Chapter Two

Cellular Networks and Satellite

Communication

1
 Outline

• Basics of Cellular Networks

• Generation of Cellular Networks
• Basics of Satellite Communication

2
 Basics of Cellular Networks
• Cellular radio is a technique that was developed to increase
the capacity available for mobile radio telephone service.
• Prior to the introduction of cellular radio, mobile radio
telephone service was only provided by a high-power
transmitter/receiver.
• Cellular Network Organization
– a cellular network is the use of multiple low-power
transmitters, on the order of 100W or less
– Because the range of such a transmitter is small, an area can be
divided into cells, each one served by its own antenna.
– Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies and
– Each cell is served by a base station, consisting of transmitter,
receiver, and control unit.
– Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid
interference or crosstalk
3
 Basics of Cellular Networks
• The first design decision to make is the shape of cells to
cover an area.
– A matrix of square cells would be the simplest layout to
define
– However, this geometry is not ideal.
– If the width of a square cell is d, then a cell has four
neighbors at a distance d and four neighbors at a distance
2d.
– As a mobile user within a cell moves toward the cell's
boundaries, it is best if all of the adjacent antennas are
equidistant.
• This simplifies the task of determining when to switch the user
to an adjacent antenna and which antenna to choose.

4
 Basics of Cellular Networks
• A hexagonal pattern provides for equidistant
antennas
• A precise hexagonal pattern is not used.
• Variations from the ideal are due to
– Topographical limitations,
– Local signal propagation conditions, and
– Practical limitation on sitting antennas

5
Basics of Cellular Networks

6
 Basics of Cellular Networks
• Frequency Reuse
– Each cell has a base transceiver.
– The transmission power is carefully controlled to allow
communication within the cell using a given frequency
band while limiting the power at that frequency
– Within a given cell, multiple frequency bands are assigned,
the number of bands depending on the traffic expected.
– A key design issue is to determine the minimum separation
between two cells using the same frequency band, so that
the two cells do not interfere with each other.
– Objective is to reuse frequency in nearby cells
• 10 to 50 frequencies assigned to each cell
• Transmission power controlled to limit power at that
frequency escaping to adjacent cells
• The issue is to determine how many cells must intervene
between two cells using the same frequency 7
• In characterizing frequency reuse, the following
parameters are commonly used:
• D = minimum distance between centers of cells that use
the same frequency band (called co-channels )
• R = radius of a cell
• d = distance between centers of adjacent cells
• N = number of cells in a repetitious pattern (each cell in
the pattern uses a unique set of frequency bands - reuse
factor.
– In a hexagonal cell pattern, only the following
values of N are possible:
» N = I2 + J2 + (I X J), I,J = 0, 1,2,3, ...
– Can have the value 1,3,4,7,9,12,13,16,19,21,…

8
9
 Basics of Cellular Networks
• Increasing Capacity
– as more customers use the system, traffic may
build up so that there are not enough frequency
bands assigned to a cell to handle its calls.
– A number of approaches have been used to cope
with this situation, including the following:
• Adding new channels - growth and expansion can be
managed in an orderly fashion by adding new
channels.
• Frequency borrowing - frequencies are taken from
adjacent cells by congested cells.
– The frequencies can also be assigned to cells
dynamically.
10
 Basics of Cellular Networks
• Cell splitting - Cells in areas of high usage can be split into
smaller cells.
– Generally, the original cells are about 6.5 to 13 km in size.
– The smaller cells can themselves be split; however, 1.5-km cells
are close to the practical minimum size as a general solution
– Handoff – transferring of the call from one base transceiver to
another
• As the cells get smaller, these handoffs become much more
frequent.
• Cell sectoring - a cell is divided into a number of wedge-
shaped sectors, each with its own set of channels, typically 3
or 6 sectors per cell.
• Microcells – antennas move to buildings, hills, and lamp posts
– Microcells are useful in city streets in congested areas, along
highways, and inside large public buildings.
11
Cellular System Overview

