Trends in Food Science & Technology 156 (2025) 104868

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Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs

Mushrooms in innovative food products: Challenges and potential

opportunities as meat substitutes, snacks and functional beverages
Alex Graça Contato a,b,c,d,** , Carlos Adam Conte-Junior a,b,c,d,e,f,g,*
a
Analytical and Molecular Laboratorial Center (CLAn), Institute of Chemistry (IQ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro,
RJ, 21941-909, Brazil
b
Center for Food Analysis (NAL), Technological Development Support Laboratory (LADETEC), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de
Janeiro, RJ, 21941-598, Brazil
c
Laboratory of Advanced Analysis in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (LAABBM), Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade
Universitária, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 21941-909, Brazil
d
Graduate Program in Biochemistry (PPGBq), Institute of Chemistry (IQ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 21941-
909, Brazil
e
Graduate Program in Food Science (PPGCAL), Institute of Chemistry (IQ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro, RJ,
21941-909, Brazil
f
Graduate Program in Veterinary Hygiene (PPGHV), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Fluminense Federal University (UFF), Niterói, RJ, 24220-000, Brazil
g
Graduate Program in Chemistry (PGQu), Institute of Chemistry (IQ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 21941-
909, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling editor: I Oey Background: The rising consumer demand for healthier, sustainable, and plant-based food options has driven
significant innovation within the food industry. Mushrooms, known for their rich nutritional content and
Keywords: functional properties, have emerged as a promising ingredient in developing novel food products that align with
Alternative protein sources these consumer preferences.
Edible fungi
Scope and approach: This study explores the potential of mushrooms as an alternative and strategic component in
Sustainable food innovation
food innovation. It examines their nutritional profile, including vitamins, minerals, bioactive compounds, and
Functional foods
Mushroom regulation their functional properties, such as umami flavor and meaty texture. The research also delves into the envi­
Plant-based ronmental advantages of mushroom cultivation compared to traditional animal-based food production, high­
lighting the sustainability benefits. The focus is on applying mushrooms in several food categories, including
meat substitutes, snacks, and functional beverages.
Findings and conclusion: Mushrooms are well-suited to address current consumer trends due to their versatility,
nutritional benefits, and low environmental impact. They offer a viable alternative to animal-based ingredients,
contributing to developing health-oriented, no meat-based products. The study concludes that mushrooms will
play a pivotal role in the future of food innovation, driven by ongoing research and technological advancements.
As consumers increasingly seek functional foods that promote overall well-being, mushrooms are positioned to
become a cornerstone ingredient in creating sustainable, nutritious, and appealing food products.

1. Introduction revolutionize food products through their unique attributes in aspects

such as nutritional, functional and sensory properties (Bell et al., 2022;
The evolution of the global food technology landscape and current Perez-Montes et al., 2021).
consumer demands for health, sustainability, and innovation have The mushrooms are renowned for their impressive nutritional pro­
allowed edible mushrooms to become increasingly recognized not only file, making them an attractive option for health-conscious consumers
for their traditional culinary uses but also for their potential to (Marçal et al., 2021; Rizzo et al., 2021). They are low in calories and fat

* Corresponding author. Avenida Athos da Silveira Ramos, nº 149, Bloco A, Sala 545. Cidade Universitária, 21.941-909, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
** Corresponding author. Analytical and Molecular Laboratorial Center (CLAn), Institute of Chemistry (IQ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade
Universitária, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 21941-909, Brazil.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A.G. Contato), [email protected] (C.A. Conte-Junior).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2025.104868
Received 11 September 2024; Received in revised form 4 November 2024; Accepted 4 January 2025
Available online 6 January 2025
0924-2244/© 2025 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
A.G. Contato and C.A. Conte-Junior Trends in Food Science & Technology 156 (2025) 104868

but rich in essential nutrients, including protein, which is particularly nutrient, especially for individuals with limited sun exposure or dietary
valuable for individuals seeking to reduce meat consumption without intake of other vitamin D sources. Vitamin D is crucial for maintaining
compromising protein intake (Ayimbila & Keawsompong, 2023). healthy bones and teeth, supporting immune function, and reducing the
Beyond their nutritional value, mushrooms exhibit remarkable func­ risk of chronic diseases such as osteoporosis and certain cancers (Jiang
tional properties that position them as powerful ingredients in func­ et al., 2020).
tional foods and nutraceuticals (Singh et al., 2023). This makes In addition to vitamins, mushrooms provide a variety of essential
mushrooms an excellent component of no meat-based diets, appealing to minerals, including selenium, copper, potassium, and phosphorus (Haro
vegetarians, vegans, and flexitarians (Lang, 2020). et al., 2020). Selenium is a powerful antioxidant that helps protect cells
In summary, mushrooms represent a promising alternative for from damage caused by free radicals (Xu et al., 2021), while copper is
innovation in the food industry, offering a unique combination of vital for maintaining healthy blood vessels, nerves, and bones. Potas­
nutritional, functional, and sustainable benefits (Bell et al., 2022). As sium is essential for maintaining proper fluid balance, nerve function,
consumer preferences shift towards healthier and more sustainable food and muscle contraction, while phosphorus is critical in bone health and
choices, mushrooms are poised to play a pivotal role in developing energy production (Haro et al., 2020).
innovative food products that meet these demands (De Cianni, Pippi­ Beyond their macronutrients and micronutrients, mushrooms are
nato, & Mancuso, 2023). This review explores the potential opportu­ rich in bioactive compounds with numerous health benefits, including
nities and challenges associated with incorporating mushrooms into polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, terpenoids, and sterols, which
novel food products, focusing on their role as meat substitutes, snacks, have been linked to several biological activities and potential health-
and functional beverages, as well presents the limitations of its use and promoting effects (Contato et al., 2022; Yadav & Negi, 2021).
comparisons with other plant-based alternatives. Among the most studied bioactive compounds in mushrooms are the
polysaccharides like β-glucans, known for their immune-modulating
2. Overview of edible mushrooms properties. These complex sugars play a significant role in immune
health by activating various immune cells, including macrophages,
Mushrooms have long been a part of human diets, valued for their natural killer cells, and T-cells. By enhancing the activity of these cells,
culinary appeal and remarkable nutritional and health-promoting β-glucans help the body mount an effective defense against infections
properties. As a food source, mushrooms provide a unique combina­ and diseases (Case et al., 2024). Recent studies emphasize their role in
tion of essential nutrients and bioactive compounds that contribute supporting not only immune resilience but also reducing inflammation,
significantly to human health and well-being. In recent years, the highlighting their value in potential therapies for immune-related dis­
recognition of mushrooms has grown, driven by their potential to sup­ orders (Murphy et al., 2022).
port a balanced diet and promote health (Bell et al., 2022; Perez-Montes Mushrooms are also rich in diverse phenolic compounds with potent
et al., 2021). This section explores the importance of mushrooms in antioxidant properties that help to neutralize harmful free radicals,
human nutrition, highlighting their rich nutritional profile and their role protecting cells from oxidative stress, and contributing to the prevention
in promoting health. of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, and neuro­
One of the essential nutritional benefits of mushrooms is their pro­ degenerative disorders (Aranha et al., 2022; Contato et al., 2021).
tein content. On average, mushrooms contain 14%–39% protein by dry Phenolic acids are the most prevalent group of phenolic compounds in
weight, which is much higher than most vegetables and comparable to mushrooms (Contato et al., 2020). They are characterized by the pres­
or even higher than pork, beef, and other livestock products (Wang & ence of one or more aromatic rings bearing hydroxyl groups, which
Zhao, 2023). The protein in mushrooms is of high quality, containing all contribute to their high reactivity and ability to scavenge free radicals,
nine essential amino acids (histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, being primarily divided into two categories: hydroxybenzoic acids and
methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine) required hydroxycinnamic acids. Hydroxybenzoic acids include compounds such
by the human body for growth, repair, and maintenance. This makes as gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, and vanillic acid. These compounds
mushrooms a valuable protein source, particularly for individuals are known for their ability to donate hydrogen atoms to free radicals,
looking to reduce their meat consumption without compromising pro­ effectively neutralizing their reactivity and preventing oxidative dam­
tein intake (Perez-Montes et al., 2021). age to lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. At the same time, hydrox­
The mushrooms are also rich in dietary fiber, which is vital to ycinnamic acids include caffeic acid, ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, and
digestive health (Rangel-Vargas et al., 2021). They contain soluble and sinapic acid. Hydroxycinnamic acids are particularly effective at inhib­
insoluble fibers, contributing to several health benefits. Soluble fibers iting lipid peroxidation, a process in which free radicals steal electrons
have been shown to help regulate blood sugar levels, lower cholesterol, from the lipids in cell membranes, leading to cell damage (Leonard et al.,
and promote a feeling of fullness, which can aid in weight management 2021). Recent research has shown that phenolic content in mushrooms
(He, Wang, Wen, et al., 2022). Insoluble fibers, on the other hand, add varies by species, growing conditions, and developmental stage, sug­
bulk to the stool and support regular bowel movements, reducing the gesting that specific cultivation methods could optimize the phenolic
risk of constipation and promoting gut health. This is particularly profile for targeted health benefits (Contato et al., 2020).
important in reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases, type 2 dia­ Another bioactive compound found in certain mushroom species is
betes, and cancers (Di Rosa et al., 2022). The fiber content of mushrooms the terpenoids, which have demonstrated anti-inflammatory, antimi­
also supports a healthy gut microbiome, essential for overall health. By crobial, and anti-cancer properties. Research indicates that terpenoids
providing a substrate for beneficial gut bacteria, mushrooms contribute may inhibit cancer cell growth and reduce inflammation, contributing to
to a balanced gut flora associated with improved digestion, enhanced mushrooms’ potential as a functional food promoting health and
immune function, and reduced inflammation (Li, Yu, et al., 2021a,b). longevity (Chen et al., 2023). Studies on specific mushroom species
The mushrooms are a rich source of essential vitamins, contributing reveal that terpenoids can interact with cellular pathways involved in
to their status as a nutrient-dense food. They are exceptionally high in B apoptosis and inflammation, providing a scientific basis for their in­
vitamins, including riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), clusion in therapeutic dietary interventions (Kou et al., 2022).
and folate (B9). These vitamins play critical roles in energy metabolism, Additionally, mushrooms are also a source of ergosterol, a precursor
supporting the body’s ability to convert food into energy and maintain to vitamin D2, and other sterols contributing to their health benefits.
proper neurological function (Yadav & Negi, 2021). Ergosterol has been shown to possess antioxidant properties, further
Moreover, mushrooms are one of the few natural food sources of enhancing the nutritional value of mushrooms (Jiang et al., 2020;
vitamin D. When exposed to UV light, certain mushrooms can synthesize Papoutsis et al., 2020). Current research is exploring the effects of UV
vitamin D2, making them a valuable dietary source of this essential treatment on mushrooms to increase vitamin D2 levels via ergosterol

