electronics

Article
Selecting the Best Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine
Design for Use in a Small Wind Turbine
Marcin Lefik 1 , Anna Firych-Nowacka 1, * , Michal Lipian 2 , Malgorzata Brzozowska 2 and Tomasz Smaz 2

1 Institute of Mechatronics and Information Systems, Lodz University of Technology, 90-537 Lodz, Poland
2 Institute of Turbomachinery, Lodz University of Technology, 90-005 Lodz, Poland
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The article describes the selection of a permanent magnet synchronous machine design
that could be implemented in a small wind turbine designed by the GUST student organization
together with researchers working at the Technical University of Lodz. Based on measurements
of the characteristics of available machines, eight initial designs of machines with different rotor
designs were proposed. The size of the stator, the number of pairs of poles, and the dimensions of
the magnets were used as initial parameters of the designed machines. The analysis was carried
out about the K-index, the so-called index of benefits. The idea was to make the selected design
as efficient as possible while keeping production costs and manufacturing time low. This paper
describes how to select the best design of a permanent magnet synchronous generator intended
to work with a small wind turbine. All generator parameters were selected keeping in mind the
competition requirements, as the designed generator will be used in the author’s wind turbine.
Based on the determined characteristics of the generator variants and the value of the K-index, a
generator with a latent magnet rotor was selected as the best solution. The aforementioned K-index
is a proprietary concept developed for the selection of the most suitable generator design. This paper
did not use optimization methods; the analysis was only supported by the K-index.

Keywords: permanent magnet; synchronous machines; small wind turbines

Citation: Lefik, M.; Firych-Nowacka,

A.; Lipian, M.; Brzozowska, M.; Smaz,
1. Introduction
T. Selecting the Best Permanent This article refers to [1–3] and is related to the work on the design of a small wind
Magnet Synchronous Machine Design turbine, which is the focus of a research group from the Technical University of Lodz:
for Use in a Small Wind Turbine. GUST (acronym for “Generative Urban Small Turbine”). The group is formed by students
Electronics 2024, 13, 1929. https:// and young researchers from the university. The task of the authors of this paper was to
doi.org/10.3390/electronics13101929 design a generator to drive a small wind turbine, which was designed for a competition
Academic Editor: Gianpaolo Vitale and according to the related requirements.
The GUST project concerns the development and construction of a small wind turbine
Received: 8 April 2024 (approximately 1 kW power) for sustainable energy delivery in urban and suburban
Revised: 4 May 2024
conditions. The horizontal-axis rotor of 1.6 m diameter is intended to use three or four
Accepted: 8 May 2024
blades designed via an in-house aerodynamic algorithm. The wind turbine’s reliable
Published: 15 May 2024
performance at minimum maintenance is achieved through a robust power conversion
system and straightforward mechanical design.
The GUST project is highly oriented toward meeting the UN Sustainability Goals.
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
The designed machine supplies the end user with affordable and clean energy. Still, its
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. process of manufacturing and recycling follows a responsible consumption and production
This article is an open access article path by favoring eco-friendly materials and design solutions. Compact size and dedicated
distributed under the terms and design principles are making turbines such as the one designed by GUST an increasingly
conditions of the Creative Commons in-demand solution. The reason it is important to use small wind turbines is confirmed by
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the literature review shared below.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ According to the Global Wind Energy Council’s 2023 report [4], the future of wind
4.0/). energy appears promising. The report highlights that 2022 was the third-best year ever for

Electronics 2024, 13, 1929. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13101929 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2024, 13, 1929 2 of 16

new capacity, with 78 GW added globally, bringing the total installed worldwide capacity
to 906 GW. This represents a year-over-year growth of 9%. Over the following five years
(2023–2027), the GWEC Market Intelligence forecasts 680 GW of new capacity, which
represents an addition of 136 GW per year.
Designing wind turbines involves numerous technical challenges. Traditional design
processes and approaches need to be reassessed, as modern turbine rotors operate through
the entire atmospheric boundary layer. Traditional aerodynamics and aeroelastic modeling
approaches are reaching their limits of applicability due to the size and flexibility of future
architectures. Uncertainty in turbine wakes complicates both structural loading and energy
production estimates [5]. Advancements in wind power-generation technologies are crucial
for grid dispatching and energy distribution. Artificial intelligence techniques such as arti-
ficial neural networks (ANN) and support-vector machines (SVMs) have been widely used
in wind energy forecasting [6,7]. The development of accurate and precise short-term wind
power prediction models based on these advanced algorithms is necessary to accommodate
large-scale wind power into the electricity grid. Furthermore, the implications of climate
change on wind energy potential are being studied, which will also influence the future
development of this branch of renewables [8].

