8

Biology project
Human brain and nervous
system
Name: Sai S Rithesh
Class:11 J
GRD PUBLIC SCHOOL

Affiliated to CBSE - 1930410

Avinashi Road, Civil Aerodrome Post, Coimbatore – 641 014

CLASS XI- Science

PROJECT REPORT

ON

Human brain and nervous system

Submitted by: Sai S. Rithesh

Registration Number:
HUMAN BRAIN
 The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion,
touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every
process that regulates our body. Together, the brain and spinal cord
that extends from it make up the central nervous system, or CNS.

What is the brain made of?

 Weighing about 3 pounds in the average adult, the brain is about 60%
fat. The remaining 40% is a combination of water, protein,
carbohydrates and salts. The brain itself is a not a muscle. It contains
blood vessels and nerves, including neurons and glial cells.

What is the gray matter and white matter?

 In the brain, gray matter refers to the darker, outer portion, while
white matter describes the lighter, inner section underneath.

 In the spinal cord, this order is reversed: The white matter is on the
outside, and the gray matter sits within.
 Gray matter is primarily composed of neuron somas (the round
central cell bodies), and white matter is mostly made of axons (the
long stems that connects neurons together) wrapped in myelin (a
protective coating).

Each region serves a different role. Gray matter is primarily responsible

for processing and interpreting information, while white matter transmits
that information to other parts of the nervous system.

How does the brain work?

 The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals
throughout the body.

 Different signals control different processes, and your brain interprets

each. Some make you feel tired, for example, while others make you
feel pain.

 Some messages are kept within the brain, while others are relayed
through the spine and across the body’s vast network of nerves to
distant extremities. To do this, the central nervous system relies on
billions of neurons (nerve cells).

Main Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

 At a high level, the brain can be divided into the cerebrum, brainstem
and cerebellum.

Cerebrum

 The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises gray matter (the cerebral

cortex) and white matter at its center.
 The largest part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and coordinates
movement and regulates temperature.

 Other areas of the cerebrum enable speech, judgment, thinking and

reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other functions
relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.

Cerebral Cortex

 Cortex is Latin for “bark,” and describes the outer gray matter
covering of the cerebrum.

 The cortex has a large surface area due to its folds, and comprises
about half of the brain’s weight.

 The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. It is

covered with ridges (gyri) and folds (sulci). The two halves join at a
large, deep sulcus (the interhemispheric fissure,

 The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left
half controls the right side of the body.

 The two halves communicate with one another through a large, C-

shaped structure of white matter and nerve pathways called the corpus
callosum. The corpus callosum is in the center of the cerebrum.

Brainstem

 The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum with the

spinal cord. The brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons and the
medulla.

 Midbrain. The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is a very complex

structure with a range of different neuron clusters (nuclei and
colliculi), neural pathways and other structures.

 These features facilitate various functions, from hearing and

movement to calculating responses and environmental
changes.

 The midbrain also contains the substantia nigra, an area

affected by Parkinson’s disease that is rich in dopamine
 neurons and part of the basal ganglia, which enables
movement and coordination.

 Pons. The pons is the origin for four of the 12 cranial nerves, which
enable a range of activities such as tear production, chewing,
blinking, focusing vision, balance, hearing and facial expression.

Named for the Latin word for “bridge,” the pons is the
connection between the midbrain and the medulla.

 Medulla. At the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the

brain meets the spinal cord.

 The medulla is essential to survival. Functions of the medulla

regulate many bodily activities, including heart rhythm,
breathing, blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
 The medulla produces reflexive activities such as sneezing,
vomiting, coughing and swallowing.

 The spinal cord extends from the bottom of the medulla and through
a large opening in the bottom of the skull. Supported by the vertebrae,
the spinal cord carries messages to and from the brain and the rest of
the body.

Cerebellum

 The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a fist-sized portion of the brain

located at the back of the head, below the temporal and occipital lobes
and above the brainstem. Like the cerebral cortex, it has two
hemispheres.

 The outer portion contains neurons, and the inner area communicates
with the cerebral cortex. Its function is to coordinate voluntary muscle
movements and to maintain posture, balance and equilibrium.

 New studies are exploring the cerebellum’s roles in thought, emotions

and social behavior, as well as its possible involvement in addiction,
autism and schizophrenia.

Brain Coverings: Meninges

Three layers of protective covering called meninges surround the brain
and the spinal cord.

 The outermost layer, the dura mater, is thick and tough. It

includes two layers: The periosteal layer of the dura mater lines the
inner dome of the skull (cranium) and the meningeal layer is below
that. Spaces between the layers allow for the passage of veins and
arteries that supply blood flow to the brain.
 The arachnoid mater is a thin, weblike layer of connective tissue
that does not contain nerves or blood vessels. Below the arachnoid
mater is the cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF. This fluid cushions the
entire central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and
continually circulates around these structures to remove impurities.
 The pia mater is a thin membrane that hugs the surface of the
brain and follows its contours. The pia mater is rich with veins and
arteries.
Lobes of the Brain and What They Control

 Each brain hemisphere (parts of the cerebrum) has four sections,

called lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. Each lobe
controls specific functions.

