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Visual Analytics and
Interactive Technologies:
Data, Text and Web Mining
Applications

Qingyu Zhang
Arkansas State University, USA

Richard S. Segall
Arkansas State University, USA

Mei Cao
University of Wisconsin-Superior, USA

InformatIon scIence reference

Hershey • New York
Director of Editorial Content: Kristin Klinger
Director of Book Publications: Julia Mosemann
Acquisitions Editor: Lindsay Johnston
Development Editor: Joel Gamon
Typesetter: Milan Vracarich, Jr.
Production Editor: Jamie Snavely
Cover Design: Lisa Tosheff

Published in the United States of America by

Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global)
701 E. Chocolate Avenue
Hershey PA 17033
Tel: 717-533-8845
Fax: 717-533-8661
E-mail: [email protected]
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Copyright © 2011 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in
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Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or com-
panies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Visual analytics and interactive technologies : data, text, and web mining
applications / Qingyu Zhang, Richard Segall, and Mei Cao, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: "This book is a comprehensive reference on concepts, algorithms,
theories, applications, software, and visualization of data mining, text
mining, Web mining and computing/supercomputing, covering state-of-the-art of
the theory and applications of mining"-- Provided by publisher.
ISBN 978-1-60960-102-7 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-60960-104-1 (ebook) 1.
Data mining. I. Zhang, Qingyu, 1970- II. Segall, Richard, 1949- III. Cao,
Mei, 1969-
QA76.9.D343V568 2011
006.3'12--dc22
2010042271

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
List of Reviewers
Mieczysław A. Kłopotek, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland
N. Ranga Suri, Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics, India
P. Alagambigai, Easwari Engineering College, India
Daniel Rivero, University of A Coruña, Spain
Tri Kurniawan Wijaya, Sekolah Tinggi Teknik Surabaya, Indonesia
Tzu-Liang (Bill) Tseng, The University of Texas at El Paso, USA
Marko Robnik-Šikonja, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Alan Olinsky, Bryant University, USA
Roberto Marmo, University of Pavia, Italy
H. Hannah Inbarani, Periyar University, India
Carson Kai-Sang Leung, The University of Manitoba, Canada
R. Roselin, Sri Sarada College for Women, India
Riadh Hammami, Université Laval, Canada
Anca Doloc-Mihu, Emory University, USA
Mei Cao, University of Wisconsin-Superior, USA
Richard S. Segall, Arkansas State University, USA
Qingyu Zhang, Arkansas State University, USA
Table of Contents

Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xiv

Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................................ xix

Section 1
Concepts, Algorithms, and Theory

Chapter 1
Towards the Notion of Typical Documents in Large Collections of Documents ................................... 1
Mieczysław A. Kłopotek, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland & University of Natural
and Human Sciences, Poland
Sławomir T. Wierzchoń, Polish Academy of Sciences & University of Gdańsk, Poland
Krzysztof Ciesielski, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland
Michał Dramiński, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland
Dariusz Czerski, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland

Chapter 2
Data Mining Techniques for Outlier Detection..................................................................................... 19
N N R Ranga Suri, C V Raman Nagar, India
M Narasimha Murty, Indian Institute of Science, India
G Athithan, C V Raman Nagar, India

Chapter 3
Using an Ontology-Based Framework to Extract External Web Data for the Data Warehouse ........... 39
Charles Greenidge, University of the West Indies, Barbados
Hadrian Peter, University of the West Indies, Barbados

Chapter 4
Dimensionality Reduction for Interactive Visual Clustering: A Comparative Analysis ....................... 60
P. Alagambigai, Easwari Engineering College, India
K. Thangavel, Periyar University, India
Chapter 5
Database Analysis with ANNs by Means of Graph Evolution ............................................................. 79
Daniel Rivero, University of A Coruña, Spain
Julián Dorado, University of A Coruña, Spain
Juan R. Rabuñal, University of A Coruña, Spain
Alejandro Pazos, University of A Coruña, Spain

Chapter 6
An Optimal Categorization of Feature Selection Methods for Knowledge Discovery ........................ 94
Harleen Kaur, Hamdard University, India
Ritu Chauhan, Hamdard University, India
M. A. Alam, Hamdard University, India

Chapter 7
From Data to Knowledge: Data Mining ............................................................................................ 109
Tri Kurniawan Wijaya, Sekolah Tinggi Teknik Surabaya, Indonesia

Section 2
Applications of Mining and Visualization

Chapter 8
Patent Infringement Risk Analysis Using Rough Set Theory ............................................................. 123
Chun-Che Huang, National Chi Nan University, Taiwan
Tzu-Liang (Bill) Tseng, The University of Texas at El Paso, USA
Hao-Syuan Lin, National Chi Nan University, Taiwan

Chapter 9
Visual Survey Analysis in Marketing ................................................................................................. 151
Marko Robnik-Šikonja, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Koen Vanhoof, University of Hasselt, Belgium

Chapter 10
Assessing Data Mining Approaches for Analyzing Actuarial Student Success Rate ......................... 169
Alan Olinsky, Bryant University, USA
Phyllis Schumacher, Bryant University, USA
John Quinn, Bryant University, USA

Chapter 11
A Robust Biclustering Approach for Effective Web Personalization ................................................. 186
H. Hannah Inbarani, Periyar University, India
K. Thangavel, Periyar University, India
Chapter 12
Web Mining and Social Network Analysis ......................................................................................... 202
Roberto Marmo, University of Pavia, Italy

Section 3
Visual Systems, Software and Supercomputing

Chapter 13
iVAS: An Interactive Visual Analytic System for Frequent Set Mining ............................................. 213
Carson Kai-Sang Leung, The University of Manitoba, Canada
Christopher L. Carmichael, The University of Manitoba, Canada

Chapter 14
Mammogram Mining Using Genetic Ant-Miner ................................................................................ 232
K. Thangavel, Periyar University, India
R. Roselin, Sri Sarada College for Women, India

Chapter 15
Use of SciDBMaker as Tool for the Design of Specialized Biological Databases ............................. 251
Riadh Hammami, Université Laval, Canada
Ismail Fliss, Université Laval, Canada

Chapter 16
Interactive Visualization Tool for Analysis of Large Image Databases .............................................. 266
Anca Doloc-Mihu, Emory University, USA

Chapter 17
Supercomputers and Supercomputing ................................................................................................ 282
Jeffrey S. Cook, Arkansas State University, USA

Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 295

About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 328

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 337

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xiv

Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................................ xix

Section 1
Concepts, Algorithms, and Theory

Chapter 1
Towards the Notion of Typical Documents in Large Collections of Documents ................................... 1
Mieczysław A. Kłopotek, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland & University of Natural
and Human Sciences, Poland
Sławomir T. Wierzchoń, Polish Academy of Sciences & University of Gdańsk, Poland
Krzysztof Ciesielski, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland
Michał Dramiński, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland
Dariusz Czerski, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland

The chapter focuses on how to best represent a typical document in a large collection of objects (i.e.,
documents). They propose a new measure of document similarity – GNGrank that was inspired by
the popular idea that links between documents reflect similar content. The idea was to create a rank
measure based on the well known PageRank algorithm which exploits the document similarity to insert
links between the documents. Various link-based similarity measures (e.g., PageRank) and GNGrank
are compared in the context of identification of a typical document of a collection. The experimental
results suggest that each algorithm measures something different, a different aspect of document space,
and hence the respective degrees of typicality do not correlate.

Chapter 2
Data Mining Techniques for Outlier Detection..................................................................................... 19
N N R Ranga Suri, C V Raman Nagar, India
M Narasimha Murty, Indian Institute of Science, India
G Athithan, C V Raman Nagar, India
The chapter highlights some of the important research issues that determine the nature of the outlier
detection algorithm required for a typical data mining application. Detecting the objects in a data set
with unusual properties is important since such outlier objects often contain useful information on
abnormal behavior of the system or its components described by the data set. They discussed issues
including methods of outlier detection, size and dimensionality of the data set, and nature of the target
application. They attempt to cover the challenges due to the large volume of high dimensional data and
possible research directions with a survey of various data mining techniques dealing with the outlier
detection problem.

Chapter 3
Using an Ontology-Based Framework to Extract External Web Data for the Data Warehouse ........... 39
Charles Greenidge, University of the West Indies, Barbados
Hadrian Peter, University of the West Indies, Barbados

The chapter proposes a meta-data engine for extracting external data in the Web for data warehouses
that forms a bridge between the data warehouse and search engine environments. This chapter also
presents a framework named the semantic web application that facilitates semi-automatic matching of
instance data from opaque web databases using ontology terms. The framework combines information
retrieval, information extraction, natural language processing, and ontology techniques to produce a
viable building block for semantic web applications. The application uses a query modifying filter to
maximize efficiency in the search process. The ontology-based model consists of a pre-processing stage
aimed at filtering, a basic and then more advanced matching phases, a combination of thresholds and
a weighting that produces a matrix that is further normalized, and a labeling process that matches data
items to ontology terms.

Chapter 4
Dimensionality Reduction for Interactive Visual Clustering: A Comparative Analysis ....................... 60
P. Alagambigai, Easwari Engineering College, India
K. Thangavel, Periyar University, India

The chapter discusses VISTA as a Visual Clustering Rendering System that can include algorithmic
clustering results and serve as an effective validation and refinement tool for irregularly shaped clusters.
Interactive visual clustering methods allow a user to partition a data set into clusters that are appropri-
ate for their tasks and interests through an efficient visualization model and it requires an effective
human-computer interaction. This chapter entails the reliable human-computer interaction through di-
mensionality reduction by comparing three different kinds of dimensionality reduction methods: (1)
Entropy Weighting Feature Selection (EWFS), (2) Outlier Score Based Feature Selection (OSFS), and
(3) Contribution to the Entropy based Feature Selection (CEFS). The performance of the three feature
selection methods were compared with clustering of dataset using the whole set of features. The perfor-
mance was measured with popular validity measure Rand Index.
Chapter 5
Database Analysis with ANNs by Means of Graph Evolution ............................................................. 79
Daniel Rivero, University of A Coruña, Spain
Julián Dorado, University of A Coruña, Spain
Juan R. Rabuñal, University of A Coruña, Spain
Alejandro Pazos, University of A Coruña, Spain

The chapter proposes a new technique of graph evolution based ANN and compares it with other sys-
tems such as Connectivity Matrix, Pruning, Finding network parameters, and Graph-rewriting gram-
mar. Traditionally the development of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) is a slow process guided by
the expert knowledge. This chapter describes a new method for the development of Artificial Neural
Networks, so it becomes completely automated. Several tests were performed with some of the most
used test databases in data mining. The performance of the proposed system is better or in par with
other systems.