1.1. Small Wind Energy

Small wind turbines (SWTs) are compact devices that generate electricity for small-
scale (typically not more than 100 kW) use in residential, agricultural, or small commercial
and industrial applications [9]. They are usually considered as a part of the prosumer
energy concept, a model where consumers also become producers of energy, often using
renewable energy sources. This model allows individuals or businesses to generate their
own electricity, often feeding excess power back into the grid [10]. In [11], the authors
pointed out the impact of SWTs on the Internet of Things scenarios. They overviewed a
wide range of wind turbine types and applications, concluding that future development in
this direction needs to include three factors: efficiency, durability, and practicality.
Small wind turbines and prosumer energy sources face a multitude of challenges
themselves [12]. For small wind turbines, the key challenges include improving energy
conversion through better design and control, especially in turbulent wind conditions. Pre-
dicting long-term turbine performance with limited resource measurements and proving
reliability is another significant hurdle. Furthermore, improving the economic viability of
small wind energy and facilitating the contribution of small wind turbines to the energy de-
mand as well as and electrical system integration are also critical. Prosumer energy sources
in general face challenges such as managing surplus energy, particularly in promoting
energy storage technology and improving interconnections between different regions with
varying energy production and consumption profiles [13]. Maintaining voltage quality,
including voltage quantity and harmonics, is another significant point [14]. The use of
renewable energy sources (wind and solar) can lead to voltage variations and unbalanced,
unacceptable voltage rises in the network nodes and uncontrolled power flows in the
network. Additionally, ensuring access to distribution and transmission networks and
establishing transparent rules for contributing to the associated costs are also significant
challenges [15]. Power conversion and control is thus one of the key issues in proper wind
turbine design.

1.2. SWT Electricity Generation

The wind turbine generator design process must always be performed with the ma-
chine’s cooperation with the SWT rotor and the electric grid in mind. In [16], the authors
performed numerical modelling of squirrel-cage and doubly-fed induction generators in
wind turbines (albeit for 1.5 MW machines). Having studied a wide range of operating con-
ditions, the authors noted the importance of ensuring proper cooperation of the generator
and electric grid.
Electronics 2024, 13, 1929 3 of 16

The authors of [17] compared experimental flux-reversal generators equipped with

rare-earth (RE) and non-RE permanent magnets. Two designs of comparable efficiencies
and relatively high overload capabilities were tested in no-load and on-load conditions.
The authors concluded that the NRE design is a particularly attractive solution, as it was
found to have lower demagnetization risk and lower torque ripple and density, with a
cost similar to the RE counterpart. The study [18] extended the generator research from
the SWT control point of view. The authors examined control techniques based on the
adjustment of blade pitch and the generator field current of a 3 kW SWT under real wind
conditions in Japan. They concluded that the combination of electric load and proper pitch
may successfully replace the mechanical braking systems in case of strong winds.
SWTs as whole machines are often tested within a dedicated case study. The compre-
hensive design and analysis process of a horizontal-axis SWT was performed [19]. The
author identified the main mechanical parameters vital for the generator design process:
rated torque and rotational velocity, maximum cogging torque, and maximum temperatures
(for overheating protection). Haridas and Parkhe [20] performed a case study of a 500 W
horizontal-axis SWT for rural application in India. The authors used a 16-pole permanent
magnet generator (PMG) as a relatively inexpensive and reliable power conversion device,
which also ensured a low starting speed. A PMG was also proposed by Buaossa et al. in
their design of an SWT for applications in Libya [21]. The system was designed for on-grid
applications, equipped with off-grid energy storage possibility, e.g., in case of overproduc-
tion. The authors applauded the PMG’s low cost, wide range of wind speed operation, and
ease of controlling. A PMG was also tested in the study [22], concentrated on increasing the
magnetic flux with neodymium magnets. The authors underlined the generated current
consequential rise, which may be challenging if the winding is not designed appropriately.

2. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator Design

Based on the literature research, the authors of the present study committed themselves
to creating their own tailored PM generator for the specific needs of the GUST project.