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A.G. Contato and C.A. Conte-Junior Trends in Food Science & Technology 156 (2025) 104868

conversion, offering a sustainable and efficient method to enhance the a Circular Economy (Dorr et al., 2021).
nutritional profile of mushroom-based products (Sun et al., 2022). In recent years, mushrooms have transitioned from being a niche
The sensory attributes of mushrooms further contribute to their ingredient predominantly used in specific culinary traditions to a sig­
popularity in innovative food products. One of the most distinctive nificant player in the global food industry (De Cianni, Pippinato, &
features of mushrooms is their texture, often described as meaty or Mancuso, 2023). This culinary exploration is complemented by ad­
fibrous, which makes them a superb meat substitute in vegetarian and vancements in food technology, such as fermentation and extrusion,
vegan dishes. This texture results from the composition of mushroom which enhance the texture and flavor profiles of mushroom-based
cell walls, which contain chitin, a fibrous protein that contributes to the products. Additionally, novel cooking methods, such as sous-vide, are
firmness and chewiness of mushrooms. The fibrous nature of mush­ opening new possibilities for using mushrooms in innovative and un­
rooms allows them to hold up well during cooking, retaining their expected ways, making them more appealing to consumers seeking al­
structure and providing a satisfying bite. This is particularly relevant in ternatives to traditional meat products (Janardhanan et al., 2023).
the creation of products like mushroom-based burgers and nuggets, The global mushroom market has witnessed substantial growth over
where the texture plays a pivotal role in mimicking the mouthfeel of the past decade. As of 2023, the market was valued at approximately
meat and is essential for creating a convincing meat alternative that USD 61.33 billion, with projections indicating continued expansion
appeals to both vegetarians and flexitarians (Singh et al., 2023). (Research and Market, 2024). This growth is attributed to increased
The mushrooms also possess a natural umami flavor derived from consumer demand for healthy and sustainable food options, the rise of
their high glutamate content (Sun et al., 2020). Umami, one of the five vegetarian and vegan diets, and innovations in mushroom cultivation
basic tastes (the others are sweet, sour, salty, and bitter), enhances the and processing technologies (De Cianni, Pippinato, & Mancuso, 2023).
overall flavor profile of foods and makes mushrooms a valuable ingre­ The Asia-Pacific region is the largest producer and consumer of
dient for adding depth and complexity to dishes without relying on mushrooms globally, accounting for over 90% of the world production
artificial flavor enhancers or excessive salt (Rangel-Vargas et al., 2021). (Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical, 2021). China is the
This umami characteristic allows mushrooms to serve as natural flavor leading producer, with significant contributions from countries such as
boosters in soups, sauces, and many culinary applications, making them Japan and India (Fig. 1) (Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical,
indispensable in traditional and modern cuisine (Rangel-Vargas et al., 2021). The region’s long-standing mushroom cultivation and con­
2021; Sun et al., 2020). sumption tradition, coupled with advanced agricultural practices, drives
Several converging trends drive interest in mushroom-based prod­ its market dominance (Gopal et al., 2022). Europe is the second-largest
ucts. Firstly, there is a growing demand for no meat-based diets, fueled mushroom market, with countries like Poland, the Netherlands, and
by concerns over the environmental impact of meat production, animal Spain leading production (Food and Agriculture Organization Statisti­
welfare, and the health benefits of reducing meat consumption. Mush­ cal, 2021). The demand for mushrooms in Europe is driven by a strong
rooms, with their meaty texture and umami-rich flavor, provide an emphasis on healthy eating, culinary diversity, and the popularity of
excellent alternative to animal-based products, making them ideal for gourmet mushrooms (De Cianni, Varese, & Mancuso, 2023). The North
developing meat substitutes (Perez-Montes et al., 2021; Singh et al., America market is growing steadily, with the United States of America
2023). Furthermore, the sustainability aspect of mushrooms must be being the largest consumer and producer (Food and Agriculture Orga­
remembered. Mushrooms are cultivated with a relatively low environ­ nization Statistical, 2021). The mushroom market is also increasing
mental footprint compared to conventional livestock farming. They traction in Latin America, the Middle East, and Africa, where growing
require less land, water, and energy, and they can be grown on agri­ awareness of mushrooms’ nutritional benefits and culinary versatility is
cultural byproducts, such as straw and sawdust, contributing to waste driving demand (Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical, 2021;
reduction and resource efficiency (Contato et al., 2023). As sustain­ Seethapathy et al., 2023).
ability becomes a critical consideration for consumers and producers, Among the most popular edible mushrooms, the following high­
mushrooms offer an eco-friendly option that aligns with the principles of lighted: Agaricus bisporus (white button, cremini or portobello), Pleurotus

Fig. 1. Global market and ranking of countries with the most significant production of mushrooms and truffles worldwide according to Food and Agriculture Or­
ganization Statistical, 2021 and Research and Markets (2024).