Chapter 6
An Optimal Categorization of Feature Selection Methods for Knowledge Discovery ........................ 94
Harleen Kaur, Hamdard University, India
Ritu Chauhan, Hamdard University, India
M. A. Alam, Hamdard University, India

The chapter focuses on several feature selection methods as to their effectiveness in preprocessing input
medical data. Feature selection is an active research area in pattern recognition and data mining com-
munities. They evaluate several feature selection algorithms such as Mutual Information Feature Selec-
tion (MIFS), Fast Correlation-Based Filter (FCBF) and Stepwise Discriminant Analysis (STEPDISC)
with machine learning algorithm naive Bayesian and Linear Discriminant analysis techniques. The
experimental analysis of feature selection technique in medical databases shows that a small number of
informative features can be extracted leading to improvement in medical diagnosis by reducing the size
of data set, eliminating irrelevant features, and decreasing the processing time.

Chapter 7
From Data to Knowledge: Data Mining ............................................................................................ 109
Tri Kurniawan Wijaya, Sekolah Tinggi Teknik Surabaya, Indonesia

The chapter conceptually discusses the techniques to mine hidden information or knowledge which lies
in data. In addition to the elaboration of the concept and theory, they also discuss about the application
and implementation of data mining. They start with differences among data, information, and knowl-
edge, and then proceed to describe the process of gaining the hidden knowledge, and compare data
mining with other closely related terminologies such as data warehouse and OLAP.
 Section 2
Applications of Mining and Visualization

Chapter 8
Patent Infringement Risk Analysis Using Rough Set Theory ............................................................. 123
Chun-Che Huang, National Chi Nan University, Taiwan
Tzu-Liang (Bill) Tseng, The University of Texas at El Paso, USA
Hao-Syuan Lin, National Chi Nan University, Taiwan

The chapter applies rough set theory (RST), which is suitable for processing qualitative information,
to induce rules to derive significant attributes for categorization of the patent infringement risk. Pat-
ent infringement risk is an important issue for firms due to the increased appreciation of intellectual
property rights. If a firm gives insufficient protection to its patents, it may loss both profits and industry
competitiveness. Rather than focusing on measuring the patent trend indicators and the patent monetary
value, they integrate RST with the use of the concept hierarchy and the credibility index, to enhance
application of the final decision rules.

Chapter 9
Visual Survey Analysis in Marketing ................................................................................................. 151
Marko Robnik-Šikonja, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Koen Vanhoof, University of Hasselt, Belgium

The chapter makes use of the ordinal evaluation (OrdEval) algorithm as a visualization technique to
study questionnaire data of customer satisfaction in marketing. The OrdEval algorithm has many favor-
able features, including context sensitivity, ability to exploit meaning of ordered features and ordered
response, robustness to noise and missing values in the data, and visualization capability. They choose
customer satisfaction analysis as a case study and present visual analysis on two applications of busi-
ness-to-business and costumer-to-business. They demonstrate some interesting advantages offered by
the new methodology and visualization and show how to extract and interpret new insights not avail-
able with classical analytical toolbox.

Chapter 10
Assessing Data Mining Approaches for Analyzing Actuarial Student Success Rate ......................... 169
Alan Olinsky, Bryant University, USA
Phyllis Schumacher, Bryant University, USA
John Quinn, Bryant University, USA

The chapter entails the use of several types of predictive models to perform data mining to evaluate the
student retention rate and enrollment management for those selecting a major in the Actuarial Science
at a medium size university. The predictive models utilized in this research include stepwise logistic
regression, neural networks and decision trees for performing the data mining. This chapter uses data
mining to investigate the percentages of students who begin in a certain major and will graduate in the
same major. This information is important for individual academic departments in determining how to
allocate limited resources in making decisions as to the appropriate number of classes and sections to
be offered and the number of faculty lines needed to staff the department. This chapter details a study
that utilizes data mining techniques to analyze the characteristics of students who enroll as actuarial
mathematics students and then either drop out of the major or graduate as actuarial students.

Chapter 11
A Robust Biclustering Approach for Effective Web Personalization ................................................. 186
H. Hannah Inbarani, Periyar University, India
K. Thangavel, Periyar University, India

The chapter proposes a robust Biclustering algorithm to disclose the correlation between users and
pages based on constant values for integrating user clustering and page clustering techniques, which is
followed by a recommendation system that can respond to the users’ individual interests. The proposed
method is compared with Simple Biclustering (SB) method. To evaluate the effectiveness and effi-
ciency of the recommendation, experiments are conducted in terms of the recommendation accuracy
metric. The experimental results demonstrated that the proposed RB method is very simple and is able
to efficiently extract needed usage knowledge and to accurately make web recommendations.

Chapter 12
Web Mining and Social Network Analysis ......................................................................................... 202
Roberto Marmo, University of Pavia, Italy

The chapter reviews and discusses the use of web mining techniques and social networks analysis to
possibly process and analyze large amount of social data such as blogtagging, online game playing, in-
stant messenger, etc. Social network analysis views social relationships in terms of network and graph
theory about nodes (individual actors within the network) and ties (relationships between the actors).
In this way, social network mining can help understand the social structure, social relationships and
social behaviours. These algorithms differ from established set of data mining algorithms developed to
analyze individual records since social network datasets are relational with the centrality of relations
among entities.

Section 3
Visual Systems, Software and Supercomputing

Chapter 13
iVAS: An Interactive Visual Analytic System for Frequent Set Mining ............................................. 213
Carson Kai-Sang Leung, The University of Manitoba, Canada
Christopher L. Carmichael, The University of Manitoba, Canada

The chapter proposes an interactive visual analytic system called iVAS for providing visual analytic so-
lutions to the frequent set mining problem. The system enables the visualization and advanced analysis
of the original transaction databases as well as the frequent sets mined from these databases. Numer-
ous algorithms have been proposed for finding frequent sets of items, which are usually presented in a
lengthy textual list. However, the use of visual representations can enhance user understanding of the
inherent relations among the frequent sets.
Chapter 14
Mammogram Mining Using Genetic Ant-Miner ................................................................................ 232
K. Thangavel, Periyar University, India
R. Roselin, Sri Sarada College for Women, India

The chapter applies classification algorithm to image processing (e.g., mammogram processing) using
genetic Ant-Miner. Image mining deals with the extraction of implicit knowledge, image data relation-
ship, or other patterns not explicitly stored in the images. It is an extension of data mining to image
domain and an interdisciplinary endeavor. C4.5 and Ant-Miner algorithms are compared and the ex-
perimental results show that Ant-Miner performs better in the domain of biomedical image analysis.

Chapter 15
Use of SciDBMaker as Tool for the Design of Specialized Biological Databases ............................. 251
Riadh Hammami, Université Laval, Canada
Ismail Fliss, Université Laval, Canada

The chapter develops SciDBMaker to provide a tool for easy building of new specialized protein
knowledge bases. The exponential growth of molecular biology research in recent decades has brought
growth in the number and size of genomic and proteomic databases to enhance the understanding of
biological processes. This chapter also suggests best practices for specialized biological databases de-
sign, and provides examples for the implementation of these practices.

Chapter 16
Interactive Visualization Tool for Analysis of Large Image Databases .............................................. 266
Anca Doloc-Mihu, Emory University, USA

The chapter discusses an Adaptive Image Retrieval System (AIRS) that is used as a tool for actively
searching for information in large image databases. This chapter identifies two types of users for an
AIRS: an end-user who seeks images and a research-user who designs and researches the collection
and retrieval systems. This chapter focuses in visualization techniques used by Web-based AIRS to al-
low different users to efficiently navigate, search and analyze large image databases. Recent advances
in Internet technology require the development of advanced Web-based tools for efficiently accessing
images from tremendously large, and continuously growing, image collections. One such tool for ac-
tively searching for information is an Image Retrieval System. The interface discussed in this chapter
illustrates different relationships between images by using visual attributes (colors, shape, and proximi-
ties), and supports retrieval and learning, as well as browsing which makes it suitable for an Adaptive
Image Retrieval Systems.

Chapter 17
Supercomputers and Supercomputing ................................................................................................ 282
Jeffrey S. Cook, Arkansas State University, USA

The chapter describes supercomputer as the fastest type of computer used for specialized applications
that require a massive number of mathematical calculations. The term “supercomputer” was coined in
1929 by the New York World, referring to tabulators manufactured by IBM. These tabulators represent
the cutting edge of technology, which harness immense processing power so that they are incredibly
fast, sophisticated, and powerful. The use of supercomputing in data mining has also been discussed in
the chapter.

Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 295

About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 328

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 337

xiv

Preface

Large volumes of data and complex problems inspire research in computing and data, text, and web
mining. However, analyzing data is not sufficient, as it has to be presented visually with analytical ca-
pabilities, i.e., a chart/diagram/image illustration that enables humans to perceive, relate, and conclude
in the knowledge discovery process. In addition, how to use computing or supercomputing techniques
(e.g., distributed, parallel, and clustered computing) in improving the effectiveness of data, text, and web
mining is an important aspect of the visual analytics and interactive technology. This book extends the
visual analytics by using tools of data, web, text mining and computing, and their associated software
and technologies available today.
This is a comprehensive book on concepts, algorithms, theories, applications, software, and visu-
alization of data mining and computing. It provides a volume of coherent set of related works on the
state-of-the-art of the theory and applications of mining and its relations to computing, visualization
and others with an audience to include both researchers, practitioners, professionals and intellectuals in
technical and non-technical fields, appealing to a multi-disciplinary audience. Because each chapter is
designed to be stand-alone, readers can focus on the topics that most interest them.
With a unique collection of recent developments, novel applications, and techniques for visual ana-
lytics and interactive technologies, the sections of the book are Concepts, Algorithms, and Theory; Ap-
plications of Mining and Visualization; and Visual Systems, Software and Supercomputing, pertaining
to Data mining, Web mining, Data Visualization, Mining for Intelligence, Supercomputing, Database,
Ontology, Web Clustering, Classification, Pattern Recognition, Visualization Approaches, Data and
Knowledge Representation, and Web Intelligence.
Section 1 consists of seven chapters on concepts, algorithms, and theory of mining and visualizations.
Chapter 1, Towards the Notion of Typical Documents in Large Collections of Documents, by Mieczysław
A. Kłopotek, Sławomir T. Wierzchom, Krzysztof Ciesielski, Michał Dramiński, and Dariusz Czerski,
focuses on how to best represent a typical document in a large collection of objects (i.e., documents).
They propose a new measure of document similarity – GNGrank that was inspired by the popular idea
that links between documents reflect similar content. The idea was to create a rank measure based on
the well known PageRank algorithm which exploits the document similarity to insert links between the
documents. Various link-based similarity measures (e.g., PageRank) and GNGrank are compared in the
context of identification of a typical document of a collection. The experimental results suggest that each
algorithm measures something different, a different aspect of document space, and hence the respective
degrees of typicality do not correlate.
Chapter 2, Data Mining Techniques for Outlier Detection, by N. Ranga Suri, M Narasimha Murty,
and G Athithan, highlights some of the important research issues that determine the nature of the outlier
 xv

detection algorithm required for a typical data mining application. Detecting the objects in a data set with
unusual properties is important; as such outlier objects often contain useful information on abnormal be-
havior of the system or its components described by the data set. They discussed issues including methods
of outlier detection, size and dimensionality of the data set, and nature of the target application. They
attempt to cover the challenges due to the large volume of high dimensional data and possible research
directions with a survey of various data mining techniques dealing with the outlier detection problem.
Chapter 3, Using an Ontology-based Framework to Extract External Web Data for the Data Ware-
house, by Charles Greenidge and Hadrian Peter, proposes a meta-data engine for extracting external
data in the Web for data warehouses that forms a bridge between the data warehouse and search engine
environments. This chapter also presents a framework named the semantic web application that facili-
tates semi-automatic matching of instance data from opaque web databases using ontology terms. The
framework combines information retrieval, information extraction, natural language processing, and
ontology techniques to produce a viable building block for semantic web applications. The application
uses a query modifying filter to maximize efficiency in the search process. The ontology-based model
consists of a pre-processing stage aimed at filtering, a basic and then more advanced matching phases,
a combination of thresholds and a weighting that produces a matrix that is further normalized, and a
labeling process that matches data items to ontology terms.
Chapter 4, Dimensionality Reduction for Interactive Visual Clustering: A Comparative Analysis,
by P. Alagambigai and K. Thangavel, discusses VISTA as a Visual Clustering Rendering System that
can include algorithmic clustering results and serve as an effective validation and refinement tool for
irregularly shaped clusters. Interactive visual clustering methods allow a user to partition a data set into
clusters that are appropriate for their tasks and interests through an efficient visualization model and
it requires an effective human-computer interaction. This chapter entails the reliable human-computer
interaction through dimensionality reduction by comparing three different kinds of dimensionality re-
duction methods: (1) Entropy Weighting Feature Selection (EWFS), (2) Outlier Score Based Feature
Selection (OSFS), and (3) Contribution to the Entropy based Feature Selection (CEFS). The performance
of the three feature selection methods were compared with clustering of dataset using the whole set of
features. The performance was measured with popular validity measure Rand Index.
Chapter 5, Database Analysis with ANNs by Means of Graph Evolution, by Daniel Rivero, Julián
Dorado, Juan R. Rabuñal, and Alejandro Pazos, proposes a new technique of graph evolution based ANN
and compares it with other systems such as Connectivity Matrix, Pruning, Finding network parameters,
and Graph-rewriting grammar. Traditionally the development of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) is
a slow process guided by the expert knowledge. This chapter describes a new method for the develop-
ment of Artificial Neural Networks, so it becomes completely automated. Several tests were performed
with some of the most used test databases in data mining. The performance of the proposed system is
better or in par with other systems.
Chapter 6, An Optimal Categorization of Feature Selection Methods for Knowledge Discovery,
by Harleen Kaur, Ritu Chauhan, and M. A. Alam, focuses on several feature selection methods as to
their effectiveness in preprocessing input medical data. Feature selection is an active research area in
pattern recognition and data mining communities. They evaluate several feature selection algorithms
such as Mutual Information Feature Selection (MIFS), Fast Correlation-Based Filter (FCBF) and Step-
wise Discriminant Analysis (STEPDISC) with machine learning algorithm naive Bayesian and Linear
Discriminant analysis techniques. The experimental analysis of feature selection technique in medical
databases shows that a small number of informative features can be extracted leading to improvement
xvi

in medical diagnosis by reducing the size of data set, eliminating irrelevant features, and decreasing the
processing time.
Chapter 7, From Data to Knowledge: Data Mining, by Tri Kurniawan Wijaya, conceptually discusses
the techniques to mine hidden information or knowledge which lies in data. In addition to the elaboration
of the concept and theory, they also discuss about the application and implementation of data mining.
They start with differences among data, information, and knowledge, and then proceed to describe the
process of gaining the hidden knowledge, and compare data mining with other closely related terminolo-
gies such as data warehouse and OLAP.
Section 2 consists of five chapters on applications of mining and visualizations.
Chapter 8, Patent Infringement Risk Analysis Using Rough Set Theory, by Chun-Che Huang, Tzu-
Liang (Bill) Tseng, and Hao-Syuan Lin, applies rough set theory (RST), which is suitable for processing
qualitative information, to induce rules to derive significant attributes for categorization of the patent
infringement risk. Patent infringement risk is an important issue for firms due to the increased apprecia-
tion of intellectual property rights. If a firm gives insufficient protection to its patents, it may loss both
profits and industry competitiveness. Rather than focusing on measuring the patent trend indicators and
the patent monetary value, they integrate RST with the use of the concept hierarchy and the credibility
index, to enhance application of the final decision rules.
Chapter 9, Visual Survey Analysis in Marketing, by Marko Robnik-Šikonja and Koen Vanhoof, makes
use of the ordinal evaluation (OrdEval) algorithm as a visualization technique to study questionnaire
data of customer satisfaction in marketing. The OrdEval algorithm has many favorable features, includ-
ing context sensitivity, ability to exploit meaning of ordered features and ordered response, robustness
to noise and missing values in the data, and visualization capability. They choose customer satisfaction
analysis as a case study and present visual analysis on two applications of business-to-business and
costumer-to-business. They demonstrate some interesting advantages offered by the new methodol-
ogy and visualization and show how to extract and interpret new insights not available with classical
analytical toolbox.
Chapter 10, Assessing Data Mining Approaches for Analyzing Actuarial Student Success Rate, by
Alan Olinsky, Phyllis Schumacher, and John Quinn, entails the use of several types of predictive mod-
els to perform data mining to evaluate the student retention rate and enrollment management for those
selecting a major in the Actuarial Science at a medium size university. The predictive models utilized
in this research include stepwise logistic regression, neural networks and decision trees for performing
the data mining. This chapter uses data mining to investigate the percentages of students who begin in a
certain major and will graduate in the same major. This information is important for individual academic
departments in determining how to allocate limited resources in making decisions as to the appropriate
number of classes and sections to be offered and the number of faculty lines needed to staff the depart-
ment. This chapter details a study that utilizes data mining techniques to analyze the characteristics of
students who enroll as actuarial mathematics students and then either drop out of the major or graduate
as actuarial students.
Chapter 11, A Robust Biclustering Approach for Effective Web Personalization, by H. Hannah In-
barani and K. Thangavel, proposes a robust Biclustering algorithm to disclose the correlation between
users and pages based on constant values for integrating user clustering and page clustering techniques,
which is followed by a recommendation system that can respond to the users’ individual interests. The
proposed method is compared with Simple Biclustering (SB) method. To evaluate the effectiveness and
efficiency of the recommendation, experiments are conducted in terms of the recommendation accuracy
 xvii