2.1. Preliminary Requirements

The basic requirements for the designed generator were an active power output of
approximately 1–1.2 kW at a rotational speed of 700–800 rpm and the highest possible
efficiency. This specific speed assumption means that 8-pole machine designs (synchronous
speed 750 rpm) were considered. An additional criterion adopted in the design was to
obtain the lowest possible cost for the creation of a prototype machine. However, no cost
optimization algorithms were used in the design, only in the additional initial assumptions.
The design of the generator was based on available mass-produced induction motors,
using their body, shaft, and stator and, if possible, also the winding (it was assumed that
the machine would have a double-layer winding). The cost of sourcing these structural
components was lower than making bespoke prototype solutions. Thus, the design process
involved only the rotor and possibly the winding. An additional possibility to reduce the
cost of building a prototype generator was considered: using available mass-produced
permanent magnets. The geometrical dimensions of the permanent magnets were therefore
an additional initial assumption. The last design assumption made was to keep the machine
dimensions as small as possible. To clarify this assumption, it was assumed that the external
diameter of the stator would be considered. The generator would operate with a resistive
load. The most important pre-requirements of the designed generator are shown in Table 1.

2.2. Stator Choice

The design of the proposed generator was based on series-produced induction motors.
Therefore, the selection of the stator (as well as the body and shaft) was based on available
types. Table 2 shows the selected stators used in the base induction motors along with the
basic parameters.
 1 Output power 1.2 kW
2 Speed 700–800 rpm
3 Rated speed/number of poles 750 rpm/8
4 Double-layer Winding
Electronics 2024, 13, 1929 5 Rotor core plate M600-50A 4 of 16
6 Air gap 0.7 mm
7 Load type Resistive
Table 1. Key8prerequisites of the generator
Ambientproject.
temperature 40 °C
Order No. Criteria Value
2.2. Stator Choice
1 Output power 1.2 kW
The design 2of the proposed generator was based on series-produced700–800
Speed induction
rpm mo-
tors. Therefore, 3the selection of theRated
stator (as well as the
speed/number body and shaft) 750
of poles wasrpm/8
based on
available types. Table
4 2 shows the selected Double-layer
stators used in the base inductionWinding
motors along
5
with the basic parameters. Rotor core plate M600-50A
6 Air gap 0.7 mm
Table 2. Basic stator parameters of selected induction type
7 Load motor base designs. Resistive
8 Ambient temperature 40 ◦ C
Order Shaft Inclina- Stator Outer Stator Inner Number
Identification
No. tion (mm) Diameter (mm) Diameter (mm)
Table 2. Basic stator parameters of selected induction motor base designs. of Slots
1 A 90 135.4 86 24
Shaft Stator Outer Stator Inner
2 Order F 132 208 140 36
Number of
Identification Inclination Diameter Diameter
3 No. G 100 (mm) 155 (mm) 94 (mm) 36 Slots
4 H 132 208 151 48
1 A 90 135.4 86 24
5 2 I F 100 132 155 208 85 140 24 36
6 3 J G 112 100 182 155 130 94 48 36
7 4 K H 90 132 128 208 84 151 36 48
5 I 100 155 85 24
6 J 112 182 130 48
2.3. Rotor7Design K 90 128 84 36
Of the many permanent magnet synchronous machine rotor shapes used and de-
scribed in theDesign
2.3. Rotor literature [23–28], eight were selected for analysis. The selected variants
have both surface-mounted magnets and latent magnets. The proposed designs are shown
Of the many permanent magnet synchronous machine rotor shapes used and described
in Figures 1 and 2.
in the literature [23–28], eight were selected for analysis. The selected variants have
The various electrical machines used in wind turbines in general are also reviewed
both surface-mounted magnets and latent magnets. The proposed designs are shown in
[29,30].
Figures 1 and 2.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17
Figure 1. Rotor
Figure shapes
1. Rotor with
shapes interior
with magnets
interior selected
magnets forfor
selected analysis: (a)(a)
analysis: IPM-01, (b)(b)
IPM-01, IPM-03,
IPM-03,(c)(c)IPM-
IPM-12,
12, and
and (d)
(d) S-02.
S-02.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 2. Rotor
Figure shapes
2. Rotor withwith
shapes surface-mounted magnets
surface-mounted selected
magnets for analysis:
selected (a) SM-01,
for analysis: (b) SM-07,
(a) SM-01, (b) SM-07,
(c) SM-08, andand
(c) SM-08, (d) B-01.
(d) B-01.

