INDIAN TRADITION, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

(KNC-602)
UNIT – 4

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 MODULE 4

INDIAN LITERATURE, CULTURE,

TRADITION, AND
PRACTICES

• Astronomy in India
• Chemistry in India
• Mathematics in India
• Physics in India, Agriculture in India
• Medicine in India
• Metallurgy in India
• Geography
• Biology
• Harappan Technologies
• Water Management in India
• Textile Technology in India
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 • Writing Technology in India
Pyrotechnics in India Trade in Ancient
India
• India‟s Dominance up to Pre-colonial
Times

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 MODULE 4
SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT AND INDIAN
KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

Indian Culture: Science and Technology in India:

Experimentation and Observation
Indians have a desire to know the unknown, accompanied
with experimentation and observation. Development of
science in ancient India occured where religion and science
worked in close proximity.
Astronomy in Ancient India was studied in a text called
Jyotishvedanga which established systematic categories.
Though the basic problem of astronomy were taken up by
Aryabhatta whose text Aryabhatta contains 121 verses
containing separate sections on astronomical definitions,
position of planets, movement of sun and moon, calculation
of the eclipses. He gave astronomy a scientific outlook
deviating from the Vedic astronomy. Astrology and
horoscope were studied in Ancient India.
Mehendra Suri developed an astronomical instrument.
„Yantraja‟ during Firoz Shah Reign. Kamalakar studied
Islamic astronomical ideas as he was head of Islamic
Knowledge. Five Astronomical observatories were setup in
Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Jaipur by Maharaja
Sawai Jai Singh-II of Jaipur.

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In Ancient India Mathematics was called Ganita which
includes Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra, and Astronomy.
Arithmetic was called as pattin ganita (calculations on
board) and anka ganita (calculations with numbers).
Geometry and Algebra were called as Rekha Ganita and
Bija Ganita, respectively.
Various work on Mathematics were produced during this
time like Ganitakaumudi And Bijaganitavatamsa by
Narayana Pandit; Lilavati Karamdipika and Lilavati
Vyakhya by Gangadhara; Tantrasamgraha by Nilakantha
Somasutvan. Tajik was compiled by Nilakantha Jyotirvida
who introduced Persian technical terms. Mathematics was
made as a subject by Akbar.
Mathematics can be easily seen in the town planning of
Harappa Civilization. Mathematics developed as separate
stream of study in third century AD. Indian mathematics is
supposed to be originated from sulvasutras. The concept of
Acute, Obtuse and Right Angle was introduced by
APASTAMBA in second century BC which helped in
construction of Fire Altars where kings used to offer
sacrifices. Zero was discovered in India in the second
century itself in the book “Brahmagupta‟s Brahmasputa
Siddhanta‟ and hence BRAHMAGUPTA was considered
the man who discovered ZERO.

Medicines were mentioned firstly in Atharva Veda for

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diseases like Fever, Cough, diarrhoea, sores and others. The
diseases were said to be caused due to demon entering the
body therefore magical charms were remedies for the same.
It was 600 BC the period of rational science where Taxila
and Taranasi were the centres of medicine and learning.
Charaksamhita by Charak and Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta
were important texts in the field. Sushruta was pioneer the
field of Surgery and considered it as “the highest division of
the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. He mentions
method of operations, bone setting, cataract and 121
surgical instruments.
Metallurgy was also present in India as it could be seen in
the glazed potteries and bronze or copper artefacts that were
found in excavations of Indus Valley Civilization. The
Vedic people were aware of fermenting grains and fruits,
tanning leather and the process of dyeing. The Iron Pillar of
Qutub Minar is also an example of high quality of alloying
and a two-metre-high bronze image of Buddha at
Sultanganj.
Geography was studied to understand the relation between
the constant interaction of man and nature. Ancient Indians
were not familiar with the voyages and navigation, but trade
exist in that time as there were remains of dockyard in
Lothal (aside in Gujarat).

In the field of Biology Mrga-paksi-sastra was compiled

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by Hamsadeva; Jahangir‟s Tuzuk-I jahangiri recorded his
observation and experiments on breeding and hybridisation.

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In the area of Chemistry Paper was produced in Kashmir,
Sialkot, Patna and Mysore. The application of Chemistry
was also used in making Gunpowder, explosive
composition and (Attar) perfumes.

Scientific and technological developments in medieval

India were along two lines: one with already existing
courses and other which came up as an influence of Islamic
and European influence.
Medieval period witnessed the entry of Muslims in India.
The educational pattern of Arab was adopted, and classical
Indian methods received a setback. Maktabs and Madarsas
came into existence and received royal patronage. Madarsa
were opened at numerous places including Sambal and Agra
where they were headed by two brothers Sheikh Abdullah
and Sheikh Azizullah. Learned men from Arabia, Persia and
Central Asia were invited to educate in Madarasas.
Subjects like Arithmetic, Mensuration, Geometry,
Astronomy, Accountancy, Public Administration and
Agriculture were added in the primary school courses.
Large workshops called Karkhanas were opened for
manufacturing equipments for royal household and
governmental departments. These Karkhanas provided
Technical and Vocational training to people who turned out
to be Artisans and Craftspersons who later opened their own
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independent Karkhanas.