12
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• Base Station (BS) – includes an antenna, a controller, and
a number of transceivers
• The controller is used to handle the call process between
the mobile unit and the rest of the network.
• Each BS is connected to a mobile telecommunications
switching office (MTSO), with one MTSO serving
multiple BSs.
• The MTSO
– connects calls between mobile units.
– is also connected to the public telephone or
telecommunications network
– can make a connection between a fixed subscriber to the
public network and a mobile subscriber to the cellular
network. 13
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• The MTSO
– assigns the voice channel to each call,
– performs handoffs and
– monitors the call for billing information.
• Two types of channels available between mobile unit and BS
– Control channels – used to exchange information having
to do with setting up and maintaining calls and
• with establishing a relationship between a mobile unit and
the nearest BS
– Traffic channels – carry voice or data connection between
users
• Forward channel – from BS to the mobile unit
• Reverse channel – from the mobile unit to the BS
14
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• The steps in a typical call between two mobile users
within an area controlled by a single MTSO:
– Mobile unit initialization
• When the mobile unit is turned on, it scans and selects the
strongest setup control channel used for this system
• Cells with different frequency bands repetitively broadcast
on different setup channels
• The receiver selects the strongest setup channel and monitors
that channel.
• the mobile unit has automatically selected the BS antenna of
the cell within which it will operate.
• Then a handshake takes place between the mobile unit and
the MTSO controlling this cell, through the BS in this cell.
• The handshake is used to identify the user and register its
location.
15
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• Mobile-originated call
– A mobile unit originates a call by sending the number of the
called unit on the preselected setup channel
– The receiver at the mobile unit first checks that the setup
channel is idle by examining information in the forward (from
the BS) channel.
– When an idle is detected, the mobile unit may transmit on the
corresponding reverse (to BS) channel.
– The BS sends the request to the MTSO.
• Paging
– The MTSO then attempts to complete the connection to the
called unit.
– The MTSO sends a paging message to certain BSs depending on
the called mobile unit number
– Each BS transmits the paging signal on its own assigned setup
channel.
16
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• Call accepted
– The called mobile unit recognizes its number on the setup
channel being monitored and responds to that BS, which
sends the response to the MTSO.
– The MTSO sets up a circuit between the calling and called
BSs.
– the MTSO selects an available traffic channel within each
BS's cell and notifies each BS, which in turn notifies its
mobile unit
– The two mobile units tune to their respective assigned
channels.
• Ongoing call
– While the connection is maintained, the two mobile units
exchange voice or data signals, going through their
respective BSs and the MTSO 17
 Operation of Cellular Systems
– Handoff
• If a mobile unit moves out of range of one cell and
into the range of another during a connection, the
traffic channel has to change to one assigned to the
BS in the new cell
• The system makes this change without either
interrupting the call or alerting the user.

18
 Operation of Cellular Systems
Initialization Request for Connection

19
 Operation of Cellular Systems
Paging Call accepted

20
 Operation of Cellular Systems
Ongoing call Handoff

21
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• Issues Vital to cellular networks
• Frequency allocation
• Licensed- are reliable and offer better performance than
unlicensed frequency bands which are low cost and
easy to deploy but interference is common
• Many providers
• Multiple Access
• Many users
• Wide area of coverage
• Traffic management
• Location management
• High mobility (in cars, trains)
• Multiple suppliers
• Handoff management, roaming
22
• Handoff - Is the procedure for changing the assignment of a mobile unit
from one BS to another as the mobile unit moves from one cell to another.
– Guard channel – offers a means of improving the probability of a
successful handoff by reserving a certain number of channels allocated
exclusively for hand off request
– Usually given higher priority than initial call
– Selecting the threshold signal level is vital
• Too small – lost connection
• Too large - unnecessary handoffs

23
 Handoff Detection Strategies

• Mobile – Controlled handoff(MCHO)

• Network – Controlled Handoff (NCHO)
• Mobile – Assisted Handoff (MAHO)

24
 Handoff Detection Strategies
Mobile – Controlled handoff(MCHO)
• In this strategy, the MS continuously Monitors the
radio signal strength and quality of the surrounding
BSs,
• When predefined criteria are met, then the MS
checks for the best candidate BS for an available
traffic channel and requests the handoff to occur
• This is not that much useful type of handoff strategy
as there is a lots of burden to the mobile station

