eISSN: 2976-1190

Journal of Engineering and Sciences

Vol. 3 Issue 1 May 30, 2024 / DOI: https://doi.org/10.3126/jes2.v3i1.66229
Journal homepage: Journal of Engineering and Sciences (nepjol.info)
Publisher: Research Management Cell, Pashchimanchal Campus, Lamachour, Pokhara

Stability Challenges and Remedial Practices in Himalayan Hydro-

power Tunnels A Review
1
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
2
Pashchimanchal Campus (WRC), Institute of Engineering (IoE), Nepal
(Manuscript Received 31/03/2024; Revised 15/05/2024; Accepted 16/05/2024)
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The instability in tunnels is mainly affected by geological anomalies, rock mass quality, complex geological structures, active
tectonics, and stress anisotropy. This review article presents challenges associated with stability and applied remedial
measures prevailing in hydropower tunnels in the Himalayas. The review covers nine hydropower tunnels located in different
parts of the Himalayas. The review found that rock bursting/spalling frequently occurs when the tunnel passes through a high
overburden with good rock mass quality. On the other hand, plastic deformation (squeezing) occurs when a tunnel passes
through the weak and schistose rock mass. It has been found through the review that the tunnel crew was able to successfully
solve instability challenges. Effective planning, design, and selection of appropriate construction techniques help to complete
tunneling projects in the Himalayas.

Keywords: Geological Anomalies; Himalayas; Stability; Stress Anisotropy; Tunnelling

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Thus, the extent of deformation depends on the rock
1. Introduction mass strength, mechanical properties of rock mass,
and in-situ stress [3-5].
Tunnels are fundamental infrastructure for the devel- Stress-induced instability is fundamentally classified
opment of a mountainous nation. In the recent dec- into rock spalling/rock burst and large plastic defor-
ade, tunnel construction activities have been advanc- mation or tunnel squeezing [5]. According to Cai and
ing with new and appropriate construction tech- Kaiser [6], rock spalling/ rock burst happens if the
niques. However, complex geological conditions deep tunnel passes through the unjointed hard rock
and their effects are still challenging for rock engi- mass. On the other hand, large plastic deformation
neers to ensure the stability of tunnels [1-2]. In the (squeezing) mainly occurs if the tunnel passes
Himalayan region, accumulated stresses are released through weak, soft, sheared, thinly foliated/bedded,
due to active tectonic movement. This process and highly schistose rock mass [3].
causes rock mass to shear leading formation of faults, This manuscript reviews nine Hydropower projects
folds, and weakness zones [3]. Moreover, this activ- located in different parts of the Himalayas in Nepal,
ity leads to an increase in the anisotropic condition India, and Pakistan. These projects were excavated
of rock mass where the geo-mechanical parameters using both drill and blast (DB) method and tunnel
are significantly changed within the short range. boring machine (TBM) methods. The aim is to iden-
Thus, tunneling in the Himalayan region is challeng- tify the major tunnel stability challenges and mitiga-
ing and often encounters tunnel instabilities [3-4]. tion measures applied to control the instability.
The natural condition of the ground is highly influ-
enced by the excavation of underground structures. 2. Selection of Tunnel Excavation Method
After excavation, the periphery of the tunnel contour
is influenced by redistributed in-situ stresses and The underground structures are constructed by dif-
generated tangential stress. These stresses are gov- ferent construction methods. In the Himalayan re-
erned by the shape and size of the underground struc- gion, mostly Road Header (RD), Drill and Blast
tures. If the magnitude of tangential stress (induced (DB), and Tunnel boring machine (TBM) methods
stress) is more than the rock mass strength, it leads have been used. The selection of suitable and appro-
the instability in the periphery of the tunnel contour. priate construction methods is mainly governed by
*Corresponding
geological conditions, in-situ conditions, ground
author. Tel.: +47- 93856097,
E-mail address: [email protected] overburden conditions, rock mechanical properties,
 Katuwal and Panthi Journal of Engineering and Sciences 3(1) 2024