Indian Culture: Science and Technology in India: The

Medieval Period
• There was not much change in agricultural practices,

only some changes like introduction of new crops and

trees. The Western Ghats yielded black pepper and
Kashmir maintained saffron while ginger and cinnamon
in Tamil Nadu; Cardamom, Sandalwood and coconut
from Kerala were Popular.
• During the 16th and 17th century Tobacco, Chillies,

potato, guava, custard apple, cashew and pineapple

were also introduced.
• Mango Grafting system were introduced by Jesuits of
Goa.
• For irrigation, Wells, Tanks, Canals, and Rahat were

used.
• Land measurement and land classification system was

introduced which was beneficial to the rulers as well as

the tillers.
• Science and technology in modern India have the role in

National Development. In 1971, the Department of

Science and Technology (DST) was setup and at State
levels; State Council of Science and Technology have
been established. Government also promotes research
and schemes to encourage scientific temper in the
country.
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Indian Culture: Scientists of Ancient India:
The Field of Mathematics, Science, Ayurveda and Yoga
There was contribution of Ancient Indians in the field of
Mathematics and Science, including Medical Science,
Ayurveda, Yoga, Astronomy and Astrology. Scientific
knowledge was evolved in Ancient India.
During Ancient India, there was immense contribution to
the knowledge in Mathematics and various branches of
Science. Due to lack of documentation and dissemination in
the western world Ancient Indians mathematics did not get
the credits for the mathematical theories that they deserve.

Badayun was first to discover several mathematical

concepts like the value of pi used in area and circumference
of a circle. Today‟s Pythagoras theorem was founded
several years before the age of Pythagoras in
Baudhayan‟s sulva sutra.
Aryabhatta was an astronomer, astrologer, physicist, and a
pioneer of Mathematics. He wrote summary of Mathematics
of his time Aryabhattiya at the age of 23 having four
sections describing method of denoting big decimal
numbers by alphabets, different questions such as theory,
geometry, trigonometry, and

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beejganita (algebra); and two sections on astronomy. He
showed that zero was a symbol and a concept not a numeral
only which enables to find out the exact distance between
earth and the moon. He also contributed to field of science
as the last two sections of Aryabhattiya were on Astronomy.

In Ancient India, the science of astronomy was called

Khagol Shastra. The need of astronomy to have accurate
calendars, climate and rainfall patterns for sowing crops,
dates of seasons and festivals was of great importance in
trade.

Aryabhatta stated that Earth is round and rotates on its own

axis. He also stated that the moon and planets sheild by
reflected sunlight and gave scientific explanation for solar
and lunar eclipse.

Brahmagupta; In 7th century he used place value in

multiplication and introduced negative numbers and
operations on zero into Mathematics. He wrote Brahm sputa
siddantika.

Bhaskaracharya a leading light of 12th century. He was

famous for his book Siddanta Shiromani. It was divided into
four sections: Lilavati (arithmetic), Beejaganit (Algebra),
Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganit (mathematics of
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planets). He introduced Chakrawat method or cyclic method
to solve algebraic equations.

Mahavir Acharya was a Jain guru and wrote Ganit Sara

Sangraha in 850 A.D which was first textbook on arithmetic.
LCM (Least Common Multiple) was also described by him.
Kanad was a 6th century scientist. His original name was
AULUKYA. He got the name Kanad because of his interest
in minute particles called KANA. He held that material
universe is made up of Kanas /atom which is not visible
through eyes and are indivisible in his atomic theory.

Varahmihira lived during Gupta period. He claims that

termites and plants could be indicators of underground
water. He gave list of six animals and thirty plants. He also
gave famous Earthquake Cloud Theory in Brhat Samhita
(32nd chapter). He also contributed in Jyotish or Astrology
which was given high place in Ancient India and even today.
He was the member of Vikram Aditya‟s court and was given
the title VARAHA by Vikramaditya.

Nagarjuna was 10th century Scientist who transformed base

elements into gold. He gave the treatise Rasaratnakara
which discusses methods for extraction of metals like Gold,
Silver, Tin and copper.

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In Ancient India, Medical Science were highly developed as
it has the indigenous system of medicine called Ayurveda
Which literally means the science of good health and
longevity of life.

Ayurveda with the help of herbal medicine aims at removing

the cause of diverse by striking at the roots. It is the oldest
medical system.

Athreya Samhita oldest medical book of the world. Charak

is called the father of Ayurvedic medicine and Susruta is
called the father of Surgery.

Susruta, Charak, Madhava, Vagbhatta and Jeevak were

noted Ayurvedic practitioner of that time. Susruta is called
the father of Surgery. He studied human body with the help
of dead body. In Susruta Samhita over 1100 diseases were
mentioned with 760 plants are described to provide remedy.
It also mentions the process

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of preserving the dead body for the purpose of study. He
was greatest contribution in the field of Rhinoplasty
(Plastic Surgery) and Ophthalmic Surgery (Removal of
Cataracts).

In Ancient India the science of yoga was developed to get

healthy at the physical and mental
level without medicine. It has its roots in Vedas. Yoga is
Physical (Hathyoga) and Mental (Rajayoga).

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