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A.G. Contato and C.A. Conte-Junior Trends in Food Science & Technology 156 (2025) 104868

ostreatus (oyster mushroom), L. edodes (shiitake), Agaricus campestris contribute to cardiovascular problems. As a result, health-conscious
(field mushroom), Cantharellus cibarius (chanterelle mushroom), Boletus consumers are increasingly turning to meat alternative diets that offer
edulis (porcini mushroom), Tricholoma matsutake (matsutake mush­ lower fat content, zero cholesterol, and higher fiber levels, promoting
room), Morchella esculenta (morel mushroom), and Hericium erinaceus better heart health and overall well-being. These diets are often rich in
(lion’s mane). They are shown in Fig. 2, as well their nutritional, sen­ essential nutrients, vitamins, and antioxidants that benefit health. For
sory, and functional properties are described in Table 01. instance, mushrooms, legumes, and other plant-based proteins provide a
wealth of B vitamins, iron, and essential amino acids, making them
3. Mushroom-based meat substitutes attractive substitutes for meat. The nutritional benefits of meat alter­
natives appeal to those managing weight or cholesterol levels (Nezlek &
The unique combination of nutritional, functional, and sensory at­ Forestell, 2022).
tributes makes mushrooms ideal for innovation across various food Environmental sustainability is another critical factor driving the
product categories. In the realm of meat substitutes, their texture and demand for meat substitutes. The traditional meat industry significantly
umami flavor provide a compelling alternative to animal-based prod­ contributes to environmental degradation and is responsible for high
ucts, offering a satisfying sensory experience and a healthier nutritional greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, and excessive water usage.
profile. Mushrooms like shiitake (L. edodes), portobello (A. bisporus), and Livestock farming alone accounts for approximately 14.5% of global
porcini (B. edulis) are particularly noted for their umami flavor, making greenhouse gas emissions (Food and Agriculture Organization of the
them ideal alternatives for meat substitutes. This positions mushrooms United Nations, 2017). Meat production is resource-intensive, requiring
as key ingredients in developing meats that cater to the growing demand large amounts of land, water, and energy, leading to significant
for sustainable and ethical food options. As consumers become more ecological footprints (Nezlek & Forestell, 2022). In contrast, alternative
conscious of their dietary choices and the impact these choices have on protein sources are generally more sustainable, requiring fewer re­
their well-being, the environment, and animal welfare, the interest in sources and producing fewer emissions. By reducing reliance on animal
alternative protein sources has surged (França et al., 2022; Perez-Montes agriculture, these alternatives help mitigate environmental impacts,
et al., 2021; Rangel-Vargas et al., 2021; Singh et al., 2023). conserve biodiversity, reduce pollution, and preserve natural habitats.
One of the primary motivations for seeking meat substitutes is the As climate change and environmental degradation become pressing
growing awareness of health-related issues associated with excessive global issues, consumers and industries alike are motivated to adopt
meat consumption. Several studies have linked high consumption of red more sustainable practices, with meat substitutes playing a pivotal role
and processed meats to an increased risk of chronic diseases such as in this transition (Wang & Zhao, 2023).
heart disease, diabetes, and certain types of cancer. Red meat has been Ethical considerations also play a significant role in the growing
associated with higher levels of saturated fats and cholesterol, which can interest in meat substitutes. Concerns about animal welfare have gained

Fig. 2. Popular edible mushrooms. A: A. bisporus (white button, cremini or portobello). B: P. ostreatus (oyster mushroom). C: L. edodes (shiitake). D: A. campestris
(field mushroom). E: C. cibarius (chanterelle mushroom). F: B. edulis (porcini mushroom). G: T. matsutake (matsutake mushroom). H: M. esculenta (morel mushroom).
I: H. erinaceus (lion’s mane).

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A.G. Contato and C.A. Conte-Junior Trends in Food Science & Technology 156 (2025) 104868

Table 1
Nutritional, sensory, and functional properties of the most common edible mushrooms used in cooking and gastronomy.
Scientific Name Popular Name Nutritional Properties Sensory Properties Functional Properties