project design considerations, advance rate, and brittle rock mass in a high-stress environment, flaky
flexibility. In addition, ground conditions suitability, or plate-shaped fragments break off near the tunnel
cost of the project, and risk associated with the boundary due to the action of excavation or other dy-
health and safety issues may also influence the suit- namic disturbances, which is called spalling. The
ability of the tunnel excavation method. Many re- spalling shows the tensile fractures, which are paral-
searchers agree that the DB method has higher flex- lel to the tangential stress around the excavation sur-
ibility, great adaptability, lower initial investment, face [11-12].
and quick start-up time. Also, TBM has a high ad- This section demonstrates rock bursting/spalling
vance rate, less amount of overbreak, high capacity challenges in different hydropower projects in the
to reduce the requirement of support, and is signifi- Himalayan region. In addition, the applied remedial
cantly applicable for longer tunnels [7]. mitigation measures are explained.
The topography of the Himalayan region is variable
and steep. Suppose it is difficult to find the appropri- 3.1 Parbati II Hydroelectric Power Project
ate intermediate access point or Adit for under-
ground excavation work. In that case, the use of 3.1.1 Project Background
TBM is more appropriate than the DB method con-
sidering that the rock mass quality is favorable. The Parbati II Hydroelectric Power Project (hereafter re-
underground excavation by mechanized equipment ferred to as PHPP II) is a run-of-river plant with a
reduces the fracturing and disturbances in the hard total head of 862 m and an installed capacity of 800
rock mass and increases the strained energy storage MW. The power plant is located in the Kullu district
capacity, which may lead to rock bursting. Therefore, in the Himanchal province, India. The project area is
the TBM excavated tunnel has a higher possibility of geologically situated in a lesser Himalayan rock for-
ruck burst condition than the DB method [8]. [5].
Moreover, if the tunnel passes through the squeezing The project area is bounded by the Main Central
ground and the TBM method of excavation is used, Thrust (MCT). The 31 km long headrace tunnel was
it may be difficult to achieve the designed tunnel ge- excavated from five different Audits using both the
ometry. Jamming of the TBM, sticking of the cutter Drill and Blast (DB) method with an inverted D-
head, and overloading in the segment lining may in- shaped 7.6m width and the TBM method with a cir-
crease the instability. Therefore, the selection of an cular diameter of 6.8m. The rock sequences in the
excavation method might play an important role to HRT alignment are biotite schist intercalated with a
minimizing the instability induced by the squeezing small band of quartzite schist, carbonaceous phyllite,
ground conditions [9]. Manikaran quartzite (relatively fresh, brittle, and
massive), and schistose granite gneiss as shown in
3. Rock bursting/spalling challenges and reme- Fig. 1. The rock mass is suffered from severe defor-
mation and significantly influenced by folded, foli-
dial measures ated, faulted, jointed, crushed, and sheared zones.
Rock bursting is the dynamically occurring violent Moreover, the HRT crosses the different minor and
failure and ejection of the rock mass due to the sud- major faults and weakness zones, which are situated
den release of accumulated elastic potential energy between different rock formations [5, 13].
under excavation or disturbances [10-11]. In the hard

Figure 1: Longitudinal geological profile of headrace tunnel [5]

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 Katuwal and Panthi Journal of Engineering and Sciences 3(1) 2024

