTE: Equation 6 with appropriate substitution can also be used for temperature scales
conversion.
ASSIGNMENT:
NOTE: In this derivation we have considered the
reference temperatures 𝑇𝐶 and 𝑇𝐾 with the ice points of
the two scales.
(a) Use the reference temperatures and the steam points
of the two scales to derive the conversion equation.
(b) Derive the conversion formula to convert Celsius
temperature to Fahrenheit scale temperature and vice-
versa.
(i) use the reference and the lower (ice) points
(ii) also, use the reference temperatures and the upper
(steam) points.
 Worked Example on Temperature Scales
Find the difference of two temperatures 400C and 900C in Fahrenheit.
Solution
There are two approaches to this:
Approach 1
 Use conversion formula in equation (2) to determine the Fahrenheit equivalent of each of
the two temperatures and then find their difference
𝑇1𝐹 =(9/5)*40 + 32 = 1040F
𝑇2𝐹 =(9/5)*90 + 32 =1940F
Δ𝑇𝐹 = 194 – 104 = 900F
Approach 2
 Find the difference of the two temperatures in Celsius and then use equation (4) to find
their difference in Fahrenheit
Δ𝑇𝐶 = 90 – 40 = 500C
Δ𝑇𝐹 = (9/5)*Δ𝑇𝐶 = (9/5)*50 = 900F
 As expected, the two approaches gave the same result.
 ASSIGNMENT:
(1) Find the equivalent of the following on a Celsius scale
(a) 305K (b) 215°F.
(2) A pan of water is heated from 70°F to 175°F.
(a) What is the change in its temperature on the Kelvin scale
(b) What is the change in its temperature on the Celsius scale?
use the two approaches as in the previous example.
(3) If the difference between two temperatures given in Celsius is
45°C,find the difference between the two temperatures in
Fahrenheit
(4) If the difference between two temperatures in Fahrenheit is
45°F, find the difference between the two temperatures in Celsius
 Fixed points
 The fixed points are:
(a) Triple point of water (the single combination of temperature and
pressure at which liquid water, gaseous water, and ice (solid water)
coexist in equilibrium). On kelvin scale the temperature is 273.16 K
(0.010C)
(b) Ice point (mixture of water and ice in thermal equilibrium at
atmospheric pressure). On the Celsius temperature scale, the mixture is
defined to have a temperature of 00C and 273.15K on Kelvin scale
(b) Steam point (mixture of water and steam in thermal equilibrium at
atmospheric pressure). On the Celsius temperature scale, the mixture is
defined to have a temperature of 1000C and 373.15 K on Kelvin scale.
If different thermometers are used to measure the temperature of an
object, perfect agreement (yielding exactly the same temperature value)
are only at the fixed points (because they are the points which are used
for their calibrations)
 Thermometer Calibration
Thermometer Calibration is the process of standardizing a temperature monitoring instrument
to ensure that it will measure within a specific temperature range in which it is designed to
operate.
 Thermometer can be calibrated by placing it in thermal contact with any of the natural
systems (i.e. the systems that defined the fixed points).

Problems with Thermometers calibration.

1. Extreme accuracy is not achievable;
2. Limited range of temperatures over which they can be used
 Extreme accuracy is not achievable. E.g. reading given by alcohol thermometer calibrated
at the ice and steam points of water might agree with those given by a mercury
thermometer only at the calibration points (for instance if one gives a reading of 40°C, the
other may give a slightly different value).
 Reason (for difference in the two) is because the two liquids have different thermal
expansion properties.
 The discrepancies between thermometers are especially large when the temperatures to be
measured are far from the calibration points.
 Problems with Thermometers calibration Contd
 Limited range of temperatures over which they can be used.
The limitation is usually associated with the physical properties
of the substance in the thermometer. For example, a mercury
thermometer cannot be used below -39°C which is the freezing
point of mercury.