25
 Handoff Detection Strategies
Network – Controlled Handoff (NCHO)
• In this strategy, the surrounding BSs, the MSC or
both monitor the radio signal.
• When the signal’s strength and quality deteriorate
below a predefined threshold, the network arranges
for a handoff to another channel

26
 Handoff Detection Strategies
• Mobile – Assisted Handoff (MAHO)
• It is a variant of NCHO strategy.
• In this strategy, the network directs the MS to
measure the signal from the surrounding BSs and to
report those measurements back to the network.
• The network then uses these measurements to
determine where a handoff is required and to which
channel
• The most popular type of handoff strategy because
the mobile is measuring the signal strength which
will give the accurate result and all the processing
will be done at the network that will reduce the
load on the mobile station
27
 Types of Handoff with reference to link
transfer
Hard handoff – “break before make”
• Old connection is broke before a new connection is
activated
• Primarily used in FDMA ad TDMA system (e.g GSM)
• Different frequency rages used in adjacent cells to
minimize the interference

28
 Types of Handoff with reference to link
transfer
Soft handoff – “make before break”
• New connection is activated before the old is
broken
• Used in UMTS to improve the signal quality
– Uplink and downlink signals may be combined
for better signal
– A Mobile may in UMTS spend a large part of
the connection time in soft handover
– Better connection reliability
• It is more seamless handover
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 Four types of Handoff
1. Intra Cell handoff
2. Inter Cell or Intra – BSC handoff
3. Inter – BSC or Intra- MSC handoff
4. Inter – MSC handoff

30
Intra-Cell Handoff:
• This occurs when a call is transferred to a different radio channel
within the same cell, often to improve signal strength or reduce
interference.
Inter-Cell/Intra-BSC Handoff:
• This happens when a call is transferred to a different cell, but both
cells are managed by the same Base Station Controller (BSC).
Inter-BSC/Intra-MSC Handoff:
• This occurs when a call is transferred to a cell managed by a different
BSC, but both BSCs are connected to the same Mobile Switching
Center (MSC).
Inter-MSC Handoff:

• This takes place when a call is transferred to a cell managed by a

different MSC. 31
 Handoff with reference to the network
Intersystem Handoff
If a mobile moves form one cellular system to a
different cellular system controlled by a different MSC,
an intersystem handoff becomes necessary. (e.g GSM
to WCDMA to LTE)

32
• Performance metrics used to make the handoff decision.
– Cell blocking –
• The probability of a new call being blocked, due to heavy
load on the BS traffic capacity.
• the mobile unit is handed off to a neighboring cell based not
on signal quality but on traffic capacity.
– Call dropping - The probability that, due to a handoff, a
call is terminated.
– Call completion - The probability that an admitted call is
not dropped before it terminates.
– Probability of unsuccessful handoff - The probability that a
handoff is executed while the reception conditions are
inadequate.
– Handoff blocking - The probability that a handoff cannot
be successfully completed.
33
– Handoff probability - The probability that a
handoff occurs before call termination.
– Rate of handoff - The number of handoffs per
unit time.
– Interruption duration: The duration of time
during a handoff in which a mobile unit is not
connected to either base station.
– Handoff delay: The distance the mobile unit
moves from the point at which the handoff
should occur to the point at which it does occur.

34
 Multiple Access Methods
• Is the technique that lets multiple mobile users to share
the allotted spectrum in the most effective manner
• Since spectrum is limited , the sharing is necessary to
improve the overall capacity of the geographical area
• This is carried out by permitting the available bandwidth
to be used simultaneously by different users
• In computer networks, the multiple access method
permits various terminals to connect to the same
multipoint transmission medium to transmit over it and
share its capacity
• Depending the channel type, specific multiple access
techniques can be used for communication
– FDMA, TDMA and CDMA are the most common
35
 Multiple Access Methods
• FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access
– The total bandwidth available to the system is
divided into frequencies
– Is used mainly for analog transmission
– All users share the satellite simultaneously but
each user transmits at single frequency.
– Used 30 KHz for each user.