 Frontal lobe. The largest lobe of the brain, located in the front of
the head, the frontal lobe is involved in personality characteristics,
decision-making and movement. Recognition of smell usually
involves parts of the frontal lobe. The frontal lobe contains Broca’s
area, which is associated with speech ability.
 Parietal lobe. The middle part of the brain, the parietal lobe helps
a person identify objects and understand spatial relationships
(where one’s body is compared with objects around the person).
 The parietal lobe is also involved in interpreting pain and touch in the
body. The parietal lobe houses Wernicke’s area, which helps the brain
understand spoken language.

 Occipital lobe. The occipital lobe is the back part of the brain that
is involved with vision.
 Temporal lobe. The sides of the brain, temporal lobes are involved
in short-term memory, speech, musical rhythm and some degree of
smell recognition.

Deeper Structures Within the Brain

Pituitary Gland

 Sometimes called the “master gland,” the pituitary gland is a pea-

sized structure found deep in the brain behind the bridge of the nose.

 The pituitary gland governs the function of other glands in the body,
regulating the flow of hormones from the thyroid, adrenals, ovaries
and testicles.

 It receives chemical signals from the hypothalamus through its stalk

and blood supply.

Hypothalamus

 The hypothalamus is located above the pituitary gland and sends it

chemical messages that control its function.

 It regulates body temperature, synchronizes sleep patterns, controls

hunger and thirst and also plays a role in some aspects of memory and
emotion.

Amygdala
 Small, almond-shaped structures, an amygdala is located under each
half (hemisphere) of the brain.

 Included in the limbic system, the amygdalae regulate emotion and

memory and are associated with the brain’s reward system, stress, and
the “fight or flight” response when someone perceives a threat.

Hippocampus

 A curved seahorse-shaped organ on the underside of each temporal

lobe, the hippocampus is part of a larger structure called the
hippocampal formation.

 It supports memory, learning, navigation and perception of space. It

receives information from the cerebral cortex and may play a role in
Alzheimer’s disease.

Pineal Gland

 The pineal gland is located deep in the brain and attached by a stalk to
the top of the third ventricle.

 The pineal gland responds to light and dark and secretes melatonin,
which regulates circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle.

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

 Deep in the brain are four open areas with passageways between
them. They also open into the central spinal canal and the area
beneath arachnoid layer of the meninges.

 The ventricles manufacture cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF, a watery

fluid that circulates in and around the ventricles and the spinal cord,
and between the meninges. CSF surrounds and cushions the spinal
cord and brain, washes out waste and impurities, and delivers
nutrients.
Blood Supply to the Brain

 Two sets of blood vessels supply blood and oxygen to the brain:
the vertebral arteries and the carotid arteries.

 The external carotid arteries extend up the sides of your neck, and are
where you can feel your pulse when you touch the area with your
fingertips.

 The internal carotid arteries branch into the skull and circulate blood
to the front part of the brain.

 The vertebral arteries follow the spinal column into the skull, where
they join together at the brainstem and form the basilar artery, which
supplies blood to the rear portions of the brain.

 The circle of Willis, a loop of blood vessels near the bottom of the
brain that connects major arteries, circulates blood from the front of
 the brain to the back and helps the arterial systems communicate with
one another.

Cranial Nerves

Inside the cranium (the dome of the skull), there are 12 nerves, called
cranial nerves:

 Cranial nerve 1: The first is the olfactory nerve, which allows for
your sense of smell.
 Cranial nerve 2: The optic nerve governs eyesight.
 Cranial nerve 3: The oculomotor nerve controls pupil response
and other motions of the eye, and branches out from the area in the
brainstem where the midbrain meets the pons.
  Cranial nerve 4: The trochlear nerve controls muscles in the eye.
It emerges from the back of the midbrain part of the brainstem.
 Cranial nerve 5: The trigeminal nerve is the largest and most
complex of the cranial nerves, with both sensory and motor
function. It originates from the pons and conveys sensation from
the scalp, teeth, jaw, sinuses, parts of the mouth and face to the
brain, allows the function of chewing muscles, and much more.
 Cranial nerve 6: The abducens nerve innervates some of the
muscles in the eye.
 Cranial nerve 7: The facial nerve supports face movement, taste,
glandular and other functions.
 Cranial nerve 8: The vestibulocochlear nerve facilitates balance
and hearing.
 Cranial nerve 9: The glossopharyngeal nerve allows taste, ear and
throat movement, and has many more functions.
 Cranial nerve 10: The vagus nerve allows sensation around the ear
and the digestive system and controls motor activity in the heart,
throat and digestive system.
 Cranial nerve 11: The accessory nerve innervates specific muscles
in the head, neck and shoulder.
 Cranial nerve 12: The hypoglossal nerve supplies motor activity to
the tongue.

The first two nerves originate in the cerebrum, and the remaining 10
cranial nerves emerge from the brainstem, which has three parts: the
midbrain, the pons and the medulla.