metric. The experimental results demonstrated that the proposed RB method is very simple and is able
to efficiently extract needed usage knowledge and to accurately make web recommendations.
Chapter 12, Web Mining and Social Network Analysis, by Roberto Marmo, reviews and discusses
the use of web mining techniques and social networks analysis to possibly process and analyze large
amount of social data such as blogtagging, online game playing, instant messenger, etc. Social network
analysis views social relationships in terms of network and graph theory about nodes (individual actors
within the network) and ties (relationships between the actors). In this way, social network mining can
help understand the social structure, social relationships and social behaviours. These algorithms dif-
fer from established set of data mining algorithms developed to analyze individual records since social
network datasets are relational with the centrality of relations among entities.
Section 3 consists of five chapters on visual systems, software and supercomputing.
Chapter 13, iVAS: An Interactive Visual Analytic System for Frequent Set Mining, by Carson Kai-Sang
Leung and Christopher L. Carmichael, proposes an interactive visual analytic system called iVAS for
providing visual analytic solutions to the frequent set mining problem. The system enables the visualiza-
tion and advanced analysis of the original transaction databases as well as the frequent sets mined from
these databases. Numerous algorithms have been proposed for finding frequent sets of items, which are
usually presented in a lengthy textual list. However, the use of visual representations can enhance user
understanding of the inherent relations among the frequent sets.
Chapter 14, Mammogram Mining Using Genetic Ant-Miner, by Thangavel. K. and Roselin. R, applies
classification algorithm to image processing (e.g., mammogram processing) using genetic Ant-Miner.
Image mining deals with the extraction of implicit knowledge, image data relationship, or other patterns
not explicitly stored in the images. It is an extension of data mining to image domain and an interdisci-
plinary endeavor. C4.5 and Ant-Miner algorithms are compared and the experimental results show that
Ant-Miner performs better in the domain of biomedical image analysis.
Chapter 15, Use of SciDBMaker as Tool for the Design of Specialized Biological Databases, by Riadh
Hammami and Ismail Fliss, develops SciDBMaker to provide a tool for easy building of new specialized
protein knowledge bases. The exponential growth of molecular biology research in recent decades has
brought growth in the number and size of genomic and proteomic databases to enhance the understanding
of biological processes. This chapter also suggests best practices for specialized biological databases
design, and provides examples for the implementation of these practices.
Chapter 16, Interactive Visualization Tool for Analysis of Large Image Databases, by Anca Doloc-Mihu,
discusses an Adaptive Image Retrieval System (AIRS) that is used as a tool for actively searching for
information in large image databases. This chapter identifies two types of users for an AIRS: an end-user
who seeks images and a research-user who designs and researches the collection and retrieval systems.
This chapter focuses in visualization techniques used by Web-based AIRS to allow different users to
efficiently navigate, search and analyze large image databases. Recent advances in Internet technology
require the development of advanced Web-based tools for efficiently accessing images from tremendously
large, and continuously growing, image collections. One such tool for actively searching for information
is an Image Retrieval System. The interface discussed in this chapter illustrates different relationships
between images by using visual attributes (colors, shape, and proximities), and supports retrieval and
learning, as well as browsing which makes it suitable for an Adaptive Image Retrieval Systems.
Chapter 17, Supercomputers and Supercomputing, by Jeffrey S. Cook, describes supercomputer as
the fastest type of computer used for specialized applications that require a massive number of math-
ematical calculations. The term “supercomputer” was coined in 1929 by the New York World, referring
xviii

to tabulators manufactured by IBM. These tabulators represent the cutting edge of technology, which
harness immense processing power so that they are incredibly fast, sophisticated, and powerful. The use
of supercomputing in data mining has also been discussed in the chapter.
All chapters went through a blind refereeing process before final acceptance. We hope these chapters
are informative, stimulating, and helpful to the readers.

Qingyu Zhang
Arkansas State University, USA

Richard S. Segall
Arkansas State University, USA

Mei Cao
University of Wisconsin-Superior, USA
 xix

Acknowledgment

The publication of a book is a cooperative and joint effort and involves many people. We wish to thank
all involved in the solicitation process of book chapters and the review process of the book, without
whose support the book could not have been completed.
Special thanks and gratitude go to the publishing team at IGI Global, in particular to the development
editor Joel Gamon and the acquisition editorial assistant Erika Carter, whose contributions throughout
the process of the book publication have been invaluable.
We want to thank all the authors for their excellent contributions to this book. We are also grateful to all
the reviewers, including most of the contributing authors, who served as referees for chapters written by
other authors, and provided constructive and comprehensive reviews in the double-blind review process.

Qingyu Zhang
Arkansas State University, USA

Richard S. Segall
Arkansas State University, USA

Mei Cao
University of Wisconsin-Superior, USA

May 2010
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 ———————Sit good cousin Hotspur:
For by that name as oft as Lancaster
Doth speak of you, his cheeks look pale; and, with
A rising sigh, he wisheth you in heaven.
Hot. And you in hell, as often as he hears
Owen Glendower spoke of.
Glend. I cannot blame him: at my nativity
The front of heaven was full of fiery shapes,
Of burning cressets; and—at my birth,
The frame and huge foundation of the earth
Shak’d like a coward——
The front of heaven was full of fiery shapes;
The goats ran from the mountains, and the herds
Were strangely clamorous to the frighted fields.
These signs have mark’d me extraordinary;
And all the courses of my life do show,
I am not in the roll of common men.
Where is he living,—clipp’d in with the sea,
That chides the banks of England, Scotland, Wales,—
Which calls me pupil, or hath read to me?
And bring him out, that is but woman’s son,
Can trace me in the tedious ways of art,
And hold me pace in deep experiments.—
I can call spirits from the vasty deep—
I can teach thee, cousin, to command the devil.
On occasion of the chiefs taking leave of their wives, before they
separate for battle with the king, Glendower gives proof of his
supernatural powers. The wife of Mortimer proposes to soothe her
husband by singing to him in her native Welsh, if he will repose
himself.
Mort. With all my heart, I’ll sit—
Glend. Do so.
And those musicians that shall play to you,
Hang in the air a thousand leagues from hence;
Yet straight they shall be here: sit, and attend.
[The music plays.
Hot. Now, I perceive, the devil understands Welsh—
By’r lady, he’s a good musician.
 Without going into the history of Owen Glyndwr, it may be
observed that he claimed the throne of Wales, and that the presages
which Shakspeare ascribed to his birth, are the legends of old
chronicles. Howel Sele, of Nanneu, was his first cousin, yet he
adhered to the house of Lancaster, and was therefore opposed to
Owen’s pretensions. The abbot of Cymmer, in hopes of reconciling
them, brought them together, and apparently effected his purpose.
Howel was reckoned the best archer of his day. Owen while walking
out with him observed a doe feeding, and told him there was a fine
mark for him. Howel bent his bow, and, pretending to aim at the
doe, suddenly turned and discharged the arrow full at the breast of
Glyndwr, who wearing armour beneath his clothes received no hurt.
He seized on Sele for his treachery, burnt his house, and hurried him
away from the place; nor was it known how he was disposed of till
forty years after, when the skeleton of a large man, such as Howel,
was discovered in the hollow of the great oak before described;
wherein it was supposed Owen had immured him in reward of his
perfidy. While Owen was carrying him off, his rescue was attempted
by his relation Gryffydd ap Geoyn of Ganllwyd in Ardudwy, but he
was defeated by Owen with great loss of men, and his houses of
Berthlwyd and Cefn Coch were reduced to ashes.[270]