36
 Multiple Access Methods
• Pros
– Very Simple to design
– Narrowband (no ISI)
– ISI - is a form of distortion of a signal in which
one symbol interferes with subsequent symbols)
– Synchronization is easy
– No interference among users in a cell
• Cons
– Narrowband interference
– Static spectrum allocation
– Freq. reuse is a problem
– High Q analog filters or large guard band required
37
Multiple Access Methods

Example FM Radios

38
 Multiple Access Methods
• TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access
– A time slot is assigned to each call during the conversation,
a regular space in a digital stream
– This technology enables three different users to use one
frequency at the same time.
– Used same 30 KHz channels, but with three users sharing
them (3 slots)
• Pros
– Better suited for digital
– Often gets higher capacity (3 times higher here)
– Relaxes need for high Q filters

39
 Multiple Access Methods
• Cons
– Strict synchronization and guard time needed
– Still susceptible to jamming, other-cell interference
– Often requires equalizer

40
 Multiple Access Methods
• CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
– Employs spread-spectrum technology
– Each bit time is subdivided into m short intervals
called chips
– Each station has its own unique chip sequence
• To transmit a 1 bit, a station sends its chip sequence
• To transmit a 0 bit, it sends the one's complement of its
chip sequence
– All chip sequences are pair wise orthogonal
• Generated using a method known as Walsh codes

41
• Example
– We have four senders A, B, C, D with the following chip
sequence:
A: 00011011
B: 00101110
C: 01011100
D: 01000010
– Assume we represent binary 0 with -1 and binary 1 with +1
A: {-1-1-1+1+1-1+1+1}
B: {-1-1+1-1+1+1+1-1}
C: {-1+1-1+1+1+1-1-1}
D: {-1+1-1-1-1-1+1-1}
• Data Transmitters Data at the receiver
--1- C S1= {-1+1-1+1+1+1-1-1}
-11- B+C S2 ={-2 0 0 0+2+2 0-2}
101- A+B’+C S3={-1+1-3+3+1-1-1+1}
1101 A+B+C’+D S4={-2-2 0-2 0-2+4 0} 42
• To recover the data sent by transmitter C , the
receiver calculate the dot product of the chip
sequence of C with the data received
– S1.C = (1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1)/8 = 1 which is 1
– S2.C = (2+0+0+0+2+2+0+2)/8 =1 which is 1
– S3.C = (1+1+3+3+1-1+1-1)/8=1 which is 1
– S4.C = (2-2+0-2+0-2-4+0)/8=-1 which is 0

43
 Outline
• Basics of Cellular Networks
• Generation of Cellular Networks (1G/2G/3G/4G)
• Basics of Satellite Communication