3.1.2 Challenges encountered and remedial was controlled by the installation of steel ring beams
measures with a spacing of 0.4m, rock bolting, and steel net [5,
13].
Panthi [14] applied the Norwegian rule of thumb in
Further, HRT encountered a highly fractured rock
PHPP-II for the identification of instability situa-
mass after chainage of 15.56 km where the TBM
tions. The author found that the headrace tunnel has
tunnel face collapsed. Concrete filling was applied
valley side slopes lying between 300 to 500 up to
to mitigate this collapse, as a result, the TBM pro-
chainage 9 km where rock cover exceeds the rule of
gress was continued up to chainage 15.40 km. After
thumb limit for almost 40% tunnel length. Up to
this chainage, the HRT encountered high overburden
chainage 7.1 km, the HRT exceeded the rule of
(about 900 m) with the high-water bearing zone with
thumb, however, no noticeable rock spalling/burst-
an ingress of water discharge of 120 liter/s contain-
ing occurred. Chainage after 7.1 km overburden ex-
ing silt and sand debris of about 40 %. As a result,
ceeds 750 m and reaches approximately 1500m at
TBM was buried for more than a week and lost about
chainage 9.25km. Minor tunnel deformation (2.5 %)
two and a half years. This situation was controlled
was observed when the HRT crossed the band of car-
by using consolidation grouting with ordinary Port-
bonaceous phyllite at chainage between 7.4 km to
land cement [5, 13].
7.5 km. After 7.5 km chainage, HRT excavated by
the DB method which crosses Manikaran quartzite. 3.2 Neelum-Jhelum Hydropower Project
In this section, HRT faced several rock-bursting
challenges in every blasting round, and rock-burst- 3.2.1 Project Background
ing continuously occurred on the valley side of the
tunnel roof (Figure 2 left). Due to this rock burst The Neelum-Jhelum Hydropower Project (hereafter
event, tunnel progress was reduced to as low as 10 referred to as NJHEP) is a run-of-river plant that
m per month, and crew members were injured [14]. generates 969 MW of power. The project is located
This rock-bursting event was not an easy condition in the Muzaffarabad district of Azad Jammu and
for the contractor, nevertheless, it was mitigated by Kashmir Pakistan. The headrace tunnel of 28.5 km
the high awareness of the project team with the se- was excavated by using both DB and TBM methods.
lection of appropriate rock support methodology. The project is situated in a Sub-Himalayan rock for-
The tunnel progress was effectively enhanced by the mation and passes through adverse folding and fault-
installation of steel fiber shotcrete and rock bolts [5]. ing with highly deformed geology conditions (Fig-
HRT tunnel was also excavated by the TBM method ure 3, left)). The intake area and tailrace tunnel are
from a chainage of 19.46 km (from Adit 2). It was situated at the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) or
observed that tunnel progress was quite good, how- Murree Fault (MF) area. The excavation of the tun-
ever, minor squeezing events were observed from nel crossed the Muzaffarabad fault. The rock se-
chainage 16.02 km up to 15.99 km. After a 15.99 km quences in the HRT alignment are interbedded sand-
chainage, the HRT alignment has encountered mas- stones, siltstones, and mudstones. These were the
sive, brittle, and abrasive Manikaran quartzite. In most challenging geological conditions observed
this section, rock splitting was seen along tunnel during the excavation of the tunnel. Initially, it was
spring line of the tunnel (Figure 2 right). This event planned to construct a single HRT. However, it was

Figure 2: Rock burst event along headrace tunnel: left) damage in DB method excavated tunnel in valley side roof
around chainage 8.6 km and right) damage in the TBM excavated tunnel in the spring line around chainage 15.7 km [5]
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 Katuwal and Panthi Journal of Engineering and Sciences 3(1) 2024

Figure 3: Geological map of NJHEP headrace tunnel (left) and Over-coring measured abnormal stresses(right) [16]