Agaricus bisporus White Button, Rich in proteins, dietary fibers, B White button mushrooms have a mild, Provides antioxidant properties, supports
(J.E. Lange) Cremini (Baby vitamins (B2, B3, B5), vitamin D, and delicate flavor with a soft, spongy energy metabolism, and promotes bone
Imbach bellas or brown), minerals like selenium, copper, and texture, ideal for soups, salads, and stir- health due to vitamin D (Blumfield et al.,
Portobello phosphorus. Cremini mushrooms have fries. Cremini mushrooms offer a more 2020).
Mushrooms higher levels of potassium and profound, earthier flavor, perfect for
antioxidants. Portobellos share a similar sauces and meat dishes, and a firmer
profile with a denser texture (Blumfield texture. Portobellos are known for their
et al., 2020). large caps and robust, umami flavor,
often used as a meat alternative in dishes
like burgers and steaks. The flavor
intensifies when grilled or roasted (Du
et al., 2021;Selli et al., 2021)
Pleurotus Oyster Mushroom High in proteins, dietary fibers, niacin, Oyster mushrooms are recognized for Possesses anti-inflammatory and antioxidant
ostreatus riboflavin, and pantothenic acid, their unique fan-shaped appearance and effects, supports cardiovascular health, and
(Jacq.) P. essential for energy metabolism and soft, velvety texture. They offer a mild, strengthens the immune system (Effiong
Kumm. maintaining healthy skin and nerves ( slightly sweet flavor with subtle hints of et al., 2024).
Effiong et al., 2024). seafood. Their tender yet firm texture
allows them to absorb flavors well and
retain a pleasant bite when cooked (Selli
et al., 2021).
Lentinula edodes Shiitake Mushroom Excellent source of B vitamins (B2, B3, Shiitake mushrooms are known for their Known for immune-boosting and cholesterol-
(Berk.) Pegler B5, B6) and bioactive compounds like rich, savory flavor with a strong umami lowering effects. Potential
lentinan and eritadenine (Ahmad et al., profile. They have a firm, meaty texture immunomodulatory properties, supporting
2023; Macoris et al., 2017). that holds up well in cooking, making disease prevention and cardiovascular health
them ideal for soups, sauces, and stir- (Ahmad et al., 2023; Macoris et al., 2017).
fries. Their intense flavor and aroma
enhance various dishes, adding depth
and complexity (França et al., 2022).
Agaricus Field Mushroom Like the white button mushroom, it has Field mushrooms offer a delicate, earthy Supports digestive health and has antioxidant
campestris L. low calories but is high in protein, fiber, flavor and a firm texture. Their mild properties (Senila et al., 2024).
and essential vitamins and minerals, taste and adaptable texture make them a
including potassium and phosphorus ( favorite in traditional dishes (Dawadi
Senila et al., 2024). et al., 2022).
Cantharellus Chanterelle Contains dietary fibers, antioxidants like Chanterelles are prized for their fruity Offers antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
cibarius Fr. carotenoids, and phenolic compounds ( aroma and mild, peppery taste. Their effects and supports eye health and immune
Bak et al., 2023). tender yet firm texture makes them ideal system function (Bak et al., 2023).
for gourmet dishes, often sautéed or used
in sauces to complement meats and
pasta, enhancing dishes’ unique flavor
and elegant appearance (Bak et al.,
2023).
Boletus edulis Porcini Mushroom Rich in proteins, dietary fibers, essential Porcini mushrooms are highly sought for Possesses antioxidant properties and supports
Bull. vitamins, and minerals, including their robust, earthy flavor and meaty digestive health; it contributes to satiety and
potassium and iron (Bak et al., 2023). texture. They offer a rich, nutty taste weight management (Bak et al., 2023).
with slight sweetness, especially when
dried. Their dense, chewy texture makes
them excellent in soups, risottos, and
pasta, where they add depth and savory
notes (Bak et al., 2023).
Tricholoma Matsutake Contains proteins, dietary fibers, B Matsutake mushrooms are highly prized Offers antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
matsutake (S. Mushroom vitamins, and minerals like selenium ( for their distinctive aroma and flavor, properties, which promote respiratory health
Ito & S. Imai) Yang et al., 2021). described as spicy and aromatic with and strengthen the immune system (Yang
Singer hints of cinnamon and pine. Their firm, et al., 2021).
crunchy texture makes them ideal for
grilling, steaming, or adding to soups
and rice dishes, where their unique
sensory characteristics are celebrated (
Li, Yu, et al., 2021a,b).
Morchella Morel Mushroom Rich source of proteins, dietary fibers, Morel mushrooms have a spongy texture Provides antioxidant properties and potential
esculenta (L.) essential vitamins, and minerals, with a rich, earthy flavor and nutty neuroprotective effects; supports brain health
Pers. including vitamin D and iron (Taşkın undertones, making them highly prized and cognitive well-being (Taşkın et al., 2021).
et al., 2021). in gourmet cuisine. Their tender yet
meaty texture is perfect for gourmet
dishes and sauces, where their intense
flavor and distinct appearance are
showcased, adding depth and
complexity (Wang et al., 2023).
Hericium Lion’s Mane Rich in proteins, dietary fibers, and Lion’s mane mushrooms offer a slightly Offers potential benefits for improving focus,
erinaceus Mushroom bioactive compounds like hericenones sweet, seafood-like flavor, often used in memory, and overall cognitive function; it
(Bull.) Pers. and erinacines, they are known for their vegetarian and vegan dishes as a meat supports brain health and may help prevent
neuroprotective properties (Chang, Kow, substitute. Their unique texture and neurodegenerative diseases (Chang, Kow,
et al., 2021). delicate flavor make them a popular et al., 2021).
ingredient in gourmet cooking, where
they add both visual appeal and subtle,
savory notes to dishes (Chang, Kow,
et al., 2021).

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A.G. Contato and C.A. Conte-Junior Trends in Food Science & Technology 156 (2025) 104868

prominence as consumers become more aware of the conditions in The burgers boast a high protein content, comparable to meat, and are
which animals are raised and slaughtered in industrial farming opera­ fortified with essential nutrients like B vitamins and iron (Rangel-Vargas
tions. Many people are uncomfortable with the ethical implications of et al., 2021).
conventional meat production, leading them to seek alternatives that do The mushroom-based nuggets have emerged as a healthier and more
not involve animal suffering. The rise of veganism and vegetarianism, sustainable alternative to chicken nuggets. These products leverage the
driven by ethical concerns, has propelled the development of meat fibrous nature of mycelium, the root structure of mushrooms, which
substitutes that align with these values. Plant-based proteins, cultured provides a realistic bite and chewiness (Mazumder et al., 2024). At the
meats, edible insects, and other innovations offer consumers the ability same time, mushroom-based sausages are another innovative product.
to enjoy the taste and texture of meat without compromising their Brands have introduced sausages made with mushrooms and other
ethical beliefs. These products cater not only to those who adhere strictly plant-based ingredients, offering a flavorful alternative to traditional
to plant-based diets but also to flexitarians and omnivores seeking to pork sausages. These products blend mushrooms, pea protein, barley,
reduce their meat intake for ethical reasons (Bernardo & Conte-Junior, and spices to create sausages with a savory, umami-rich flavor and a
2024; Kerslake et al., 2022; Singh et al., 2022). satisfying texture (Yuan et al., 2021).
The demand for meat substitutes has spurred significant technolog­ The mushroom jerky has become a snack option, offering a chewy,
ical advancements and innovation in the food industry. Developing flavorful alternative to traditional beef jerky. These products are
high-quality meat alternatives that closely mimic traditional meat seasoned with a variety of spices to mimic the flavors of traditional
products’ taste, texture, and appearance has been a perspective-changer. jerky, appealing to both vegans and omnivores. The mushroom jerky has
Companies are investing heavily in research and development to create gained a following for its unique flavor profiles (Ayimbila & Keaw­
products that meet consumer expectations and exceed them in terms of sompong, 2023).
flavor and nutritional profile. Emerging technologies such as fermen­ Consumer acceptance of mushroom-based meat substitutes has been
tation, extrusion, and cell-based agriculture are paving the way for new on the rise, driven by enhancements in product quality and effective
sustainable and ethically produced protein forms. These innovations are marketing. Recent consumer surveys reveal a growing desire to try
expanding the possibilities for meat substitutes, making them more plant-based alternatives, with mushroom-based products ranking for
accessible and appealing to a broader audience (Vallikkadan et al., their appealing taste and nutritional benefits. For instance, a survey by
2023; Zhang et al., 2022). The focus on innovation has also led to the Sogari et al. (2023) indicated that in the identification question, the
introduction of novel ingredients, such as mushrooms, pea protein, and consumers preferred the hybrid burger (~75% grass-fed beef and ~25%
mycoprotein, which contribute unique flavors and nutritional benefits to mushrooms) to the 100% animal-based, where the main positive attri­
meat alternatives (Kurek et al., 2022). bute associated with the hybrid product made with mushrooms was
Economic factors also influence the shift towards meat substitutes. moistness, which underlines the importance of formulating meat alter­
The rising cost of meat production, driven by resource scarcity and native products with improved juiciness to mimic meat products.
environmental regulations, has made meat alternatives more economi­ Additionally, a market analysis by Caputo, Sogari, and Van Loo (2023)
cally attractive. As alternative meat substitutes or cultured meat tech­ found that consumers favor blended mushroom burgers more than other
nologies advance, the cost of production is expected to decrease, making plant-based burgers but demand for them decreases when consumers
these alternatives more affordable and competitive with traditional know that they are a blended option.
meat products (da Silva & Conte-Junior, 2024). Moreover, the economic
impact of the meat industry on developing regions, where land and 4. Mushrooms in innovative snacks
water resources are increasingly scarce, has led to a re-evaluation of
agricultural practices. By promoting meat substitutes, regions can In the functional snack category, mushrooms can be incorporated
optimize resource use and reduce the economic burden associated with into products that promote health benefits such as immune support and
traditional meat production. This shift benefits local economies and antioxidant protection. This has led to the creation of mushroom-based
contributes to global food security by diversifying protein sources chips, crackers, and other innovative snacks that appeal to consumers
(Nezlek & Forestell, 2022). seeking functional foods. This versatility allows manufacturers to
Cultural and social influences are also driving the demand for meat develop a wide range of snack products, from crunchy chips and crisps to
substitutes. As global dietary patterns evolve, there is a growing chewy jerky and bars (Dimopoulou et al., 2023).
acceptance of alternative protein diets. Social media, documentaries, The mushroom chips are a popular snack option, offering a crispy
and celebrity endorsements have played significant roles in popularizing and crunchy texture like potato or corn chips but with added nutritional
meat alternatives, making them trendy and desirable (Kerslake et al., benefits. These chips are often made by dehydrating or frying thin slices
2022). of mushrooms, such as shiitake, portobello, or oyster mushroom, and
Processing techniques enhance mushrooms’ flavor, texture, and seasoning them with herbs and spices. The result is a savory, umami-rich
nutritional properties as meat substitutes. By utilizing several methods, snack that is lower in calories and fat than traditional chips. They are
food manufacturers can create mushroom-based products that closely often marketed as gluten-free, vegan, and non-genetically modified,
mimic traditional meat’s taste, mouthfeel, and functionality. These appealing to a wide audience seeking clean-label snacks (Devi et al.,
techniques include fermentation, texturization, extrusion, and other 2020).
innovative approaches that improve mushrooms’ palatability and ap­ The mushroom crackers are another innovative product in the
peal, making them a viable and attractive option for consumers seeking healthy snack category. These crackers incorporate mushroom powder
meat alternatives (Vallikkadan et al., 2023). Fig. 3 shows a detailed or pieces into the dough, providing a nutrient boost and a unique flavor
exploration of these techniques and their impact on mushroom-based profile. Mushroom crackers often contain a higher protein content than
meat substitutes. regular crackers, thanks to the protein-rich nature of mushrooms. This is
In recent years, mushrooms have gained significant attraction as beneficial for those looking to increase their protein intake. Addition­
innovative ingredients in developing meat substitutes. Follows are some ally, many mushroom crackers are formulated to be low in carbohy­
notable examples of innovative products that leverage mushrooms as drates, catering to consumers following low-carb or ketogenic diets
meat substitutes, along with an exploration of consumer acceptance. (Uukule et al., 2023). Mushrooms are also used to create bars that
One of the most popular applications of mushrooms as meat sub­ combine them with other nutrient-dense ingredients, such as nuts, seeds,
stitutes is in burger patties. These products often combine finely chop­ and grains, to create a balanced snack. These bars provide protein, fiber,
ped mushrooms, such as portobello or cremini, with legumes, grains, and essential nutrients in a convenient format, making them ideal for
and spices to achieve a juicy, umami-rich patty with a satisfying texture. on-the-go snacking (Spim et al., 2021).