Sir Walter Scott to illustrate his lines in “Marmion,” inserts, among

the notes on that poem, a legendary tale by the rev. George
Warrington with this preface:—
“The event, on which this tale is founded, is preserved by
tradition in the family of the Vaughans of Hengwyrt; nor is it entirely
lost, even among the common people, who still point out this oak to
the passenger. The enmity between the two Welsh chieftains, Howel
Sele and Owen Glendwr, was extreme, and marked by vile treachery
in the one, and ferocious cruelty in the other. The story is somewhat
changed and softened, as more favourable to the characters of the
two chiefs, and as better answering the purpose of poetry, by
admitting the passion of pity, and a greater degree of sentiment in
the description. Some trace of Howel Sele’s mansion was to be seen
a few years ago, and may perhaps be still visible in the park of
Nanneu, now belonging to sir Robert Vaughan, baronet, in the wild
and romantic tracts of Merionethshire. The abbey mentioned passes
under two names, Vener and Cymmer. The former is retained, as
more generally used.”
 THE SPIRIT’S BLASTED TREE.
Ceubren yr Ellyll.
Through Nannau’s Chace as Howel passed,
A chief esteemed both brave and kind,
Far distant borne, the stag-hound’s cry
Came murmuring on the hollow wind.
Starting, he bent an eager ear,—
How should the sounds return again?
His hounds lay wearied from the chace,
And all at home his hunter train.
Then sudden anger flash’d his eye,
And deep revenge he vowed to take
On that bold man who dared to force
His red deer from the forest brake.
Unhappy chief! would nought avail,
No signs impress thy heart with fear,
Thy lady’s dark mysterious dream,
Thy warning from the hoary seer?
Three ravens gave the note of death,
As through mid air they winged their way;
Then o’er his head, in rapid flight,
They croak,—they scent their destined prey.
Ill omened bird! as legends say,
Who hast the wonderous power to know,
While health fills high the throbbing veins,
The fated hour when blood must flow.
Blinded by rage alone he passed,
Nor sought his ready vassals’ aid:
But what his fate lay long unknown,
For many an anxious year delayed.
A peasant marked his angry eye,
He saw him reach the lake’s dark bourne,
He saw him near a blasted oak,
But never from that hour return.
Three days passed o’er, no tidings came;—
Where should the chief his steps delay?
With wild alarm the servants ran,
Yet knew not where to point their way.
His vassals ranged the mountain’s height,
The covert close, and wide-spread plain;
But all in vain their eager search,
They ne’er must see their lord again.
Yet fancy, in a thousand shapes,
Bore to his home the chief once more
Some saw him on high Moel’s top,
Some saw him on the winding shore.
With wonder fraught the tale went round,
Amazement chained the hearer’s tongue;
Each peasant felt his own sad loss,
Yet fondly o’er the story hung.
Oft by the moon’s pale shadowy light,
His aged nurse, and steward grey,
Would lean to catch the stoned sounds,
Or mark the flittering spirit stray.
Pale lights on Cader’s rocks were seen,
And midnight voices heard to moan;
’Twas even said the blasted oak,
Convulsive, heaved a hollow groan:
And, to this day, the peasant still,
With cautious fear, avoids the ground;
In each wild branch a spectre sees,
And trembles at each rising sound.
Ten annual suns had held their course,
In summer’s smile, or winter’s storm;
The lady shed the widowed tear,
As oft she traced his manly form.
Yet still to hope her heart would cling
As o’er the mind illusions play,—
Of travel fond, perhaps her lord
To distant lands had steered his way.
’Twas now November’s cheerless hour,
Which drenching rain and clouds deface;
Dreary bleak Robell’s tract appeared,
And dull and dank each valley’s space.
Loud o’er the wier the hoarse flood fell,
And dashed the foamy spray on high;
The west wind bent the forest tops,
And angry frowned the evening sky
 And angry frowned the evening sky.
A stranger passed Llanelltid’s bourne,
His dark-grey steed with sweat besprent,
Which, wearied with the lengthened way,
Could scarcely gain the hill’s ascent.
The portal reached,—the iron bell
Loud sounded round the outward wall
Quick sprang the warder to the gate,
To know what meant the clamorous call.
“O! lead me to your lady soon;
Say,—it is my sad lot to tell,
To clear the fate of that brave knight,
She long has proved she loved so well.”
Then, as he crossed the spacious hall,
The menials look surprise and fear:
Still o’er his harp old Modred hung,
And touched the notes for griefs worn ear.
The lady sat amidst her train;
A mellowed sorrow marked her look:
Then, asking what his mission meant,
The graceful stranger sighed and spoke:—
“O could I spread one ray of hope,
One moment raise thy soul from woe,
Gladly my tongue would tell its tale,
My words at ease unfettered flow!
“Now, lady, give attention due,
The story claims thy full belief:
E’en in the worst events of life,
Suspense removed is some relief.
“Though worn by care, see Madoc here,
Great Glyndwr’s friend, thy kindred’s foe,
Ah, let his name no anger raise,
For now that mighty chief lies low.
“E’en from the day, when, chained by fate,
By wizard’s dream or potent spell,
Lingering from sad Salopia’s field,
’Reft of his aid the Percy fell:—
“E’en from that day misfortune still,
As if for violated faith,
Pursued him with unwearied step
Pursued him with unwearied step
Vindictive still for Hotspur’s death.
“Vanquished at length, the Glyndwr fled
Where winds the Wye her devious flood;
To find a casual shelter there,
In some lone cot, or desert wood.
“Clothed in a shepherd’s humble guise,
He gained by toil his scanty bread;
He who had Cambria’s sceptre borne,
And her brave sons to glory led!
“To penury extreme, and grief,
The chieftain fell a lingering prey;
I heard his last few faultering words,
Such as with pain I now convey.
“‘To Sele’s sad widow bear the tale
Nor let our horrid secret rest;
Give but his corse to sacred earth,
Then may my parting soul be blest.’—
“Dim waxed the eye that fiercely shone,
And faint the tongue that proudly spoke
And weak that arm, still raised to me,
Which oft had dealt the mortal stroke.
“How could I then his mandate bear
Or how his last behest obey?
A rebel deemed, with him I fled;
With him I shunned the light of day.
“Proscribed by Henry’s hostile rage,
My country lost, despoiled my land,
Desperate, I fled my native soil,
And fought on Syria’s distant strand.
“O, had thy long lamented lord
The holy cross and banner viewed,
Died in the sacred cause! who fell
Sad victim of a private feud!
“Led, by the ardour of the chace,
Far distant from his own domain;
From where Garthmaelan spreads her shades,
The Glyndwr sought the opening plain.
“With head aloft, and antlers wide,
A red buck roused, then crossed in view,
 A red buck roused, then crossed in view,
Stung with the sight, and wild with rage,
Swift from the wood fierce Howel flew.
“With bitter taunt, and keen reproach,
He, all impetuous, poured his rage,
Reviled the chief as weak in arms,
And bade him loud the battle wage.
“Glyndwr for once restrained his sword,
And, still averse, the fight delays;
But softened words, like oil to fire,
Made anger more intensely blaze.
“They fought; and doubtful long the fray!
The Glyndwr gave the fatal wound!
Still mournful must my tale proceed,
And its last act all dreadful sound.
“How could we hope for wished retreat
His eager vassals ranging wide?
His bloodhounds’ keen sagacious scent,
O’er many a trackless mountain tried?
“I marked a broad and blasted oak,
Scorched by the lightning’s livid glare;
Hollow its stem from branch to root,
And all its shrivelled arms were bare.
“Be this, I cried, his proper grave!—
(The thought in me was deadly sin.)
Aloft we raised the hapless chief,
And dropped his bleeding corpse within.”
A shriek from all the damsels burst,
That pierced the vaulted roofs below,
While horror-struck the lady stood,
A living form of sculptured woe.
With stupid stare, and vacant gaze,
Full on his face her eyes were cast,
Absorbed!—she lost her present grief,
And faintly thought of things long past.
Like wild-fire o’er the mossy heath,
The rumour through the hamlet ran:
The peasants crowd at morning dawn,
To hear the tale,—behold the man.
He led them near the blasted oak,
 He led them near the blasted oak,
Then, conscious, from the scene withdrew:
The peasant’s work with trembling haste,
And lay the whitened bones to view!—
Back they recoiled!—the right hand still,
Contracted, grasped a rusty sword;
Which erst in many a battle gleamed,
And proudly decked their slaughtered lord.
They bore the corse to Vener’s shrine,
With holy rites, and prayers addressed;
Nine white-robed monks the last dirge sang,
And gave the angry spirit rest.

It must be remembered that the real history of Howel Sele’s

death is to be collected from Mr. Pennant’s account of their sudden
feud already related; though he by no means distinctly states
whether Glyndwr caused him to be placed in the oak after he had
been slain, or “immured” him alive and left him to perish. It is rather
to be inferred that he was condemned by his kinsmen to the latter
fate. According to Pennant he perished in the year 1402, and we see
that his living burial place survived him, pierced and hallowed by the
hand of time, upwards of four centuries.

Sir Philip Sidney’s Oak.

In an elegant volume called “Sylvan Sketches, a companion to
the park and the shrubbery, with illustrations from the works of the
poets by the author of the Flora Domestica,” there is a delightful
assemblage of poetical passages on the oak, with this memorial of a
very celebrated one:—
“An oak was planted at Penshurst on the day of sir Philip Sidney’s
birth, of which Martyn speaks as standing in his time, and measuring
twenty-two feet round. This tree has since been felled, it is said by
mistake; would it be impossible to make a similar mistake with
regard to the mistaker?
“Several of our poets have celebrated this tree: Ben Jonson in his
lines to Penshurst, says,—
 ‘Thou hast thy walks for health as well as sport;
Thy mount to which thy Dryads do resort,
Where Pan and Bacchus their high seats have made,
Beneath the broad beech and the chesnut shade,
That taller tree which of a nut was set,
At his great birth where all the muses met.
There in the writhed bark are cut the names
Of many a sylvan taken with his flames.’
“It is mentioned by Waller:—
‘Go, boy, and carve this passion on the bark
Of yonder tree, which stands the sacred mark
Of noble Sidney’s birth.’
“Southey says, speaking of Penshurst—
———‘Sidney here was born.
Sidney than whom no greater, braver man,
His own delightful genius ever feigned,
Illustrating the vales of Arcady
With courteous courage, and with loyal loves.
Upon his natal day the acorn here
Was planted; it grew up a stately oak,
And in the beauty of its strength it stood
And flourished, when its perishable part
Had mouldered dust to dust. That stately oak
Itself hath mouldered now, but Sidney’s name
Endureth in his own immortal works.’
“This tree was frequently called the ‘bare oak,’ by the people of
the neighbourhood, from a resemblance it was supposed to bear to
the oak which gave name to the county of Berkshire. Tradition says,
that when the tenants went to the park gates as it was their custom
to do to meet the earl of Leicester, when they visited that castle,
they used to adorn their hats with boughs from this tree. Within the
hollow of its trunk was a seat which contained five or six persons
with ease and convenience.”

The Oak of Mamre.

We are told that this oak was standing in the fourth century.
Isidore affirms that when he was a child in the reign of the emperor
Constantius, he was shown a turpentine tree very old, which
declared its age by its bulk, as the tree under which Abraham dwelt;
that the heathens had a surprising veneration for it, and
distinguished it by an honourable appellation.[271] Some affirm that it
existed within the last four centuries.
At the dispersion of the Jews under Adrian, about the year 134,
“an incredible number of all ages and sexes were sold at the same
price as horses, in a very famous fair called the fair of the turpentine
tree: whereupon the Jews had an abhorrence for that fair.” St.
Jerome mentions the place at which the Jews were sold under the
name of “Abraham’s tent;” where, he says, “is kept an annual fair
very much frequented.” This place “on Mamre’s fertile plains,” is
alleged to have been the spot where Abraham entertained the
angels.[272]

NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
Mean Temperature 63·50.

[269] See this lady’s “Posthumous Works,” vol. iv. Stonehenge stanza 53,
from whence these lines are capriciously altered.
[270] Pennant.
[271] Bayle, art. Abraham.
[272] Bayle, art. Barcochebas.