Murree Fault (MF) area. The excavation of the tun- May 2015. It was observed that the ring beam and
nel crossed the Muzaffarabad fault. The rock se- wire mesh were deformed, the large wall and the
quences in the HRT alignment are interbedded sand- crown area fell, many workers were injured and
stones, siltstones, and mudstones. These were the three of them lost their lives. Likewise, the TBM ma-
most challenging geological conditions observed chine was damaged, and excavation work was
during the excavation of the tunnel. Initially, it was stopped for more than half a year. The major cause
planned to construct a single HRT. However, it was of this rock burst was geological anomalies which
finalized with twin tunnels due to high overburden was observed during face mapping and geological
(maximum overburden 1870 m) conditions. The modeling. It was observed that the bedding plane
Drill and Blast (DB) method was used to excavate was perpendicular to tunnel direction, which was re-
the single tunnel length of 8.94 km with a 104 m2 oriented into a transverse direction with abnormal
cross-sectional area. The remaining 19.6 km was ex- stress concentration. Also, a rock burst (fault slip
cavated using TBM where twin tunnels with a cross- event) event occurred in this section due to high hor-
sectional area of 52 m2 were used [15-16]. izontal stress (k value up to 2.9). To release high-
stress concentration and mitigate this event, vertical
3.2.2 Challenges encountered and remedial
and horizontal relief holes were drilled which were
measures
insufficient to mitigate the events. Therefore, a pilot
In the NJHEP project, HRT excavation work has tunnel was excavated by the Drill and Blast method
faced severe rock-bursting events. These events oc- to release high stress, which can be effectively ap-
curred due to unusually high horizontal stresses, ge- plied to avoid this severe rock-bursting event.
ological anomalies, and strange geological settings
[16-17]. Different in-situ stress measurement re- 3.3 Tapovan-Vishnugad Hydroelectric Project
sults were observed by Hydraulic jacking and Hy-
drofracturing testing. Over-coring was also con- 3.3.1 Project Background
ducted at different locations of the twin tunnel to
measure the in-situ stresses. This method exposed Tapovan- Vishnugad hydroelectric project (hereafter
very high horizontal stress, which occurred when referred to as TVHP) is a run-of-river scheme that
TBM excavated tunnel crossed sedimentary sand- generates 520 MW of power. The project is located
stone beds. Also, it was observed that the stress ratio in Uttarakhand India. Geologically project area is
was up to 2.9 (Figure 3, right)). The tunnel encoun- situated in the tectonically active Higher Himalayan
tered highly faulting and folding areas where a fault region. In addition, Main Central Thrust (MCT) is
slip rock burst event was observed [16]. located about 2 km south of the powerhouse area. As
According to Naji et al. [16] for chainage between a result, the rock mass is highly folded, sheared,
9+706 to 9+793 heavy rock burst occurred on 31st stressed, and jointed with medium to high grades of
metamorphism. The project mostly passes through
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 Katuwal and Panthi Journal of Engineering and Sciences 3(1) 2024

Figure 4: Longitudinal section along the headrace tunnel [13, 19]

three to four joint sets with main rock types like may occur during excavation (time-independent) or
gneiss, quartzite, augen gneiss, and mica-schists over a long period after the completion of tunnel ex-
(Figure 4). A headrace tunnel of 12.1 km was exca- cavation (time-dependent) [9]. The stability of the
vated by using both DB and double shield TBM tunnel is principally influenced by the tunnel defor-
methods. The DBM was used to excavate 3.6 km mation limit and support capacity requirement to re-
length and the remaining 8.6 km length was exca- sist the deformation [4]. In this section, squeezing
vated using TBM with a 5.64m finished internal di- challenges in different hydropower tunnels from the
ameter [13, 18-19]. Himalayas are reviewed. Also, applied remedial
measures during and after the excavation of under-
3.3.2 Challenges encountered and remedial
ground tunnels are summarized.
measures 4.1
In December 2009 the TBM machine reached to Marsyangdi Headrace Tunnels
chainage of 3.016 km and met a seriously fractured
and faulted zone where the tunnel had an overburden 4.1.1 Project Background
of 900 m. At this chainage, a tunnel collapsed in
front of the TBM machine. At the fracture zone, a Figure 5 presents a longitudinal section of three
water ingress with a high-water pressure flow con-
sisting of 700-800 liter/sec caused several damages Middle Marsyangdi hydropower projects (hereafter
to the cutter head and the TBM jammed for some referred to as KGA, KH, MM) in the Himalayan re-
days. The major cause of the high ingress of water gions. These tunnels cross weak and schistose rock
was due to occurrence of syncline fold in the fault masses having stress anisotropy [4]. According to
zone. To mitigate this problem, a D-shaped (2m*2m the authors, KGA has a 5.95 km long horseshoe-
drift) bypass tunnel (BPT) of about 180 m long was shaped tunnel and is situated in the lesser Himalayan
excavated to release the TBM cutter head from jam- region with meta-sedimentary rock formations.
ming. The ingress water was drained through BPT Likewise, the KH project has a 7.88 km long in-
and the released TBM was repaired [13, 19]. verted D-shaped headrace tunnel bounded by Main
Central Thrust (MCT). The MM project has a 5.3 km
4. Challenges due to Squeezing and remedial long headrace tunnel and is also situated in the lesser
measures Himalayan with meta-sedimentary rock formations.
Squeezing is a large plastic deformation that is influ- All three projects were excavated with drill and blast
enced by the combination of tunnel excavation tech- methods. The Plastic deformations were analyzed in
niques with rock mechanical properties, induced terms of both instantaneous (time-independent) and
stress, and fault/weakness zones [4]. The squeezing long-term (time-dependent) plastic deformation [4].
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 Katuwal and Panthi Journal of Engineering and Sciences 3(1) 2024