44
 0G
• They are the mobile radio telephone systems preceded
modern cellular mobile telephony technology.
• These systems are sometimes referred to as pre cellular (or
sometimes zero generation) systems.
• Technologies used in pre cellular systems included
• Push to Talk (PTT or manual),
• Mobile Telephone System (MTS),
• Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS), and
• Advanced Mobile Telephone System (AMTS) systems.
• These mobile telephones were
usually mounted in cars or trucks,
though briefcase models were also
made.
• Typically, the transceiver
(transmitter-receiver) was mounted
in the vehicle trunk and attached to
the "head" (dial, display, and
handset) mounted near the driver
seat.
 1G (First Generation)
➢was introduced in 1980 and completed in 1990.
➢First-time calling was introduced in mobile
systems.
➢It used analog signals and AMPS(Advanced
Mobile Phone System).
➢AMPS is a first-generation cellular technology that
uses separate frequencies, or "channels", for each
conversation
➢It used an FDD scheme and typically allocated a
bandwidth of 25 Mhz.
➢The coverage area was small.
➢No roaming support between various operators.
➢Low sound quality.
➢It allowed the voice call in one country.
➢Speed:- 2.4 kbps.
➢It was first launched in USA
➢Also common in South America, Australia, and
China
 Call Sequence
1. Subscriber initiates call by keying in number and presses
send
2. MTSO validates telephone number and checks user
authorized to place call
• Some service providers require a PIN to counter theft
3. MTSO issues message to user's phone indicating traffic
channels to use
4. MTSO sends ringing signal to called party
• All operations, 2 through 4, occur within 10 s of initiating call
5. When called party answers, MTSO establishes circuit and
initiates billing information
6. When one party hangs up MTSO releases circuit, frees
radio channels, and completes billing information
Technologies under 1G
• As early cellular phone technology worked in 150 MHz of
frequency band.
• Advanced Mobile Telephone Systems (AMTS),
• Push to Talk (PTT) and
• Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS) are the technologies
under 1G.
Features of 1G
• In voice call and text messages is available by use of analog
narrow bandwidth.
Drawbacks in 1G
• Analog cellular phones are not very protected.
• It has a limited capacity, poor battery life,
• poor large phone size, poor handoff reliability,
• poor voice quality, and no security at all since voice call can
be hacked by radio towers.
 2G (2nd Generation)
➢ Shifted from analog to digital.
➢ It supported voice and SMS.
➢ Supported all 4 sectors of the wireless industry namely
Digital cellular, Mobile Data, PCS, WLAN,
➢ 2G WLAN provided a high data rate & large area
coverage.
➢ Speed:- 64 kbps.
➢ is based on the GSM.
• Technologies under 2G
• Personal Digital Com, Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA), Global System for Mobile
Communication (GSM), Multiple Digital
Systems, Time Division Multiple Access,
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), and
• Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
(EDGE) are the Mobile technologies
comprised in 2G.
Features Include in 2G
• It includes Digital Text messages, picture messages
and MMS.
• It provides better quality and capacity and
consumes less battery power,
• improves the voice clarity,
• reduces noise in the line, and
• gives security and safety to the data and voice calls.
• Digital error checking allowed by digital voice
encoding to increase sound quality and lowers the
noise level.
Drawbacks in 2G
• 2G needs strong digital signals. If there is a
refusal of network coverage in any specific
area, digital signals would weak.
• Complex data such as Videos are unable to
handle.

• gradual sound reduction.