July 28.
St. Declan.
The festival of this saint, who was the first bishop of Ardmore, in
the county of Waterford, is held on the twenty-fourth of the month.
The brief memoir of St. Declan, by Alban Butler, did not seem to
require notice of him on that day; but the manner wherein the feast
was celebrated in 1826, is so remarkably particularized in an Irish
paper, as to claim attention.
Ardmore and its Patron.
 St. Declan is represented to have been the friend and companion
of St. Patrick, and, according to tradition, Ardmore was an episcopal
see, established in the fifth century by St. Declan, who was born in
this county, and was of the family of the Desii. He travelled for
education to Rome, resided there for some years, was afterwards
ordained by the pope, returned to his own country about the year
402, and about that time founded the abbey and was made bishop
of Ardmore. He lived to a great age; and his successor, St. Ulthan,
was alive in the year 550. A stone, a holy well, and a dormitory, in
the churchyard, still bear the name of St. Declan. “St. Declan’s
stone” is on the beach; it is a large rock, resting on two others,
which elevate it a little above the ground. On the twenty-fourth of
July, the festival of the saint, numbers of the lowest class do
penance on their bare knees around the stone, and some, with great
pain and difficulty, creep under it, in expectation thereby of curing or
preventing, what it is much more likely to create, rheumatic
affections of the back. In the churchyard is the “dormitory of St.
Declan,” a small low building, held in great veneration by the people
in the neighbourhood, who frequently visit it in order to procure
some of the earth, which is supposed to cover the relics of the
saint.[273]
On the twenty-fourth of July, 1826, several thousand persons of
all ages and both sexes assembled at Ardmore. The greater part of
the extensive strand, which forms the western side of the bay, was
literally covered by a dense mass of people. Tents and stands for the
sale of whiskey, &c. were placed in parallel rows along the shore; the
whole at a distance bore the appearance of a vast encampment.
Each tent had its green ensign waving upon high, bearing some
patriotic motto. One of large dimensions, which floated in the breeze
far above the others, exhibited the words “Villiers Stuart for ever.”
At an early hour, those whom a religious feeling had drawn to the
spot, commenced their devotional exercises by passing under the
holy rock of St. Declan. The male part of the assemblage were clad
in trowsers and shirts, or in shirts alone; the females, in petticoats
pinned above the knees, and some of the more devout in chemises
only. Two hundred and ninety persons of both sexes thus prepared,
knelt at one time indiscriminately around the stone, and passed
separately under it to the other side. This was not effected without
considerable pain and difficulty, owing to the narrowness of the
passage, and the sharpness of the rocks. Stretched at full length on
the ground on the face and stomach, each devotee moved forward,
as if in the act of swimming, and thus squeezed or dragged
themselves through. Upwards of eleven hundred persons of both
sexes, in a state of half nudity, were observed to undergo the
ceremony in the course of the day. A reverend gentleman, who
stood by part of the time, was heard to exclaim, “O, great is their
faith.” Several of their reverences passed and re-passed to and from
the chapel close by the “holy rock,” during the day. The “holy rock,”
of so great veneration, is believed to be endued with miraculous
powers. It is said to have been wafted from Rome upon the surface
of the ocean, at the period of St. Declan’s founding his church at
Ardmore, and to have borne on its top a large bell for the church
tower, and vestments for the saint.
At a short distance from this sacred memorial, on a cliff
overhanging the sea, is the well of the saint. Thither the crowds
repair after the devotions at the rock are ended. Having drank
plentifully of its water, they wash their legs and feet in the stream
which issues from it, and, telling their beads, sprinkle themselves
and their neighbours with the fluid. These performances over, the
grave of the patron saint is then resorted to. Hundreds at a time
crowded around it, and crush each other in their eagerness to obtain
a handful of the earth which is believed to cover the mortal remains
of Declan. A woman stood breast high in the grave, and served out a
small portion of its clay to each person requiring it, from whom in
return she received a penny or halfpenny for the love of the saint.
The abode of the saint’s earthly remains has sunk to the depth of
nearly four feet, its clay having been scooped away by the finger
nails of the pious. A human skull of large dimensions was placed at
the head of the tomb, before which the people bowed, believing it to
be the identical skull of the tutelar saint.
This visit to St. Declan’s grave completed the devotional exercises
of a day held in greater honour than the sabbath, by those who
venerate the saint’s name, and worship at his shrine. The tents
which throughout the day, from the duties paid to the “patron,” had
been thronged with the devotionalists of the morning, resounded
from evening till daybreak, with sounds inspired by potations of
whiskey; and the scene is so characterised by its reporter as to seem
exaggerated.[274]

NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
Mean Temperature 63·65.

[273] Ryland’s History of Waterford.

[274] Waterford Mail.

July 29.
St. Martha.
On the festival of this saint of the Romish church, a great fair is
held at Beaucaire, in Languedoc, to which merchants and company
resort from a great distance round. It is a great mart for smugglers
and contraband traders, and is the harvest of the year both to
Beaucaire and Tarascon; for, as the former is not large enough to
accommodate the influx of people, Tarascon, in Provence, which is
separated from it by the Rhone, is generally equally full.

Tarascon, according to a popular tradition, has its name from a

terrible beast, a sort of dragon, known by the name of the tarasque,
which, in ancient days, infested the neighbourhood, ravaging the
country, and killing every thing that came in its way, both man and
beast, and eluding every endeavour made to take and destroy it, till
St. Martha arrived in the town, and taking compassion on the
general distress, went out against the monster, and brought him into
the town in chains, when the people fell upon him and slew him.
St. Martha, according to the chronicles of Provence, had fled
from her own country in company with her sister Mary Magdalen,
her brother Lazarus, and several other saints both male and female.
They landed at Marseilles, and immediately spread themselves about
the country to preach to the people. It fell to the lot of St. Martha to
bend her steps towards Tarascon, where she arrived at the fortunate
moment above mentioned. She continued to her dying day
particularly to patronise the place, and was at her own request
interred there. Her tomb is shown in a subterranean chapel
belonging to the principal church. It bears her figure in white
marble, as large as life, in a recumbent posture, and is a good piece
of sculpture, uninjured by the revolution. In the church a series of
paintings represent the escape of St. Martha and her companions
from their persecutors, their landing in Provence, and some of their
subsequent adventures. She is the patron saint of Tarascon.

It is presumed that the story of a beast ravaging the

neighbouring country had its origin in fact; but that instead of a
dreadful dragon it was a hyena. Bouche, however, in his Essai sur
l’Histoire de Provence, while he mentions the popular tradition of the
dragon, makes no mention of the supposed hyena, which he
probably would have done had there been any good ground for
believing in its existence.
Be this as it may, the fabulous story of the dragon was the
occasion of establishing an annual festival at Tarascon, the reputed
origin of which seems no less fabulous than the story itself.
According to the tradition, the queen, consort to the reigning
sovereign of the country, unaccountably fell into a deep and settled
melancholy, from which she could not be roused. She kept herself
shut up in her chamber, and would not see or be seen by any one;
medicines and amusements were in vain, till the ladies of Tarascon
thought of celebrating a festival, which they hoped, from its novelty
might impress the mind of their afflicted sovereign.
A figure was made to represent the “tarasque,” with a terrible
head, a terrible mouth, with two terrible rows of teeth, wings on its
back, and a terrible long tail. At the festival of St. Martha, by whom
the “tarasque” was chained, this figure was led about for eight days
successively, by eight of the principal ladies in the town, elegantly
dressed, and accompanied by a band of music. The procession was
followed by an immense concourse of people, in their holyday
clothes; and during the progress, alms were collected for the poor.
All sorts of gaieties were exhibited; balls, concerts, and shows of
every kind—nothing, in short, was omitted to accomplish the
purpose for which the festival was instituted.
And her majesty condescended to be amused: that hour her
melancholy ceased, and never after returned. Whether the honour of
this happy change was wholly due to the procession, or whether the
saint might not assist the efforts of the patriotic ladies of Tarascon,
by working a miracle in favour of the restoration of the queen’s
health, is not on record; but her malady never returned; and the
people of Tarascon were so much delighted by the procession of the
“tarasque,” that it was determined to make the festival an annual
one.

This festival was observed till the revolution; but in “the reign of
terror,” the people of Arles, between whom and those of Tarascon a
great jealousy and rivalship had for many years subsisted, came in a
body to the latter place, and, seizing the “tarasque,” burnt it in the
market-place. This piece of petty spite sadly chagrined the
Tarasconians. Their “tarasque” was endeared to them by its
antiquity, as well as by the amusement it afforded them. For four
years the festival of the “tarasque” remained uncelebrated, when an
attempt was made to reestablish it; a new “tarasque” was procured
by subscription among the people; but this also was seized by the
Arletins, and carried over the river to Beaucaire, where it remained
ever since.
“However,” said a hostess of Tarascon to Miss Plumptre, “since
Buonaparte has happily restored order in France, we are looking
forward to better times, and hope before the next festival of St.
Martha, to be permitted to reclaim our ‘tarasque,’ and renew the
procession.”
“Ah, ladies,” she added, “you have no idea how gay and how
happy we all used to be at that time! The rich and the poor, the old
and the young, the men and the women, all the same! all laughed,
all danced, all sung; there was not a sad face in the town. The ladies
were all so emulous of leading the ‘tarasque!’ They were all dressed
alike; one was appointed to regulate the dress, and whatever she
ordered the rest were obliged to follow. Sometimes the dresses were
trimmed with gold or silver, sometimes with lace, so rich, so grand!
God knows whether we shall ever see such times again. Ah! it was
only because we were so happy that the people of Arles envied us,
and had such a spite against us; but they have no reason to envy us
now, we have had sorrow enough: ninety-three persons were
guillotined here, and you may think what trouble that has spread
among a number of families. I myself, ladies, have had my share of
sorrow. My husband was not indeed guillotined, but he was obliged
to fly the town to avoid it: he never quitted France, but went about
from place to place where he was not known, working and picking
up a livelihood as well as he could; and it is only since Buonaparte
has been first consul that he has ventured to return. Besides, every
thing that I had of any value, my linen, my mattresses, my silver
spoons and forks, were all taken away by the requisition, and I can
only hope to have things comfortably about me again by degrees, if
we are so lucky as to get tolerable custom to our inn.” And then she
entered upon a long string of apologies for the state of her house.
“She was afraid,” she said, “that we should find things very
uncomfortable, but it was not in her power to receive ladies and
gentlemen as she had been used to do before her misfortunes. A
few years hence, if Buonaparte should but live, she hoped, if we
should happen to pass that way again, we should see things in a
very different state.”[275]

The Season.
“Now,” we perceive in the “Mirror of the Months,” that, “now, on
warm evenings after business hours, citizens of all ages grow
romantic; the single, wearing away their souls in sighing to the
breezes of Brixton-hill, and their soles in getting there; and the
married, sipping syllabub in the arbours of White Conduit-house, or
cooling themselves with hot rolls and butter at the New River Head.
 “Now, too, moved by the same spirit of romance, young
patricians, who have not yet been persuaded to banish themselves
to the beauty of their paternal groves, fling themselves into funnies,
and fatigue their ennui to death, by rowing up the river to Mrs.
Grange’s garden, to eat a handful of strawberries in a cup-full of
cream.
“Now, adventurous cockneys swim from the Sestos of the Strand
stairs to the Abydos of the coal-barge on the opposite shore, and
believe that they have been rivalling Lord Byron and Leander—not
without wondering, when they find themselves in safety, why the
lady for whom the latter performed a similar feat is called the Hero
of the story, instead of the Heroine.
“Finally,—now pains-and-pleasure-taking citizens hire cozey
cottages for six weeks certain in the Curtain-road, and ask their
friends to come and see them ‘in the country.’”