Types of Thermometers
There are different types of thermometer, Some of them are:
❖ Liquid-in-glass thermometers
❖ Constant-Volume gas thermometer
❖ Electrical thermometers
 Examples are
• Mercury as the liquid (can measure
between -35°C and 350°C).
 Alcohol as the liquid (can measure
between -112°C and 78°C.
 Thermometric property of this
type of thermometer is the length
of the liquid (mercury and alcohol)
that expands in the glass.
The Constant-Volume gas thermometer
It is calibrated using ice
and steam points of
water.
 Theycannot be used to
monitor rapidly
changing temperatures
 Theyare usually bulky
and cumbersome and
required lots of
expertise to operate
The Constant-Volume gas thermometer and
absolute zero temperature
 It is used to calibrate electrical thermometers
 It can measure a wide range of temperature. With the
use of different gases (Hydrogen, Helium and
Nitrogen) it can measure between -270 °C to +1500 °C
Absolute zero Temperature
 At pressures of the order of 760 mmHg (i.e. 1atm), different gases give slightly
different temperature because none of them obeys gas law perfectly.
 As the pressure is reduced, the gases approach close to ideal gas and their
temperature scales agree well together. Therefore, the thermometer’s readings are
independent of the Substance (i.e. the type of gas) used in it and therefore it is
free of the problems mentioned in a previous slide.
 For all the gases the pressure is zero at -273.15°C. This is the basis for absolute
temperature scale.
 -273.15°C is the zero point of this scale and it is often referred to as absolute zero.
 Electrical thermometers
Examples are
1. Resistance thermometers
2. Thermocouples
3. Thermoelectric (consisting of two thermocouples that are
series connected with a potentiometer and a constant-
temperature bath).
Properties of Electrical thermometers
▪ They are more accurate than others with exception of gas
thermometers
▪ They are quicker in action and less cumbersome
 Resistance thermometers
➢ It cannot measure rapidly changing temperature
➢ It can be used to measure temperatures between -200° to
1000°C if the resistance wire is platinum. The resistance wire can
also be nickel and copper
➢ Thermometric property is the resistance of a metal wire.
Thermocouples
There are different types of thermocouple
❖ They can be used to measure temperature between -270°C and
approximately 2000°C
❖ The wire of thermocouples are either platinum or patinum-
rhodium
❖ Thermometric property is electromotive force (emf)
 Thermoelectric
o It can respond to rapidly changing temperature because it
has very small heat capacity.
o Thermometric property is electromotive force.
o Its measuring element is the welded junction of two fine
wires
o It can measure temperature almost at a point.
o Measuring element is very small.
 Solved problems
(1)A constant-volume gas thermometer is calibrated in dry ice
(that is, carbon dioxide in the solid state, which has a
temperature of -80.0°C) and in boiling ethyl alcohol (78.0°C).
The two pressures are 0.900 atm and1.65 atm.
(a) Determine the fundamental interval of the scale
(b) (b) What Celsius value of absolute zero does the calibration
yield?
c) What is the pressure at
(i) the freezing point of water and
(ii) (ii) the boiling point of water?
 Solution
(a) fundamental interval
=78-(-80) =158
𝑃𝑟 −𝑃𝐿 𝑇𝑟 −𝑇𝐿
 (b) =
𝑃𝑈 −𝑃𝐿 𝑇𝑈 −𝑇𝐿
Note: 1atm = 1.01 × 105 𝑃𝑎 (optional)
0.0−9.09×104 𝑇𝑎𝑏 −(−80.0)
=
1.66650×105 −9.09×104 78.0−(−80.0)

−9.09 × 104 (158.0)= 75750 (𝑇𝑎𝑏 + 80.0)

− 14,362,200 = −75,750𝑇𝑎𝑏 + 6,060,000

−75,750𝑇𝑎𝑏 = 14,362,200 + 6,060,000

20,422,200
 𝑇𝑎𝑏 = − = −269.60 𝐶
75750
 b) (i) Pressure at the freezing point, 𝑃0
b) (i)
𝑃0 − 𝑃𝐿 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿
=
𝑃𝑈 − 𝑃𝐿 𝑇𝑈 − 𝑇𝐿

𝑃0 − 90900 0 − (−80.0)
=
166650 − 90900 78.0 − (−80.0)
(𝑃0 − 90900)(78.0 + 80.0) = 75750 × 80
75750 × 80
𝑃0 − 90900 =
78.0 + 80.0
6060000
𝑃0 = + 90900
158.0
= 38,354.430 + 90900
𝑃0 = 129254.430𝑃𝑎 = 1.28𝑎𝑡𝑚
b) (ii) Pressure at the boiling point, 𝑃100 𝑃𝑈 −𝑃𝐿
=
𝑇𝑈 −𝑇𝐿
𝑃100 −𝑃𝐿 𝑇100 −𝑇𝐿

166,650 − 90,900 78.0 − (−80.0)