• It has a low transmission Quality, and Spotty
Coverage.
➢2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of
GPRS. Streaming was also introduced and mail
services too.
➢Then came 2.75G or EDGE which was faster in
providing services than 2.5G. It gave faster internet
speed up to 128kbps and also used edge
connection.
Differences Between 1G and 2G Systems
• Digital traffic channels – first-generation systems
are almost purely analog; second-generation
systems are digital
• Encryption – all second generation systems
provide encryption to prevent eavesdropping
• Error detection and correction – second-
generation digital traffic allows for detection and
correction, giving clear voice reception
• Channel access – second-generation systems
allow channels to be dynamically shared by a
number of users
 3G (3rd Generation)
➢3G system goal is to increase the data rates.
➢In 2000s 3g technology was introduced.
➢The Internet system was improved.
➢Better system and capacity.
➢Offers high-speed wireless Internet.
➢The connection used was UMTS and
WCMA.
➢Speed:- 384kbps-2mbps.
Technology under 3G
• WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple
Access)
• CDMA2000 1X can support voice and data
services.
• The maximum data rate can reach 2Mbps,
belonging to 3G mobile communications.
Features Include in 3G
• Faster Communication is provided in 3G.
• To Send/Receive the large Email messages faster
and have a High Speed Web / More Security.
• It consists of Video Conferencing / 3D Gaming,
Mobile, TV, Phone Calls, Large Capacities and
Broadband
• Capabilities moreover 11 sec – 1.5 min and time to
download a 3 min Mp3 song.
• It provide a service of Wireless voice
telephony, fixed wireless Internet access,
Location-based services, Telemedicine, high
speed internet access, Web browsing, email,
paging, fax and navigational maps.
• The traffic and weather updates, Mobile office
services, like virtual banking.
• It has a higher security features than 2G like
User Domain, Application Security, Network
Access and Domain Security can be restricted.
Drawbacks in 3G
• It has overpriced fees for 3G Licenses
Services.
• To build the infrastructure for 3G was
challenged and need a Large Cell Phones.
• High Bandwidth Requirement and also works
in Expensive 3G Phones.
 4G (4th Generation)
➢ It was started as late 2000.
➢ IP-based protocols.
➢ LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for the internet.
➢ Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and the
internet.
➢ Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with
reasonable QoS.
➢ High usability.
➢ Supports multimedia service at a low transmission cost.
➢ HD Quality Streaming.
➢ Speed:-100mbps.
• has a capacity to afford 100 Mbps for high
mobility and 1Gbps for low mobility with end
toned Quality of service and
• gives an authentication process and it offers
the various services as user requirements,
anywhere that extends to which system and
devices can exchange and interpret the data.
• A compilation of technologies to generate fully
packet-switched networks optimized for data is
4G.
• Technology under 4G
• Progressed UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA) and
new packet –switching based core network called as Evolved
Packet.
• The flawless handovers for data and voice to GSM, UMTS or
CDMA2000 technology allowed by IP based architecture.
• Personal Layer Gateway contains devices that connect to
upper layers, voice, data modem, cell phone, fax, PDAs and
MP3 players.
• Info-Sensor layer is contains environmental sensors. Fiber-
optic wire layer has high speed unfathomable tangle of fiber
optic wires and repeaters.
• Ad Hoc Networks has a Spontaneous self-organization of
networks of devices and do not have any necessarily
connected to internet.
• It consists of TDMA design, Soft Handoff, CDMA design,
RAKE receiver, Handoff, Power Control, Traffic engineering,
paging.
Features Include in 4G
• 4G has a wireless broadband access, video chat,
Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB), least services
like voice and data, mobile TV, Multimedia
Messaging Service (MMS) HDTV content, and other
services that make use of bandwidth.
• It also consists of High Speed, High Capacity and
Low-Cost Per-bit etc.
• It is Capable to provide speed 100Mbps-1Gbps.
• It contains High QOS and High Security.
• As per the user requirements, any kind of service
can be provided.
Drawbacks in 4G
• 4G is very hard to implement. It does need
complicated hardware.
• The Battery uses of 4G are more and
Expensive equipment required to implement
next generation network.
 5G (5Th Generation)
➢ It is yet to come in many countries but here are some
notable points about 5G.
➢ Higher data rates.
➢ Connectivity will be more fast and more secure,
➢ Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.
➢ Massive network capacity.
➢ It is 30 times faster than 4G.
➢ There would be more flexibility in the network.
• The initiation year of 5G is late 2010’s.
• The new mobile revolution is happen in mobile market is 5G.
• It is wireless and does not have any limitations.
• WWWW (Wireless World Wide Web) is highly supportable.
• The Physical and Data Link layer indicates an Open Wireless
Architecture (OWA).
• Virtual multi-wireless network can be maintained.
• The Network layer is classified into two layers that are the
upper network layer is for mobile terminal and lower network
layer is for interface.
• In routing each one IP addresses which would be different in
each one of IP network worldwide.
• Open Transport Protocol (OTP) overcomes a higher bit rate.
• Transport and Session layer is supported by it.
• Technology under 5G
• 5G Technology has Millimeter-Wave technologies which is using
frequencies much higher in the frequency spectrum releases more
spectrums and also gives the chance of having much wide channel
bandwidth probably 1 - 2 and frequencies of beyond 50GHz are
being used.
• A number of other high data rate systems as well as in waveform,
OFDM has been utilized very effectively in 4G LTE.
• Generalized Frequency Division Multiplexing, Universal Filtered
Multicarrier and Filter Bank Multi- Carrier were included in the
configuration.
• Schemes has a techniques include NOMA, PDMA, OFDMA,
SCMA, MUSA and IDMA.
• Techniques help to deployed as femtocells can operate satisfactorily
and also ensure that small cells in the macro-network.
• It also consists of, Cognitive radio technology, Pervasive networks,
Group cooperative relay Wireless mesh networking and dynamic ad-
hoc networking and Smart antennas.
Features Include in 5G
• The real time performance has Fast response, Low Jitter,
latency & delay.
• It provides large broadcasting of data in Gbps and high
quality coverage.
• The Virtualized Infrastructure has Software defined network,
scalable and low cost system.
• It supports IoT & M2M and also enormous amount of
connected devices, Deep Indoor Coverage & Signaling
efficiency.
• As per the connected network and geographical position, it
assigned the Mobile IP address.
• Higher altitude Radio signal knowing weather and location
while talking by use of Parallel multiple services.
• A great feature is Remote diagnostics.
Drawbacks in 5G
• To develop an infrastructure is very
expensive.
• There are some issues occur in privacy
and Security.
• 1G • 3G