The Feast of Cherries.

There is a feast celebrated at Hamburg, called the “feast of
cherries,” in which troops of children parade the streets with green
boughs, ornamented with cherries, to commemorate a victory,
obtained in the following manner:—In 1432, the Hussites threatened
the city of Hamburg with an immediate destruction, when one of the
citizens, named Wolf, proposed that all the children in the city, from
seven to fourteen years of age, should be clad in mourning, and sent
as supplicants to the enemy. Procopius Nasus, chief of the Hussites,
was so touched with this spectacle, that he received the young
supplicants, regaled them with cherries and other fruits, and
promised them to spare the city.
The children returned crowned with leaves, holding cherries, and
crying “victory!”—and hence, the “feast of cherries” is an annual
commemoration of humane feelings.[276]
 To the Gnat.
For the Every-Day Book.
Native of Ponds! I scarce could deem
Thee worthy of my praise,
Wert thou not joyous in the beam
Of summer’s closing days.
But who can watch thy happy bands
Dance o’er the golden wave,
And be not drawn to fancy’s lands,—
And not their pleasures crave?
Small as thou art to vulgar sight,
In beauty thou art born:—
Thou waitest on my ears at night,
Sounding thine insect horn.
The sun returns—his glory spreads
In heaven’s pure flood of light;
Thou makest thine escape from beds,
And risest with a bite.
Where’er thy lancet draws a vein,
’Tis always sure to swell;
A very molehill raised with pain
As many a maid can tell.
Yet, for thy brief epitome
Of love, life, tone and thrall;
I’d rather have a bump from thee,
Than Spurz-heim, or from Gall.
J. R. P.

Fish.
It is noted by Dr. Forster, that towards the end of July the fishery
of pilchards begins in the west of England. Through August it
continues with that of mullets, red surmallets, red gurnards, and
several other fish which abound on our south-west coasts. In
Cornwall, fish is so cheap and so commonly used as an article of
food, that we remember so lately as August, 1804, the then rector of
Boconnoc used to have turbot for supper, which he considered as a
good foundation for a large bowl of posca, a sort of weak punch
drank in that country. Having witnessed on this day in 1822, the
grand Alpine view of the lake of Geneva, and the Swiss and
Savoyard mountains behind it, from Mount Jura, we are reminded to
present the reader with the following excellent lines which we have
met with in “Fables, by Thomas Brown, the Younger,” London, 1823.
 View of the Alps and theLake of
Geneva from the Jura.
’Twas late, the sun had almost shone
His last and best, when I ran on,
Anxious to reach that splendid view
Before the daybeams quite withdrew;
And feeling as all feel, on first
Approaching scenes, where they are told
Such glories on their eyes shall burst
As youthful bards in dreams behold.
’Twas distant yet, and as I ran,
Full often was my wistful gaze
Turned to the sun, who now began
To call in all his outpost rays,
And form a denser march of light,
Such as beseems a hero’s flight.
Oh! how I wished for Joshua’s power
To slay the brightness of that hour!
But no, the sun still less became,
Diminished to a speck, as splendid
And small as were those tongues of flame
That on the apostles’ heads descended.
’Twas at this instant, while there glowed
This last intensest gleam of light,
Suddenly through the opening road
The valley burst upon my sight;
That glorious valley with its lake,
And Alps on Alps in clusters swelling,
Mighty and pure, and fit to make
The ramparts of a godhead’s dwelling.
I stood entranced and mute as they
Of Israel think the assembled world
Will stand upon the awful day,
When the ark’s light, aloft unfurled
Among the opening clouds shall shine,
Divinity’s own radiant sign!
Mighty Mont Blanc, thou wert to me
That minute, with thy brow in heaven,
As sure a sign of Deity
As e’er to mortal gaze was given
Nor ever were I destined yet
 Nor ever, were I destined yet
To live my life twice o’er again,
Can I the deepfelt awe forget,
The ecstacy that thrilled me then.
’Twas all the unconsciousness of power
And life, beyond this mortal hour;
Those mountings of the soul within
At thoughts of heaven, as birds begin
By instinct in the cage to rise,
When near their time for change of skies;
That proud assurance of our claim
To rank among the sons of light,
Mingled with shame! oh, bitter shame!
At having risked that splendid right,
For aught that earth, through all its range
Of glories, offers in exchange!
’Twas all this, at the instant brought,
Like breaking sunshine o’er my thought;
’Twas all this, kindled to a glow
Of sacred zeal, which, could it shine
Thus purely ever, man might grow,
Even upon earth, a thing divine,
And be once more the creature made
To walk unstained the Elysian shade.
No, never shall I lose the trace
Of what I’ve felt in this bright place:
And should my spirit’s hope grow weak,
Should I, oh God! e’er doubt thy power,
This mighty scene again I’ll seek,
At the same calm and glowing hour;
And here, at the sublimest shrine
That nature ever reared to thee,
Rekindle all that hope divine,
And feel my immortality.

NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
Mean Temperature 63·80.

[275] Miss Plumptre’s Travels in France.

[276] Phillips’s Account of Fruits.
 July 30.
The Old Gates of London.
On the 30th of July, 1760, the materials of the three following
city gates were sold before the committee of city lands to Mr.
Blagden, a carpenter in Coleman-street, viz.—
Aldgate, for £177 10 s.
Cripplegate, 91 0
Ludgate, 148 0[277]

New Bishop of Durham—

Bishop Auckland Custom.
To the Editor of the Every-Day Book.
July 30, 1826.
Dear Sir,—In the “Times,” of the twenty-second instant, there is
the following paragraph, copied from the Newcastle paper. “The
bishop of Durham arrived at his castle at Bishop Auckland, on Friday
last. On his entering into the county at Croft-bridge, which separates
it from the county of York, he was met by the officers of the see, the
mayor and corporation of Stockton, and several of the principal
nobility and others of the county. Here a sort of ceremony was
performed, which had its origin in the feudal times,” &c.
The origin of the ceremony above alluded to is this. About the
commencement of the fourteenth century, sir John Conyers slew
with his falchion in the fields of Sockburne, a monstrous creature, a
dragon, a worm, or flying serpent, that devoured men, women, and
children. The then owner of Sockburne, as a reward for his bravery,
gave him the manor with its appurtenances to hold for ever, on
condition that he met the lord bishop of Durham, with this falchion,
on his first entrance into his diocese, after his election to that see.
And in confirmation of this tradition, there is painted in a window of
Sockburne church, the falchion just now spoken of; and it is also cut
in marble, upon the tomb of the great ancestor of the Conyers’,
together with a dog and the monstrous worm or serpent, lying at his
feet. When the bishop first comes into his diocese, he crosses the
river Tees, either at the Ford of Nesham, or Croft-bridge, at one of
which places the lord of the manor of Sockburne, or his
representative, rides into the middle of the river, if the bishop comes
by Nesham, with the ancient falchion drawn in his hand, or upon the
middle of Croft-bridge; and then presents it to the bishop,
addressing him in the ancient form of words. Upon which the bishop
takes the falchion into his hands, looks at it, and returns it back
again, wishing the lord of the manor his health and the enjoyment of
his estate.
There are likewise some lands at Bishop’s Auckland, called
Pollard’s lands, held by a similar service, viz. showing to the bishop
one fawchon, at his first coming to Auckland after his consecration.
The form of words made use of is, I believe, as follows:—
“My Lord,—On behalf of myself as well as of the several other
tenants of Pollard’s lands, I do humbly present your lordship with
this fawchon, at your first coming here, wherewith as the tradition
goeth, Pollard slew of old, a great and venomous serpent, which did
much harm to man and beast, and by the performance of this
service these lands are holden.”
The drawing of the falchion and tomb in Sockburne church, I
have unfortunately lost, otherwise it should have accompanied this
communication: perhaps some of your numerous readers will be
able to furnish you with it.
I remain,
Dear Sir, &c.
J. F.

The editor joins in his respected correspondent’s desire to see a

representation in the Every-Day Book, of “the falchion and tomb in
Sockburne church.” A correct drawing of it shall be accurately
engraven, if any gentleman will be pleased to communicate one:
such a favour will be respectfully acknowledged.

NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
Mean Temperature 63·57.
 [277] British Chronologist.

July 31.
Mayor of Bartlemass.

To the Editor of the Every-Day Book.

July 4, 1826.
Sir,—The following is a brief notice of the annual mock election of
the “mayor of Bartlemass,” at Newbury, in Berkshire.
The day on which it takes place, is the first Monday after St.
Anne’s; therefore, this year if not discontinued, and I believe it is
not, it will be held on the thirty-first day of July. The election is held
at the Bull and Dog public-house, where a dinner is provided; the
principal dishes being bacon and beans, have obtained for it the
name of the “bacon and bean feast.” In the course of the day a
procession takes place. A cabbage is stuck on a pole and carried
instead of a mace, accompanied by similar substitutes for the other
emblems of civic dignity, and there is, of course, plenty of “rough
music.” A “justice” is chosen at the same time, some other offices
are filled up, and the day ends by all concerned getting completely
“how came ye so.”
In the same town, a mock mayor and justice are likewise chosen
for Norcutt-lane, but whether on the same day or not I cannot say;
how long these customs have existed, or whence they originated I
do not know; they were before I, or the oldest man in the town, can
remember.
A Shoemaker.