= =
𝑃100 − 90900 100.0 − (−80.0)

74100 158.0
=
𝑃100 − 90,900 180.0

(𝑃100 −90,900)158.0 = 75,750 × 180.0

13635,000
𝑃100 = + 90,900
158.0
𝑃100 = 86297.468 + 90,900
𝑃100 = 177,197.483𝑃𝑎 = 1.754𝑎𝑡𝑚
 Thermal expansion of solids and liquids
 If the temperature of a liquid increases, its volume will consequently
increase.
 Exception to this is water,
❖ From temperature of less than 00C to 00C, water expands like the other
liquids;
❖ From 00C to 40C, water contracts (contrary to any other material,
❖ Then from 40C upwards, water expands normally like any other
material.
 For solids, as temperature increases, its dimensions increase.
 This phenomenon is known as thermal expansion. It has many
applications.
 For example, thermal joints are included in buildings, railroad tracks, concrete
highways and bridges to compensate for dimensional changes that occur as
temperature changes.
Explanation
Expansion is a consequence of the change in the average
separation between the constituents atoms in an object.

Consider the figure below.

At absolute zero temperature the atoms in a solid oscillate about their
equilibrium position with an average spacing between atoms as 10-10m.
 Thermal expansion of solids and liquids
CONTD.
 As the temperature increases, the amplitude of the
oscillation increases, as a result, the average separation
between atoms increases. Consequently the objects
expands.
 If thermal expansion is sufficiently small relative to the
initial dimensions of the object, then
∆𝐿
 is proportional to T
𝐿𝑖
 where T, L and Li are change in temperature, change in
length associated with T and the original length
respectively.
 Hence,
∆𝐿
 = α∆𝑇 so that, ∆𝐿 = α𝐿𝑖 ∆𝑇
𝐿𝑖
 is the coefficient of linear expansion,
This implies that,
𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑖 = α𝐿𝑖 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )
 Since all the linear dimensions (e.g. length, breadth and height) of an
object change with temperature, it implies the surface area and volume
change as well.
∆𝑉
 Similar to the change in the length, is proportional to T
𝑉𝑖
 i.e.
∆𝑉
 = γ∆𝑇
𝑉𝑖

 So that, ∆V = γ𝑉𝑖 ∆𝑇
 the change in volume is,
 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 = γ𝑉𝑖 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )
 Where γ is the coefficient of volume expansion
 Similarly,surface area of a solid change with increase in
temperature, the change in area is ∆A = β𝐴∆𝑇
 β is the coefficient of area expansion.
 Recall that, For a solid, γ =3 and β =2α(this assumes
that  is the same in all directions..
 To show this, consider the box below at temperature Ti.
To show that γ =3, consider the box below whose volume is Vi
at temperature Ti.

 Ifthe temperature changes to Ti + T, its volume will

also change from Vi + V as a result of the change in
all of its dimensions. Therefore
 Thermal expansion of solids and liquids Contd.
 Initial volume, Vi = Li*Wi* Di
 Final volume (after expansion) =
Vf = (Li+L)(Wi+ W)(Di+ D) …….. (*)
 Ifthe coefficient of linear expansion is the same in the three
directions then
L = LiT, W = WiT, D = DiT
 Substituting these in (*), one obtains,
 Vf = (Li+ LiT)(Wi+ WiT)(Di+ DiT)
Thermal expansion of solids and liquids Contd.
 Vf = LiWiDi(1+T)(1+T)(1+T)
 Vf = LiWiDi(1+ T)3
 Vf = LiWiDi[1+3T+3(T)2+ (T)3]

 V= Vf - Vi = LiWiDi[1+3T+3(T)2+ (T)3] – LiWiDi

 V=LiWiDi[3T+3(T)2+( T)3]

 Divide both sides by Vi yields

V/Vi = 3 T+3( T)2+( T)3 ……. (**)
Thermal expansion of solids and liquids Contd.
 is usually very small, then ( T)2 and ( T)3 will
 Since
be small compared to T. Therefore they can be
neglected.
So that equation (**) therefore becomes
V/Vi = 3 T
V/Vi = γ T
 γ = 3
So, V = γViT
Thermal expansion of solids and
liquids Contd.
 ASSIGNMENT: In a similar manner, it can be shown that for a
rectangular plate, the change in area is A = 2 AiT
Where β = 2
TO BE CONTINUED……….………..

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