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A.G. Contato and C.A. Conte-Junior Trends in Food Science & Technology 156 (2025) 104868

Fig. 3. Processing techniques and their impact on mushroom-based meat substitutes. A: Fermentantion; B: Texturization; C: Extrusion; D: High-Pressure Processing
(HPP); E: Enzymatic processing; F: Smoking and grilling.

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A.G. Contato and C.A. Conte-Junior Trends in Food Science & Technology 156 (2025) 104868

The market for mushroom-based snacks is growing rapidly, driven by 2024).

consumer demand for healthier options that deliver both taste and The mushroom teas have become a popular way to enjoy the health
nutrition. Companies are experimenting with unique flavor combina­ benefits of mushrooms in a soothing form. These teas are typically made
tions and seasoning blends to create distinctive products that stand out by infusing dried or powdered mushrooms in hot water, often combined
in the market. However, the production of mushroom-based snacks with other herbal ingredients to enhance flavor and therapeutic effects
presents several challenges that must be addressed to ensure product (Su et al., 2022). At the same time, the mushroom-infused coffees
success (De Cianni, Varese, & Mancuso, 2023). combine the energizing effects of caffeine with the health benefits of
One of the primary challenges in producing mushroom-based snacks mushrooms. These beverages are designed to provide a balanced energy
is achieving the desired texture. Mushrooms naturally have a high water boost without the side effects commonly associated with traditional
content, which can complicate the drying process needed to create coffee (Kała et al., 2024). These products often incorporate powdered
crispy or crunchy snacks like chips and crackers. The challenge is to mushrooms, such as reishi (G. lucidum), chaga (Inonotus obliquus), and
remove enough moisture to achieve a satisfying texture without lion’s mane (H. erinaceus), which are renowned for their health benefits.
compromising the nutritional integrity of the mushrooms. Creating a These beverages offer a dual benefit: they provide a natural source of
crunchy texture is essential for consumer acceptance, as texture plays a energy and focus while simultaneously delivering mushrooms’
pivotal role in the sensory experience of snacking. Producers need to use immune-supporting and stress-reducing properties (Bell et al., 2022).
specific drying or frying techniques to achieve the right balance between Smoothies and juices offer a versatile medium for incorporating
crispiness and moisture retention. Ensuring consistency in texture across mushroom powders or extracts. Manufacturers can create nutrient-
batches can be difficult, especially given the natural variability in dense beverages that cater to health-conscious consumers by adding
mushroom size and moisture content (Dimopoulou et al., 2023). mushrooms to fruit and vegetable blends. Mushrooms such as milky
Additionally, while mushrooms are known for their umami flavor, white mushroom (Calocybe indica) and king oyster mushroom (Pleurotus
which can enhance the taste profile of snacks, they also have a distinct eryngii) are often used in these drinks for their immune-enhancing
earthy taste that may not appeal to all consumers (Du et al., 2021). properties while providing essential vitamins and minerals. The natu­
Balancing the natural flavor of mushrooms with seasonings and spices is ral flavors of fruits and vegetables help mask the earthy taste of mush­
essential to create a delicious and widely appealing product. In some rooms, making them more palatable to a broader audience (Chang,
cases, producers may need to mask or enhance certain flavors to cater to Yang, et al., 2021; Patil et al., 2024).
consumer preferences. This requires carefully selecting seasonings and Sparkling waters infused with mushroom extracts are gaining
flavor enhancers that complement the mushroom’s natural taste without popularity as a refreshing alternative to sugary sodas and energy drinks.
overwhelming it (Samarasiri & Chen, 2024). These beverages offer a subtle flavor and are often fortified with vita­
The processing of mushrooms into snacks can lead to the loss of some mins and minerals. Sparkling waters are a low-calorie, hydrating option
nutrients, mainly if high temperatures are used. Techniques like low- that appeals to health-conscious consumers looking for a functional
temperature drying and careful packaging can help retain the nutri­ twist on traditional carbonated drinks (Puleo et al., 2021).
tional content of mushrooms. Additionally, the mushrooms are prone to Mushroom lattes and hot chocolates combine traditional beverages’
spoilage due to their high moisture content, which can lead to microbial comforting warmth with mushrooms’ health benefits. These products
growth if not adequately controlled. Innovative packaging solutions that appeal particularly during colder months when consumers seek cozy,
protect against moisture and oxygen exposure can help extend shelf life nourishing drinks. Combining mushrooms with rich, creamy ingredients
but may add cost to production (Huo et al., 2023). The use of natural such as coconut or almond milk enhances the taste experience,
preservatives, such as citric acid or rosemary extract, can help maintain providing calming and cognitive benefits and a delicious flavor
freshness without relying on artificial additives, aligning with consumer (Drewnowski et al., 2021).
demand for clean-label products (Novais et al., 2022). Specialized health drinks featuring mushrooms target specific health
Advances in food processing technology offer opportunities to needs, such as boosting immunity, enhancing cognitive function, or
enhance the texture, flavor, and nutritional profile of mushroom-based supporting gut health. These drinks often combine mushrooms with
snacks. Techniques such as freeze-drying and vacuum frying can other functional ingredients like probiotics, herbs, and superfoods to
create innovative textures and flavors while preserving nutrients. The maximize health benefits. With the ongoing global focus on health and
freeze-drying removes moisture from mushrooms while preserving their immunity, especially considering the COVID-19 pandemic, beverages
structure and nutrients, resulting in lightweight, crunchy snacks that that support immune function are more popular than ever. Immune-
retain their natural flavors (Shams et al., 2022). Meanwhile, vacuum boosting shots and elixirs containing, e.g., turkey tail (Trametes versi­
frying allows for lower-temperature frying, reducing nutrient loss and color) extracts are designed to provide a quick and convenient way to
creating a healthier snack option with less oil absorption (Huo et al., enhance immune health. These products often combine mushrooms
2023). with other immune-supportive ingredients such as ginger, turmeric, and
As awareness of the health benefits of mushrooms grows, so does the vitamin C (Arunachalam et al., 2022; Bell et al., 2022; Shaik et al.,
opportunity to introduce these mushroom-based snacks to a wider 2023).
audience. Focusing on niche markets, such as athletes, seniors, or busy Advancements in extraction and processing technologies are essen­
professionals, can help tailor products to meet specific consumer needs tial for maximizing the health benefits of mushrooms in beverages.
and preferences. The development of a diverse range can cater to various Innovative methods are being developed to enhance the bioavailability
consumer preferences and occasions, from savory to sweet snacks. and potency of mushroom extracts. Techniques such as supercritical CO2
Exploring sweet flavor profiles by combining mushrooms with in­ extraction and ultrasonic-assisted extraction are used to isolate high-
gredients such as chocolate, nuts, or fruits can create unique products potency mushroom compounds, ensuring that beverages deliver
that appeal to a broader audience (Vattapparambil et al., 2024). maximum health benefits (Milovanovic et al., 2021). At the same time,
microencapsulation is employed to protect sensitive mushroom com­
5. Mushrooms in functional beverages pounds from degradation, allowing for more stable and effective func­
tional ingredients in beverages (Fogarasi et al., 2024).
The mushrooms are increasingly used in functional beverages, where One of the challenges in incorporating mushrooms into beverages is
their adaptogenic and immune-boosting properties can be harnessed. managing their distinct earthy flavors. Natural flavor masking agents
These beverages, including teas, coffees, and smoothies, leverage the and enhancers are used to create palatable drinks that retain the health
health benefits of mushrooms to create products that not only quench benefits of mushrooms without compromising on taste. Blending
thirst but also contribute to overall well-being (Ashaolu & Adeyeye, mushrooms with complementary flavors, such as chocolate, vanilla, or