The Season.
By the “Mirror of the Months,” the appearance of natural scenery
at this season is brought before us. “The corn-fields are all
redundant with waving gold—gold of all hues—from the light yellow
of the oats, (those which still remain uncut,) to the deep sunburnt
glow of the red wheat. But the wide rich sweeps of these fields are
now broken in upon, here and there, by patches of the parched and
withered looking bean crops; by occasional bits of newly ploughed
land, where the rye lately stood; by the now darkening turnips—
dark, except where they are being fed off by sheep flocks; and lastly
by the still bright-green meadows, now studded every where with
grazing cattle, the second crops of grass being already gathered in.
“The woods, as well as the single timber trees that occasionally
start up with such fine effect from out of the hedge-rows, or in the
midst of meadows and corn-fields, we shall now find sprinkled with
what at first looks like gleams of scattered sunshine lying among the
leaves, but what, on examination, we shall find to be the new foliage
that has been put forth since midsummer, and which yet retains all
the brilliant green of the spring. The effect of this new green, lying
in sweeps and patches upon the old, though little observed in
general, is one of the most beautiful and characteristic appearances
of this season. In many cases, when the sight of it is caught near at
hand, on the sides of thick plantations, the effect of it is perfectly
deceptive, and you wonder for a moment how it is, that while the
sun is shining so brightly every where, it should shine so much more
brightly on those particular spots.”

NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
Mean Temperature 63·60.
AUGUST.
 The ears are fill’d, the fields are white,
The constant harvest-moon is bright
To grasp the bounty of the year,
The reapers to the scene repair,
With hook in hand, and bottles slung,
And dowlas-scrips beside them hung.
The sickles stubble all the ground,
And fitful hasty laughs go round;
The meals are done as soon as tasted,
And neither time nor viands wasted.
All over—then, the barrels foam—
The “Largess”-cry, the “Harvest-home!”
*
The “Mirror of the Months” likens August to “that brief, but
perhaps best period of human life, when the promises of youth are
either fulfilled or forgotten, and the fears and forethoughts
connected with decline have not yet grown strong enough to make
themselves felt; and consequently when we have nothing to do but
look around us, and be happy.” For it is in this month that the year
“like a man at forty, has turned the corner of its existence; but, like
him, it may still fancy itself young, because it does not begin to feel
itself getting old. And perhaps there is no period like this, for
encouraging and bringing to perfection that habit of tranquil
enjoyment, in which all true happiness must mainly consist: with
pleasure it has, indeed, little to do; but with happiness it is every
thing.”
The author of the volume pursues his estimate by observing, that
“August is that debateable ground of the year, which is situated
exactly upon the confines of summer and autumn; and it is difficult
to say which has the better claim to it. It is dressed in half the
flowers of the one, and half the fruits of the other; and it has a sky
and a temperature all its own, and which vie in beauty with those of
the spring. May itself can offer nothing so sweet to the senses, so
enchanting to the imagination, and so soothing to the heart, as that
genial influence which arises from the sights, the sounds, and the
associations, connected with an August evening in the country, when
the occupations and pleasures of the day are done, and when all,
even the busiest, are fain to give way to that ‘wise passiveness,’ one
hour of which is rife with more real enjoyment than a whole season
of revelry. Those who will be wise (or foolish) enough to make
comparisons between the various kinds of pleasure of which the
mind of man is capable, will find that there is none (or but one)
equal to that felt by a true lover of nature, when he looks forth upon
her open face silently, at a season like the present, and drinks in that
still beauty which seems to emanate from every thing he sees, till his
whole senses are steeped in a sweet forgetfulness, and he becomes
unconscious of all but that instinct of good which is ever present
with us, but which can so seldom make itself felt amid that throng of
thoughts which are ever busying and besieging us, in our intercourse
with the living world. The only other feeling which equals this, in its
intense quietude, and its satisfying fulness, is one which is almost
identical with it,—where the accepted lover is gazing unobserved,
and almost unconsciously, on the face of his mistress, and tracing
their sweet evidences of that mysterious union which already exists
between them.
“The whole face of nature has undergone, since last month, an
obvious change; obvious to those who delight to observe all her
changes and operations, but not sufficiently striking to insist on
being seen generally by those who can read no characters but such
as are written in a text hand. If the general colours of all the various
departments of natural scenery are not changed, their hues are; and
if there is not yet observable the infinite variety of autumn, there is
as little the extreme monotony of summer. In one department,
however, there is a general change, that cannot well remain
unobserved. The rich and unvarying green of the corn-fields has
entirely and almost suddenly changed to a still richer and more
conspicuous gold colour; more conspicuous on account of the
contrast it now offers to the lines, patches, and masses of green
with which it every where lies in contact, in the form of intersecting
hedge-rows, intervening meadows, and bounding masses of forest.
These latter are changed too; but in hue alone, not in colour. They
are all of them still green; but it is not the fresh and tender green of
the spring, nor the full and satisfying, though somewhat dull, green
of the summer; but many greens, that blend all those belonging to
the seasons just named, with others at once more grave and more
bright; and the charming variety and interchange of which are
peculiar to this delightful month, and are more beautiful in their
general effect than those of either of the preceding periods: just as a
truly beautiful woman is perhaps more beautiful at the period
immediately before that at which her charms begin to wane, than
she ever was before. Here, however, the comparison must end; for
with the year its incipient decay is the signal for it to put on more
and more beauties daily, till, when it reaches the period at which it is
on the point of sinking into the temporary death of winter, it is more
beautiful in general appearance than ever.”

August 1.
Lammas Day.
Though the origin of this denomination is related in vol. i. col.
1063, yet it seems proper to add that Lammas or Lambmas day
obtained its name from a mass ordained to St. Peter, supplicating his
benediction on lambs, in shearing season, to preserve them from
catching cold. St Peter became patron of lambs, from Christ’s
metaphorical expression, “Feed my lambs,” having been construed
into a literal injunction.[278] Raphael makes this misconstruction the
subject of one of his great cartoons, by representing Christ as
speaking to Peter, and pointing to a flock of lambs.

Lammas Towers in Mid-Lothian.

There was a Lammas festival, which prevailed in the Lothians
from very early times among the young persons employed during
summer in tending the herds at pasture. The usage is remarkable.
It appears that the herdsmen within a certain district, towards
the beginning of summer, associated themselves into bands,
sometimes to the number of a hundred or more. Each of these
communities agreed to build a tower in some conspicuous place,
near the centre of their district, which was to serve as the place of
their rendezvous on Lammas day. This tower was usually built of
sods; for the most part square, about four feet in diameter at the
bottom, and tapering to a point at the top, which was seldom above
seven or eight feet from the ground. In building it, a hole was left in
the centre for admitting a flag-staff, on which to display their
colours. The tower was usually begun to be built about a month
before Lammas, and was carried up slowly by successive additions
from time to time, being seldom entirely completed till a few days
before Lammas; though it was always thought that those who
completed their’s soonest, and kept it standing the longest time
before Lammas, behaved in the most gallant manner, and acquired
most honour by their conduct.
From the moment the foundation of the tower was laid, it
became an object of care and attention to the whole community; for
it was reckoned a disgrace to suffer it to be defaced; so that they
resisted, with all their power, any attempts that should be made to
demolish it, either by force or fraud; and, as the honour that was
acquired by the demolition of a tower, if affected by those belonging
to another, was in proportion to the disgrace of suffering it to be
demolished, each party endeavoured to circumvent the other as
much as possible, and laid plans to steal upon the tower
unperceived, in the night time, and level it with the ground. Great
was the honour that such a successful exploit conveyed to the
undertakers; and, though the tower was easily rebuilt, and was soon
put into its former state, yet the news was quickly spread by the
successful adventurers, through the whole district, which filled it
with shouts of joy and exultation, while their unfortunate neighbours
were covered with shame. To ward off this disgrace, a constant
nightly guard was kept at each tower, which was made stronger and
stronger, as the tower advanced; so that frequent nightly skirmishes
ensued at these attacks, but were seldom of much consequence, as
the assailants seldom came in force to make an attack in this way,
but merely to succeed by surprise; as soon, therefore, as they saw
they were discovered, they made off in the best manner they could.
 To give the alarm on these, and other occasions, every person
was armed with a “tooting horn;” that is, a horn perforated in the
small end, through which wind can be forcibly blown from the
mouth, so as to occasion a loud sound; and, as every one wished to
acquire as great dexterity as possible in the use of the “tooting
horn,” they practised upon it during the summer, while keeping their
beasts; and towards Lammas they were so incessantly employed at
this business, answering to, and vying with each other, that the
whole country rang continually with the sounds; and it must no
doubt have appeared to be a very harsh and unaccountable noise to
a stranger who was then passing through it.
As the great day of Lammas approached, each community chose
one from among themselves for their captain, and they prepared a
stand of colours to be ready to be then displayed. For this purpose,
they usually borrowed a fine table napkin of the largest size, from
some of the farmer’s wives within the district; and, to ornament it,
they borrowed ribbons, which they tacked upon the napkin in such
fashion as best suited their fancy. Things being thus prepared, they
marched forth early in the morning on Lammas day, dressed in their
best apparel, each armed with a stout cudgel, and, repairing to their
tower, there displayed their colours in triumph; blowing horns, and
making merry in the best manner they could. About nine o’clock
they sat down upon the green; and each taking from his pocket,
bread and cheese, or other provisions, made a hearty breakfast,
drinking pure water from a well, which they always took care should
be near the scene of banquet.
In the mean time, scouts were sent out towards every quarter, to
bring them notice if any hostile party approached; for it frequently
happened, that on that day the herdsmen of one district went to
attack those of another district, and to bring them under subjection
to them by main force. If news were brought that a hostile party
approached, the horns sounded to arms, and they immediately
arranged themselves in the best order they could devise; the
stoutest and boldest in front, and those of inferior prowess behind.
Seldom did they wait the approach of the enemy, but usually went
forth to meet them with a bold countenance, the captain of each
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