• 2G • 4G

• 2.5/2.75G • 5G

79
 References
• William Stallings, Wireless Communication and
Networks , 2nd Edition.
– Ch 7, 10
• T. S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles &
Practice, 2nd Edition
– Ch 2, 8
• Wikipedia

80
 Outline
• Basics of Cellular Networks
• Generation of Cellular Networks
• Basics of Satellite Communication

81
 What is Satellite?
• It is a smaller object or body that revolves around a
much large object in space in a fixed well defined path
• They are two types in general; Natural and Artificial
• Natural
– Earth to sun, other planets to the sun, and moon to the
earth
• Artificial
– are specifically designed and launched into space for a
variety of purposes such as Weather monitoring,
navigation, Tv broadcasting ,mobile communication,
and planetary research etc.

82
 What is Satellite Communication?
• Satellite (Artificial) Communication
– Communication that involves the use of an active or passive
satellite to extend the range of a communications, radio,
television, or other transmitter by returning signals to earth
from an orbiting satellite

83
 Basic Elements of Satellite communications

• Terrestrial System
– Plays the role of routing signals from various devices like
mobile phones, Tvs and other devices which is linked to
the satellite through the earth stations
• The network consists of several earth stations on the ground
which are linked with a satellite in space
• The end users are connected to these earth stations through a
terrestrial communication network
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Basic Elements of Satellite communications

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 Basics of Satellite Communication
• The heart of a satellite communications system is a
satellite-based antenna in a stable orbit above the earth.
• In a satellite communications system, two or more
stations on or near the earth communicate via one or
more satellites that serve as relay stations in space.
• The antenna systems on or near the earth are referred to
as earth stations.
• A transmission from an earth station to the satellite is
referred to as uplink,
• Whereas transmissions from the satellite to the earth
station are downlink.
• The component in the satellite that takes an uplink signal
and converts it to a downlink signal is called a
transponder.
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 Basics of Satellite Communication
• The user generates a message signal which is passed and processed
through the terrestrial communication network to the earth station
• The earth station modulates the signal and sends that signal to the
satellite in pace on the uplink frequency spectrum
• The satellite amplifies and process the signal and retransmits it back
on the downlink frequency spectrum

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 Basics of Satellite Communication
• There are a number of different ways of categorizing
communications satellites:
– Coverage area: Global, regional, or national.
• The larger the area of coverage, the more satellites
must be involved in a single networked system.
– Service type: Fixed service satellite (FSS),
broadcast service satellite (BSS), and mobile
service satellite (MSS).
– General usage: Commercial, military, amateur,
experimental.