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A.G. Contato and C.A. Conte-Junior Trends in Food Science & Technology 156 (2025) 104868

spices, helps create appealing taste profiles that enhance the overall overseen by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF).
sensory experience (Ayseli, 2023). The JAS (Japanese Agricultural Standard) Organic Certification is
Fermentation is a traditional method being revitalized in the func­ required for organic mushrooms, ensuring compliance with strict agri­
tional beverage industry to enhance mushroom drinks’ nutritional cultural practices (JAS, 2022). While in India, the regulation of mush­
profile and flavor. Fermented beverages often have added probiotics, room cultivation is guided by the Food Safety and Standards Authority
which can further boost their health benefits. Kombucha and kefir drinks of India. The agency enforces hygiene, safety, and labeling standards,
infused with mushrooms combine the benefits of fermentation with the particularly for export mushrooms (Food Safety and Standards Author­
health properties of mushrooms, offering a unique product that supports ity of India).
digestive and immune health (Kruk et al., 2021). Other regions, such as Australia and South America, have their own
unique regulatory landscapes for mushroom cultivation and products. In
6. Challenges in product development and consumer acceptance Australia, the Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Forestry (DAFF) regulates mushroom cultivation, with a focus on
The development of mushroom-based products presents numerous quarantine and biosecurity measures to prevent the introduction of pests
challenges and considerations that manufacturers must overcome. and diseases (Australian Government DAFF, 2022). In Brazil, the regu­
While the potential of mushrooms as a versatile and health-promoting lation of edible mushrooms is overseen by the Ministry of Agriculture,
ingredient is vast, several hurdles related to production, commerciali­ Livestock and Food Supply (MAPA), which ensures compliance with
zation, regulatory compliance, and consumer acceptance must be national food safety standards (Ministry of Agriculture, 2024).
addressed to ensure market success (Kurek et al., 2022). While mushrooms are gaining popularity as a health food and being
The cultivation of mushrooms for large-scale production poses sig­ incorporated into various innovative food products, consumer accep­
nificant challenges, particularly in ensuring consistency and quality tance remains a barrier to widespread adoption, particularly in Western
across batches. The mushrooms often require precise environmental markets where mushrooms are not a traditional dietary staple. Shifting
conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and light, to grow optimally. these perceptions to position mushrooms as a mainstream ingredient
This necessitates controlled environments, which can be costly to requires strategic marketing and consumer education. Collaborations
maintain on a large scale (Lu et al., 2020). Additionally, mushrooms with academic and research institutions enable the transfer of knowl­
must be processed and preserved once harvested to maintain their edge and expertise, helping companies stay at the forefront of scientific
nutritional and functional qualities, which can be technically advancements and industry trends. Partnering with established brands
demanding. Heat-sensitive vitamins and antioxidants can be lost during in the food industry can enhance the visibility and credibility of
conventional processing, necessitating the development of gentle pres­ mushroom-based products. Co-branding and co-marketing efforts can
ervation methods. Employing techniques such as high-moisture extru­ leverage the strengths of both parties to reach a wider audience and
sion, fermentation, and freeze-drying can improve the texture and flavor build consumer trust (De Cianni, Pippinato, & Mancuso, 2023).
of mushroom-based products. High-moisture extrusion, for example, can
create a fibrous texture that closely mimics meat, appealing to con­ 7. Limitations of mushrooms in food products
sumers (Ketnawa et al., 2024). Incorporating functional ingredients,
such as prebiotics, probiotics, and adaptogens, can elevate the health While mushrooms present a promising alternative protein source for
benefits of mushroom-based products and differentiate them in the food innovations, they also contain certain compounds that may limit
market (Lu et al., 2020). their nutritional value or pose health risks if not properly managed.
Another challenge is that the regulatory landscape is a complex task These compounds include antinutrients and toxins, which vary by spe­
for manufacturers of mushroom-based products, as different regions and cies and preparation methods (El-Ramady et al., 2022).
countries have varying standards and requirements. The European Antinutrients are naturally occurring compounds that, despite being
Union, for example, has specific guidelines for organic mushroom present in many plant-based and fungal foods, can reduce the
cultivation, emphasizing the use of natural substrates, the prohibition of bioavailability of essential nutrients and impact the nutritional value of
synthetic pesticides, and the need for sustainable farming practices. The food products. In mushrooms, the main antinutrients identified include
EU Organic Regulation (Regulation (EU) 2018/848) sets the standards oxalates, phytates, chitin, tannins, and protease inhibitors. They can
for organic mushroom production. The mushrooms intended for human affect the digestibility and absorption of nutrients in different ways
consumption must comply with the General Food Law Regulation (López-Moreno et al., 2022). Table 2 summarizes the characteristics,
(Regulation (EC) No 178/2002), which outlines safety standards, impacts, and the mitigation strategies for each of the antinutrients
traceability, and labeling requirements. This includes testing for con­ mentioned.
taminants such as heavy metals and pesticide residues. Some mushroom Additionally, the toxicity of certain mushroom species poses signif­
species or products, particularly those not traditionally consumed in icant risks to human health, leading to poisoning and, in severe cases,
Europe, may fall under the Novel Foods Regulation (Regulation (EU) death. Understanding the types of toxins present in mushrooms, their
2015/2283). This regulation requires a pre-market safety assessment effects, and strategies for risk management are important for safe con­
and authorization before novel products can be marketed. sumption (Nowakowski et al., 2021). Several types of toxins are found in
In the United States, the United States Department of Agriculture mushrooms, and they can be classified into different categories based on
(USDA) oversees the cultivation practices, particularly for organic their chemical structure and mode of action (Table 3).
mushrooms, under the National Organic Program (NOP) standards. Different strategies can be employed to minimize the risks associated
These regulations stipulate the allowable substrates, pest management with mushroom toxins, like individuals who are not experienced in
practices, and handling protocols. At the same time, the Food and Drug mushroom identification should avoid consuming wild mushrooms and
Administration (FDA) regulates the safety and labeling of mushroom preferably purchase from reputable vendors and markets. Additionally,
products under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act of if mushroom poisoning is suspected, individuals should seek medical
1938) (Federal Food, 2018). This includes ensuring that mushrooms are attention immediately. It is helpful to take a sample of the mushroom
free from contaminants and accurately labeled regarding their health consumed for identification, which can help healthcare professionals
benefits. administer appropriate treatment (He, Wang, Chen, et al., 2022).
In the Asia market, China, the largest producer of mushrooms glob­ Understanding the antinutrients and toxins is important for con­
ally, has established the GB 5009.22-2016, which outlines a food safety sumers and producers alike, ensuring the safe and beneficial use of
standard establishing the methods for determining aflatoxins in food. mushrooms in innovative food applications. Continued research and
Japan strongly emphasizes food safety and quality, with regulations education are essential to mitigate these limitations and harness the full