Figure 5: Longitudinal geological profile of headrace tunnel [4]

stress components as compared to the magnitude of

4.1.2 Challenges encountered and remedial
horizontal stress. Afterward, the authors recom-
measures
mended time-independent and time-dependent rela-
In these cases, the rock mass strength was deter- tions to determine tunnel plastic deformation. The
mined by back calculation. The authors found that authors concluded that the tunnel is the most chal-
tunnel contour deformation was significantly influ- lenging work if it crosses through weak and schis-
enced by anisotropic in-situ stress, rock mass de- tose rock mass with high anisotropy stress conditions
formability, and support pressure. The deformation [4].
due to the stress anisotropy was established by sup- During the excavation period, instantaneous tunnel
port pressure, vertical stress, shear modulus of rock deformation was mitigated by the installation of dif-
mass, tunnel strain, and stress ratio. ferent primary rock supports such as steel ribs, fully
After all, the authors observed that plastic defor- grouted rock bolts, and steel fiber-reinforced shot-
mation was significantly influenced by the shear crete. On the other hand, large plastic deformation
modulus of highly anisotropy rock mass. Likewise, was mitigated by concrete lining as a final support
deformation in the roof was less than in the tunnel system in KGA and MM headrace tunnels [4].
walls. This was due to the higher value of vertical

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 Katuwal and Panthi Journal of Engineering and Sciences 3(1) 2024

conditions is very challenging for rock engineers [3]. this situation, firstly bypass passage was excavated
Figure 7 shows the longitudinal geological profile at the right side of the tunnel alignment up to the ma-
along the tunnel. chine cutter head presented in Figure 7 (right), and
BBDM project is one of the most important projects in after that TBM machine was removed. Also, the cut-
Nepal, which was planned to be constructed for irriga- ter head was jammed at the chainage 8.606 km due
tion and electricity generation (48 MW) purposes. The to high-pressure water ingress through porous sand-
headrace tunnel of length 12 km with an internal diame- stone ground. This type of problem was resolved by
ter of 4.2 m crosses Babai Thrust in the southern part and injecting the 1287 kg of polyurethane at the crown
Bhari Thrust in the middle part of the project area. Also, of the headrace tunnel by using a 16 m long probe
HRT alignment passes through the lower Siwalik (LS) hole [23-24].
and middle Siwalik (MS) formations, where the main
rock types are medium to fine-grained sandstone, mud- 4.2 Kishanganga Hydroelectric Project
stone, and conglomerates. The starting portal of 150m
was excavated by drill and blast method. After that, the 4.2.1 Project Background
machine was set up and the tunnel was excavated by
TBM method [23]. Kishanganga hydroelectric (hereafter referred to as
4.1.3 Challenges encountered and remedial KHE) project is a run-of-river hydroelectric scheme
measures located in the Bandipora district of Jammu and
Kashmir state, India. This project generates electri-
Ingress of water is one of the challenges that the cal power of 330 MW. The length of the headrace
TBM tunnel excavation experienced. According to tunnel is 23.65 km with an overburden of up to 1400
Panthi [23], the water ingress occurred on 27 De- m. The drill and blast method were used to excavate
cember 2017 and 6 January 2018 at chainage of about 8.9 km and TBM was used to excavate the re-
1.175 km and 1.337 km, respectively. As a mitiga- maining 14.75 km length [13]. The project is situated
tion measure, the excavation process was slowed on the western part of the Himalayan Mountain
down and continuous pumping and drainage of wa- range and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and
ter and intensified back-filling and plugging were Panjal. Thrust to the south (Figure 8). The rock mass
done [23]. has four to five joint sets along with the foliation
On 15 October 2018, the TBM machine was shifted plane [26]. Also, types of rock along the tunnel are
and deviated by around 131 mm from the original siltstone, andesite, metasandstone, and phyllitic
alignment and became jammed at chainage 8.589 km. quartzite with overburden ranging from 400 m to
In this section, rock mass strength on the right side 1400 m. TBM excavated tunnel portion was com-
of the wall is harder than left-hand side. In addition, menced in April 2011 and completed in June 2014
this chainage is located between the boundary of LS with an average tunnel progress of 400m per month
and MS and the alignment of HRT is parallel to the [13].
strike of the bedding plane. Due to these effects, the
machine was unable to maintain proper alignment in 4.2.2 Challenges encountered and remedial
different geological rock mass conditions and was measures
difficult to control itself. As a result, the machine The HRT crosses fault, fold, and shear zones, which
was jammed with a high thrust of 18,500 KN almost were made the most challenging tunneling work.
for five days, so it was unable to move. To resolve

