Aim: To study Optical Detectors Theory: IntoductionA transducer is a device that converts input energy of one form into

output energy of another. An optical detector is a transducer that converts an optical signal into an electrical signal. It does this by generating an electrical current proportional to the intensity of incident optical radiation. The relationship between the input optical radiation and the output electrical current is given by the detector responsivity. Responsivity is discussed later in this chapter.

1. Pin photodiodes
One of the key requirements for any photo detector is a sufficiently large area in which the light photons can be collected and converted. This is achieved by creating a large depletion region - the region where the light conversion takes place - by adding an intrinsic area into the PN junction to create a PIN junction. One of the key parameters within the design of the PIN photodiode is to enable the light to enter the intrinsic region. The physical design of the photodiode needs to take account of this so that the light collection is optimized. Photodiodes in general and in this case the PIN photodiode will respond differently to different light wavelengths. It is generally the thickness of the top p type region or layer that is one of the key parameters in determining the response sensitivity.

ConstructionA PIN photodiode is a semiconductor positive-negative (p-n) structure with an intrinsic region sandwiched between the other two regions (see Figure 1). It is normally operated by applying a reverse-bias voltage. The magnitude of the reverse-bias voltage depends on the photodiode application, but typically is less than a few volts. When no light is incident on the photodiode, a current is still produced. This current is called the dark current. The dark current is the leakage current that flows when a reverse bias is applied and no light is incident on the photodiode. Dark current is dependent on temperature. While dark current may initially be low, it will increase as the device temperature increases

Operation
A PIN diode operates under what is known as high-level injection. In other words, the intrinsic "i" region is flooded with charge carriers from the "p" and "n" regions. Its function can be likened to filling up a water bucket with a hole on the side. Once the water reaches the hole's level it will begin to pour out. Similarly, the diode will conduct current once the flooded electrons and holes reach an equilibrium point, where the number of electrons is equal to the number of holes in the intrinsic region. When the diode is forward biased, the injected carrier concentration is typically several orders of magnitude higher than the intrinsic level carrier concentration. Due to this high level injection, which in turn is due to the depletion process, the electric field extends deeply (almost the entire length) into the region. This electric field helps in speeding up of the transport of charge carriers from P to N region, which results in faster operation of the diode, making it a suitable device for high frequency operations.

ApplicationsThe PIN photo-diode does not have any gain, and for some applications this may be a disadvantage. Despite this it is still the most widely used form of diode, finding applications in Audio CD players, DVD players as well as computer CD drives. In addition to this they are used in optical communication systems.
PIN photodiode are also used as nuclear radiation detectors. There are several types of nuclear radiation. The radiation may be in the form of high energy charged or uncharged particles, or it may also be electromagnetic radiation. The diode can detect all these forms of radiation. The electromagnetic radiation, of which light is a form, generates the hole-electron pairs as already mentioned. The particles have exactly the same effect. However as only a small amount of energy is

required to generate a hole-electron pair a single high-energy particle may generate several holeelectron pairs.

2. Avalanche photodiodes
The avalanche photodiode possesses a similar structure to that of the PIN or PN photodiode. A structure similar to that of a Schottky photodiode can also be used but this is less common. However the structure is optimized for avalanche operation. The main difference of the avalanche photodiode operates under a slightly different scenario to that of the more standard photodiodes. It operates under a high reverse bias condition to enable avalanche multiplication of the holes and electrons created by the initial hole electron pairs created by the photon / light impact. The avalanche action enables the gain of the diode to be increased many times, providing a much greater level of sensitivity.

ConstructionAn avalanche photodiode (APD) is a photodiode that internally amplifies the photocurrent by an avalanche process. Figure 3 shows an example APD structure. In APDs, a large reverse-bias voltage, typically over 100 volts, is applied across the active region. This voltage causes the electrons initially generated by the incident photons to accelerate as they move through the APD active region. As these electrons collide with other electrons in the semiconductor material, they cause a fraction of them to become part of the photocurrent. This process is known as avalanche multiplication. Avalanche multiplication continues to occur until the electrons move out of the active area of the APD.

Advantages and DisadvantagesThe avalanche photodiode has a number of different characteristics to the normal p-n or p-i-n photodiodes, making them more suitable for use in some applications. In view of this it is worth summarizing their advantages and disadvantages... The main advantages of the avalanche photodiode include:

Greater level of sensitivity

The disadvantages of the avalanche photodiode include:

Much higher operating voltage may be required. Avalanche photodiode produces a much higher level of noise than a p-n photodiode Avalanche process means that the output is not linear

ASSIGNMENT NO 3 OPTICAL DETECTORS ROLL NO 47