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A.G. Contato and C.A. Conte-Junior Trends in Food Science & Technology 156 (2025) 104868

Table 2
Characteristics, impacts, and mitigation strategies of antinutrients in mushrooms.
Antinutrient Characteristics Impacts Mitigation strategies Reference

Oxalates Organic compounds that bind to minerals, Reducing calcium and iron absorption; can lead Cooking in water, fermenting, and Salgado et al. (2023)
such as calcium and iron to kidney stone formation in susceptible drying
individuals
Phytates Chelating agents that bind to essential Decreases mineral bioavailability; prolonged Fermentation, soaking, use of Ayimbila and
minerals like zinc, iron, calcium, and intake may lead to mineral deficiencies phytase enzymes Keawsompong (2023)
magnesium
Chitin Structural polysaccharide in fungal cell Reduces protein digestibility; may cause Cooking, fine grinding, use of El-Ramady et al.
walls, acting as an insoluble fiber digestive discomfort in sensitive individuals chitinolytic enzymes in (2022)
fermentation
Tannins Phenolic compounds that can form Inhibits protein digestion; reduces iron Cooking and fermentation Zhou et al., 2024
complexes with proteins and minerals absorption
Protease Compounds that interfere with digestive Lowers protein digestion efficiency; may cause Cooking to inactivate inhibitors Pessoa et al. (2023)
inhibitors enzymes, mainly trypsin and chymotrypsin digestive discomfort if consumed in large
amounts

potential of mushrooms as valuable food ingredients. 9. Perspectives and potential opportunities

8. Mushrooms compared to other plant-based alternatives Food innovation is rapidly evolving, with mushrooms increasingly
vital in shaping future trends. Their unique properties and potential
As the demand for meat alternatives grows, understanding the health benefits make them attractive for researchers and food technol­
diverse options available and their respective benefits and drawbacks ogists seeking sustainable, nutritious, and functional ingredients. As
becomes increasingly important. Alternatives such as soy-based meat, consumer demands continue to evolve towards healthier, eco-friendly,
pea protein, insect-based options, seitan, tempeh, jackfruit, mycopro­ and functional food products, mushrooms are positioned to meet these
tein, lupin protein, cultured meat, aquafaba, and bean-based products demands, leading to significant advancements and emerging trends (De
each offer unique nutritional and sensory properties suited to different Cianni, Pippinato, & Mancuso, 2023).
dietary needs and values. Companies are increasingly developing blended products that
Soy-based meat, for instance, is high in protein and contains all combine mushrooms with other plant-based proteins, such as pea or soy,
essential amino acids but is a common allergen, often highly processed, to create hybrid meat alternatives. These products balance taste, texture,
and carries environmental concerns related to soy farming (Qin et al., and nutritional value, appealing to flexitarians and health-conscious
2022). Pea protein is another high-protein, hypoallergenic option suit­ consumers (Lang, 2020). The cultivated meat industry, focused on
able for individuals with soy or gluten allergies; however, its earthy taste lab-grown animal proteins, explores mushrooms as a complementary
may require masking, and it may be low in certain amino acids like ingredient to improve texture and flavor. The mushrooms can also
methionine (Shuai et al., 2022). Insect-based proteins are rich in B12, enhance the nutritional profile of cultivated meats by adding vitamins,
iron, and zinc, but they face cultural resistance, regulatory challenges, minerals, and bioactive compounds (Wang & Zhao, 2023).
and ethical considerations (Mishyna et al., 2020). Seitan, made from Several companies have emerged as pioneers in incorporating
wheat gluten, provides a meat-like texture but is unsuitable for in­ mushrooms into various products, from plant-based meats to snacks and
dividuals with gluten sensitivity and lacks essential amino acids functional beverages. Examples of global companies incorporating
(Mazumder et al., 2023). Tempeh, a fermented soy product, is rich in mushrooms into innovative products are shown in Table 4.
fiber and probiotics, yet it has an earthy flavor and requires refrigera­ Vertical farming and urban agriculture are emerging as sustainable
tion, limiting its shelf life (Ahnan-Winarno, Cordeiro, Winarno, Gibbons, cultivation methods for mushrooms. These practices reduce land and
& Xiao, 2021). Jackfruit offers a natural meat-like texture when unripe water usage, minimize environmental impact, and provide a consistent
and absorbs flavors well in savory dishes, though it is low in protein and supply of fresh mushrooms year-round. Urban farms integrate mush­
less nutritionally dense (Ranasinghe et al., 2019). Lupin protein is high rooms into local food systems, reducing transportation emissions and
in protein and fiber and low in carbohydrates, making it suitable for promoting food security (Dorr et al., 2021).
low-carb diets, though it is not widely available and may cause allergies Advancements in mushroom genetics and breeding are opening new
in those sensitive to legumes (Lo et al., 2021). Cultured meat provides possibilities for developing mushroom varieties with enhanced traits.
real meat without animal slaughter and has the potential for reduced Genetic modification techniques, including CRISPR (Clustered Regu­
environmental impact, yet it faces high production costs and ethical larly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats), are being explored to
concerns (da Silva e Conte-Junior, 2024). Aquafaba, though versatile as enhance mushrooms’ nutritional content, yield, and resilience. This
a meat alternative, is very low in protein and offers limited nutrition research could create mushroom varieties that are better suited for
compared to other options (He et al., 2021). Bean-based alternatives are specific climates and cultivation conditions (Zhang et al., 2023). Ex­
high in protein and fiber but can cause digestive discomfort due to high amples are the improvement of P. eryngii (king oyster mushroom) and
fiber content (Ferreira et al., 2022). While the mushrooms stand out for P. ostreatus (oyster mushroom) cultivars with more useful traits
their rich content of B vitamins, vitamin D (when exposed to UV light), mentioned by Wang et al. (2021) and Boontawon et al. (2021),
and antioxidants, along with a natural umami flavor. They are generally respectively.
well-tolerated and free from common allergens, though they may need To address the issue of regulations for genetically modified (GM)
to be combined with other proteins to fully meet nutritional edible mushrooms, it’s essential to recognize that regulatory frame­
requirements. works for GM foods vary globally, often depending on regional guide­
For consumers, clear information is essential to make dietary choices lines for food safety and environmental impact. In the United States, for
that align with health, environmental, and ethical standards (De Cianni, instance, the FDA, USDA, and EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)
Pippinato, & Mancuso, 2023; Mazumder et al., 2023). jointly oversee aspects of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in
food, assessing potential risks to human health and the environment. In
the European Union, approval processes are more stringent, with a
strong emphasis on comprehensive risk assessments and labeling