Figure 7: Geological profile along the head race tunnel of BBDMP [Revised from 23]

15
 Katuwal and Panthi Journal of Engineering and Sciences 3(1) 2024

Figure 8: Geological longitudinal section of the KHE project [26]

After excavation of 1.5 km length, the machine en- requirement are considered key factors for the suc-
countered very difficult ground conditions with rock cessful planning and designing of tunnel projects.
mass class V (RMR less than 20), which caused the Thus, proper planning can reduce anomalies be-
TBM machine to jam. A bypass tunnel was con- tween the predicted and actual rock mass conditions
structed to release the jammed TBM. Furthermore, [3]. Consequently, efficient planning can optimize
HRT crosses several fault zones where squeezing oc- the overall cost and completion time for the under-
curred at areas with high overburden. The stabiliza- ground project.
tion was done by using consolidation grouting and This review has exposed major stability problems
the HRT excavation work was completed as per the (rock bursting and squeezing) encountered in the
schedule [13]. headrace tunnels. In relatively hard rock mass, stress
anisotropy, high rock stress environment, and geo-
5. Discussion logical structures significantly increase the possibil-
ity of rock bursting/spalling. Rock bursting/spalling
In the Himalayas, the stability of tunnel excavation in the tunnel can be mitigated by the installation of
is mainly influenced by complex geology, stress an- rock support consisting of steel fiber shotcrete, rock
isotropy, and active tectonic movement. Proper geo- bolting, and the use of steel ring beams and steel
logical site investigation, alignment selection, pre- mess. Detailed descriptions of three rock-bursting
diction of rock mass quality, and rock support cases are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Summary of different tunnel projects that faced rock-bursting challenges with different excavation methods
and their stabilization solution in the Himalayan region
Project Geological location Excavatio Challenges and their c Remedial measures
Name n Method auses
Lesser Himalayan -DB -Rock burst at tunnel r -High awareness of the proj
(Rock sequences a oof due to hard rock ect team with selecting appr
re biotite schist, c mass at high overburde opriate rock support (steel fi
arbonaceous phyllit n ber shotcrete, rock bolt) met
PHPP-II e, Manikaran quart hodology
zite, and schistose -TBM -Splitting along springi -Installation of steel ribs wit
granite gneiss ng line due to hard ro h spacing 0.4m, rock boltin
ck mass with high ove g, fore poling, and concrete
rburden backfilling the overbreak zo
-Tunnel collapse with ne
a high inflow of water -Concrete filling and applyin
g consolidation grouting wit
h ordinary Portland cement
NJHEP Sub-Himalayan (wi -DB -Several rock bursting - Construction of vertical an
th interbedded san -TBM (due to high horizontal d horizontal relief hole
dstones, siltstones, stress & geological a - Excavation of pilot tunnel

16
 Katuwal and Panthi Journal of Engineering and Sciences 3(1) 2024

and mudstones) nomalies) damages the by Drill and Blast method t

TBM o release high-stress

TVHP Higher Himalayan DB and -Rock wedge failure w -Excavation of D-shaped (2

(Rock types: gneis double sh ith ingress of high-pres m*2m drift) bypass tunnel
ses, quartzite, Aug ield TBM sure water (BPT)
en gneiss, and mic method -Cutter head damaged
a-schists) and blocking the TBM