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 Basics: Advantages of Satellites
• The advantages of satellite communication over
terrestrial communication are:
▪ The coverage area of a satellite greatly exceeds
that of a terrestrial system
▪ Transmission cost of a satellite is independent of
the distance from the center of the coverage area
▪ Satellite to Satellite communication is very precise
▪ Higher Bandwidths are available for use
 Basics: Disadvantages of Satellites
• The disadvantages of satellite communication:
▪ Launching satellites into orbit is costly
▪ Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
▪ There is a larger propagation delay in satellite
communication than in terrestrial communication
 Classification of Satellite Orbits
• Circular or elliptical orbit
– Circular - with center at earth’s center
– Elliptical - with one of the two foci at earth’s
center
• Orbit around earth in different planes
– Equatorial orbit - above earth’s equator
– Polar orbit - passes over both poles
– Other orbits referred to as inclined orbits
• Altitude of communications satellites is classified as:
– Geostationary orbit (GEO)
– Medium earth orbit (MEO)
– Low earth orbit (LEO)
 GEO Orbit
• Orbit 35,863 km above the earth’s surface along the equator
• The most common type of communications satellite
• Revolve around the earth at the same speed as the earth
rotates. This means GEO satellites remain in the same position
relative to the surface of earth
• The coverage region of a satellite is called its footprint. This is
the region from which the satellite is visible.
• Advantages of the GEO orbit
– No problem with frequency changes
– Tracking of the satellite is simplified
– High coverage area
• Disadvantages of the GEO orbit
– Weak signal after traveling over 35,000 km
– Polar regions are poorly served
– Signal sending delay is substantial
 LEO Satellite Characteristics
• Circular/slightly elliptical orbit under 2000 km
• Orbit period ranges from 1.5 to 2 hours
• Diameter of coverage is about 8000 km
• Round-trip signal propagation delay less than 20 ms
• Maximum satellite visible time up to 20 min
• Atmospheric drag results in gradual orbital
deterioration
• Handoffs are required between satellites
• requires the multiple orbital planes be used, each
with multiple satellites in orbit.
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• Advantages
▪ A LEO satellite’s proximity to earth compared to a GEO
satellite gives it
▪ a better signal strength and
▪ less of a time delay, which makes it better for point to point
communication
▪ A LEO satellite’s smaller area of coverage is less of a waste
of bandwidth
• For this reason, it is currently being proposed for
communicating with mobile terminals and with personal
terminals that need stronger signals to function.
• Disadvantages
▪ A network of LEO satellites is needed, which can be costly
▪ Atmospheric drag effects LEO satellites, causing gradual
orbital deterioration
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 MEO Satellite Characteristics
• Circular orbit at an altitude in the range of 5000 to
12,000 km
• Orbit period of 6 hours
• Diameter of coverage is 10,000 to 15,000 km
• Round trip signal propagation delay less than 50 ms
• Maximum satellite visible time is a few hours
• Require much fewer handoffs than LEO satellites.
• The satellites will be divided equally between two
planes tilted 45° to the equator.
• Proposed applications are digital voice, data, facsimile,
high-penetration notification, and messaging services.
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• Advantage
▪ A MEO satellite’s longer duration of visibility and wider
footprint means fewer satellites are needed in a MEO
network than a LEO network.
• Disadvantage
▪ A MEO satellite’s distance gives it
▪ A longer time delay and
▪ Weaker signal than a LEO satellite, though not as bad as a
GEO satellite.
▪ The power required are greater than LEO

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Frequency Bands Available for Satellite
Communications
• Frequency Bands
– Increasing bandwidth is available in the higher-
frequency bands.
– The higher the frequency, the greater the effect of
transmission impairments
– The mobile satellite service (MSS) is allocated
frequencies in the Land S bands.
– In these bands, compared to higher frequencies, there is
• a greater degree of refraction and
• greater penetration of physical obstacles, such as foliage
(plants) and non-metallic structures.
– These characteristics are desirable for mobile service.
– However, the Land S bands are also heavily used for
terrestrial applications.
• Thus, there is intense competition among the various
microwave services for Land S band capacity.
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– For any given frequency allocation for a service,
there is an allocation of an uplink band and a
downlink band, with the uplink band always of
higher frequency.
– The higher frequency suffers greater spreading, or
free space loss
– The earth station is capable of higher power,
which helps to compensate for the poorer
performance at higher frequency.

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 Transmission Impairments
• Transmission impairments to satellite communication:
▪ The distance between an earth station and a satellite (free
space loss).
▪ Satellite Footprint:
• The center point of that area will receive the highest radiated
power, and the power drops off as you move away from the
center point in any direction.
▪ The satellite transmission’s strength is strongest in the center
of the transmission, and decreases farther from the center as
free space loss increases.
▪ Atmospheric Attenuation caused by air and water can
impair the transmission.
▪ It is particularly bad during rain and fog.
• References
– William Stallings, Wireless Communication and Networks ,
2nd Edition.
• Ch 10
– Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 4th Edition.
• Ch 2
– http://www.cs.wustl.edu/~jain/cis788-
97/ftp/satellite_nets.pdf
– http://learnabouttelecom.blogspot.com/2012/06/difference-
between-fdma-cdma-and-tdma.html

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