10
 A.G. Contato and C.A. Conte-Junior
Table 3
Toxins found in mushrooms.
Toxin Chemical Structure Description Effects Reference

Amanitins Cyclic peptides primarily found in Amanita species, such as Amanita Inhibit RNA polymerase II, leading to protein synthesis disruption and cell Vetter (2023)
phalloides (death cap) death

Gyromitrin A hydrazine derivative found in Gyromitra esculenta (false morel) Causes gastrointestinal distress, potential liver damage upon metabolism Dirks et al. (2023)

Orellanine A toxin found in Cortinarius species, particularly Cortinarius orellanus. Leads to kidney failure, often with delayed onset of symptoms (up to days Lyons et al.
after ingestion) (2023)
11

Muscarine An alkaloid found in some Inocybe and Clitocybe species Causes excessive salivation, sweating, bradycardia, and other symptoms Xu et al. (2020)
related to the parasympathetic nervous system

Ibotenic Acid Found in Amanita muscaria (fly agaric), this compound is a neurotoxin Causes hallucinations, gastrointestinal distress, and psychoactive effects Dushkov et al.
and psychoactive agent (2023)

Trends in Food Science & Technology 156 (2025) 104868

Muscimol A psychoactive compound also found in A. muscaria, muscimol is Produces sedative and hallucinogenic effects; may cause dizziness and Dushkov et al.
derived from ibotenic acid through decarboxylation nausea (2023)

Beta- Alkaloids found in some mushrooms that can have psychoactive May cause nausea, vomiting, and altered mental states; potentially beneficial Zorrilla &
Carbolines effects and interact with neurotransmitter systems in some contexts (e.g., antidepressant effects) Evidente, 2022

(continued on next page)

A.G. Contato and C.A. Conte-Junior Trends in Food Science & Technology 156 (2025) 104868

Table 4
Global companies incorporating mushrooms into innovative products.

Libenská et al.
Company Location Description

Siegel et al.
Reference
Beyond Meat El Segundo, Beyond Meat uses mushrooms as part of

(2024)

(2024)
California, USA its approach to creating plant-based
burgers and sausages.
Impossible Foods Redwood City, Impossible Foods utilizes mushrooms to
California, USA enhance the flavor and aroma of their
plant-based burgers.
The Mushroom Los Angeles, The Mushroom Meat Co. produces
Potentially carcinogenic; can cause gastrointestinal upset in sensitive

Causes hallucinations, altered perceptions, and changes in mood and

Meat Co. California, USA various products, including burgers,
sausages, and mince, made primarily
cognition; can also lead to anxiety or paranoia in some users

from mushrooms.
Four Sigmatic Los Angeles, Four Sigmatic offers a range of
California, USA mushroom-infused coffees, hot
chocolates, and elixirs that feature
medicinal mushrooms like chaga, lion’s
mane, and reishi.
Mondelez Deerfield, Illinois, Mondelez International has developed a
International USA line of mushroom chips and crackers
that cater to consumers seeking
healthier snack options.
MycoTechnology Aurora, Colorado, MycoTechnology has developed a
USA mycelium-based protein called
PureTaste, a sustainable and complete
protein source for plant-based foods.
The company also produces ClearTaste,
which uses mushroom-derived
technology to block bitterness in foods
individuals

and beverages.
Effects

Meati Foods Boulder, Meati Foods specializes in whole-cut

Colorado, USA mushroom meats made from mycelium,
such as chicken breasts and steak.
Smallhold Brooklyn, New Smallhold is an urban farming startup
A hydrazine derivative found in Agaricus species (e.g., common button

York, USA that uses innovative technology to grow

mushrooms in modular, small-scale
A naturally occurring psychedelic compound found in Psilocybe

farms located in urban environments.

Their mini mushroom farms, installed
in grocery stores and restaurants, allow
consumers to purchase freshly
harvested mushrooms directly from the
species, commonly known as magic mushrooms

source.
MyForest Foods Green Island, MyForest Foods specializes in creating
New York, USA innovative plant-based products using
mushrooms. Their flagship product is
the MyBacon, a bacon alternative made
from a blend of oyster mushrooms and
other plant-based ingredients.
NexVeg Flagstaff, NexVeg products, such as burgers and
Arizona, USA sausages, feature mushrooms as a key
ingredient, combined with beans,
grains, and vegetables.
mushrooms)

Rritual Superfoods Vancouver, Rritual Superfoods is a wellness

Description

Canada company specializing in functional

mushroom-based products designed to
support well-being.
Quorn Stokesley, UK Quorn is a pioneering company in the
field of meat substitutes, using
mycoprotein derived from Fusarium
venenatum. Quorn’s range includes
burgers, sausages, nuggets, and mince,
all made from mycoprotein.
The Vegetarian Utrecht, The Vegetarian Butcher is renowned for
Butcher Netherlands its high-quality meat alternatives from
plant-based ingredients, including
mushrooms.
Shandi Global Singapore Shandi Global is a biotechnology
Chemical Structure

company that develops plant-based

meat alternatives using mushrooms and
other plant ingredients.
Fable Food Co. Sunshine Coast, Fable Food Co. specializes in creating
Australia mushroom-based meat alternatives. The
Table 3 (continued )

company uses shiitake mushrooms as

the primary ingredient, including
braised beef-style products and pulled
pork alternatives.
Psilocybin
Agaritine

(continued on next page)

Toxin

12
A.G. Contato and C.A. Conte-Junior Trends in Food Science & Technology 156 (2025) 104868

Table 4 (continued ) Declaration of competing interest

Company Location Description
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
Life Cykel Byron Bay, Life Cykel offers a range of mushroom
Australia extracts and supplements. The company
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
embraces a circular economy model by the work reported in this paper.
utilizing coffee waste to grow
mushrooms. Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

requirements. For edible mushrooms, regulatory concerns would focus
on ensuring that genetic modifications do not produce unexpected al­
References
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ductivity is uncovering ways to improve agricultural sustainability. The nutraceutical properties of shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes): A review. Trends in
mycorrhizal fungi, a type of mushroom, form symbiotic relationships Food Science & Technology, 134, 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
tifs.2023.03.007
with plants, enhancing nutrient uptake and soil structure. Integrating
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200.891/2021], the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e lwt.2021.112344
Tecnológico (CNPq) - grant number [313119/2020-1], and the Coor­ Chen, H. Y., Lei, J. Y., Li, S. L., Guo, L. Q., Lin, J. F., Wu, G. H., Lu, J., & Ye, Z. W. (2023).
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