In the rock formations where weak and highly schis- types of rock supports (steel ribs, fully grouted rock
tose rock mass plastic deformations (squeezing) are bolts, steel fiber reinforce shotcrete, wire mesh sys-
a major challenge regarding tunnel stability in the tem) show quite good solutions. Also, the tunnel sta-
Himalayan region. For stabilization of large plastic bility can be advanced by forepoling with grouting
deformation, construction of bypass tunnel, and re- and installation of a dowel bar. Detailed descriptions
shaping to the tunnel with the installation of different of six squeezing cases are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Summary of different tunnel projects that faced the squeezing challenges with different excavation methods
and their stabilization solution in the Himalayan region
Project N Geological locatio Excavation Me Challenges and the Remedial measures
ame n thod ir causes
Three proj Himalayan regions DB -Tunnel squeezing -Primary rock support system (stee
ects KGA, (weak and schist due to rock mass l ribs, fully grouted rock bolts, an
KHP, an ose rock mass wi deformability, supp d steel fiber reinforced shotcrete)
d MMHP th high-stress anis ort pressure, and h used to control instantaneous defor
otropy conditions) igh degree of in s mation
itu stress anisotrop - Large plastic deformation control
y led by using fully concrete lined
used in KGA and MMHP, wire
mesh system installation in KHP
CHP Lesser Himalayan -DB in a majo -Severe squeezing, -Reshaping of the tunnel section a
zone (Rock types: r portion wall convergence nd installation of the final lining
dolomite intercal -For Poor rock (1m to 2 m) & c was done after stopping the squee
ated with slate, p mass: Conven ollapse of support zing effect.
hyllite, black shal tional & seque due to high overst -Support type R5 (with 30 cm co
e phyllite) ntial method ress and discrepan ncrete lining) and support type R6
cies in ground con (with 40 cm concrete lining) app
ditions lied
-Change the existing shape of the
tunnel into circular (with steel rib
s and shotcrete)
BBDMP Siwalik region (R -TBM -TBM machine de -Excavation of bypass passage at
ock types: sandsto -DB used for viated (around 131 right side tunnel
ne, mudstone, and portal excavati mm) & jammed -Injecting 1287 kg of polyurethane
conglomerates) on due to different ro at the crown of the headrace tun
ck masses in the s nel by using a 16 m long probe
ides of the tunnel hole
face
KHEP Himalayan Mount -DB -Collapsing and sq -Excavation of hand-excavated byp
ain range (Rock t -TBM ueezing the tunnel ass tunnel to remove the TBM m
ypes: meta siltsto -Blocking the cutti achine
ne, andesite, meta ng head & jammi -Squeezing & challenging fault zo
sandstone, and ph ng TBM due to fa ne completely stabilized by using
yllitic quartzite) ult, fold, & sheare the extensively consolidated grouti
d zone ng with high alertness of tunnel c
rew
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 Katuwal and Panthi Journal of Engineering and Sciences 3(1) 2024

6. Conclusions

In this review, different hydropower projects located [8] Naji, A.M., Rehman, H., Emad, M.Z., and Yoo, H. Impact of
in the Himalayan region have been presented. As Shear Zone on Rockburst in the Deep Neelum-Jehlum Hy-
highlighted, the key features like rock mass quality, dropower Tunnel: A Numerical Modeling Approach. Ener-
gies, 11 (2018) 1-16.
in-situ stress of rock, and the presence of groundwa- [9] Fuente, M., Sulem, J., Taherzadeh, R., and Subrin, D. Tunnel-
ter significantly influence the stability of under- ing in Squeezing Ground: Effect of the Excavation Method.
ground openings. Himalayan geology is very com- Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, 53 (2020) 601 23.
plex which makes it difficult to observe rock mass [10] Hu, L., Feng, X.T., Xiao, Y.X., Wang, R., Feng, G.L., Yao,
quality conditions accurately enough during the Z.B., Niu, W.J., and Zhang, W. Effects of Structural Planes
planning and designing phase. As a result, most of on Rockburst Position with Respect to Tunnel Cross-Sec-
tions: A Case Study Involving a Railway Tunnel in China.
the project encounters high discrepancies between Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 79
predicted and actual rock mass conditions. These (2020) 1061 81.
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The authors express their gratitude to the researchers [14] Panthi, K.K. Appropriateness of Open TBM Tunnelling in
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 Katuwal and Panthi Journal of Engineering and Sciences 3(1) 2024

the Himalayan Region. 15th ISRM Congress 2023 & 72nd

Geomechanics Col-loquium, Schubert & Kluckner (eds.) ©
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