Of The
the pre-selected rotor
various electrical designs,used
machines the in
SM-01
wind and B-01inwere
turbines abandoned
general due to the
are also reviewed [29,30].
need forOf the pre-selected
profile rotor are
magnets, which designs, the SM-01 and B-01
custom-manufactured were
and abandoned
therefore moredue to the need
expensive.
Thefor profile
S-02 magnets,
was also which due
abandoned are custom-manufactured
to its more complicated and therefore
design, more expensive.
requiring a non-mag-The
S-02
netic was also
sleeve. Due abandoned
to the lack ofdue to its more
significant complicated
differences design,
between requiring
SM-07 a non-magnetic
and SM-08, SM-08
wassleeve. Due to the lack
also discontinued. of significant
Variants differences
were therefore between
used SM-07
for further and SM-08,
analysis: SM-08
IPM-01, was also
IPM-03,
IPM-12, and SM-07. Variants IPM-01, IPM-03, and IPM-12 are rotors with latent magnets,
while SM-07 is a rotor with surface magnets.

2.4. Permanent Magnets

One of the design considerations was to use commercially available mass-produced
 Of the pre-selected rotor designs, the SM-01 and B-01 were abandoned due to the
need for profile magnets, which are custom-manufactured and therefore more expensive.
The S-02 was also abandoned due to its more complicated design, requiring a non-mag-
Electronics 2024, 13, 1929 netic sleeve. Due to the lack of significant differences between SM-07 and SM-08, SM-085 of 16
was also discontinued. Variants were therefore used for further analysis: IPM-01, IPM-03,
IPM-12, and SM-07. Variants IPM-01, IPM-03, and IPM-12 are rotors with latent magnets,
while SM-07 is aVariants
discontinued. rotor with surface
were magnets.
therefore used for further analysis: IPM-01, IPM-03, IPM-12,
and SM-07. Variants IPM-01, IPM-03, and IPM-12 are rotors with latent magnets, while
2.4. Permanent
SM-07 Magnets
is a rotor with surface magnets.
One of the design considerations was to use commercially available mass-produced
2.4. Permanent
permanent Magnets
magnets in the rotor. The characteristics of permanent magnets, as quoted by
manufacturers,
One of the dodesign
not always agree with
considerations wasthe
to real ones. These differences
use commercially result in the
available mass-produced
electromotive
permanent magnetsforce at in
thethe
terminals
rotor. Theof characteristics
permanent magnet synchronous
of permanent machines
magnets, beingby
as quoted
lower than those resulting
manufacturers, fromagree
do not always calculations.
with theFigure 3 shows
real ones. Theseexamples of result
differences the electromo-
in the elec-
tromotive
tive force at theobtained
force waveforms terminals ofsynchronous
for permanent magnetmotorssynchronous machines being
in no-load generator lower
operation
than
[31], those“measured”
where resulting from calculations.
corresponds Figure
to the 3 showsvoltage
measured examples of the
at the electromotive
terminals of a motorforce
waveforms
operating as aobtained
generatorfor synchronous
(permanent motors
magnet in no-loadmotor
synchronous generator operation
PMSM). The PMSM[31], where
mo-
“measured”
tor is a 4-pole corresponds
motor with an to the measured voltage
electromagnetic torqueat of
the1.1
terminals of a voltage
Nm, a lead motor operating
of 200 V,as aa
generator (permanent magnet synchronous motor PMSM). The PMSM motor
lead current of 7 A, and a rotational speed of 1500 rpm [31]; “calculated” refers to the FEM- is a 4-pole
motor with
calculated an electromagnetic
waveform, including torque of 1.1 Nm,
rotor rotation (2Da lead voltage
Opera, of 200 V, a lead
2-dimensional, current
stratified
of 7 A, and a rotational speed of 1500 rpm [31]; “calculated” refers to the FEM-calculated
model).
waveform, including rotor rotation (2D Opera, 2-dimensional, stratified model).
calculated 91.9 V
100 120 calculated 104.0 V
measured 63.9 V 100
80
80
60 60
40 40 measured 96.7 V
voltage [V]

voltage [V]
20 20
0 0 π 2π
π 2π
−20
−20
−40
−40
−60
−60 −80
−80 −100
−100 −120
phase angle[rad] phase angle[rad]

(a) (b)
Figure 3. 3.
Figure Comparison
Comparison of of
measured
measured and calculated
and electromotive
calculated electromotiveforce waveforms
force waveforms in in
synchronous
synchronous
machines
machineswith different
with differenttypes
typesofofneodymium
neodymiummagnets
magnets in
in no-load generator operation:
no-load generator operation:(a)(a)30
30×× 15
15 ×
× 2
2 N38 magnet; (b) 42 × 20 × 5 N35H magnet
N38 magnet; (b) 42 × 20 × 5 N35H magnet [31]. [31].

Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW Based

Basedonon
thethe
measurement
measurement results shown
results showninin
Figure 3, 3,
Figure adjustments were
adjustments made
were of 17toto
6 made the
the
magnets’
magnets’characteristics
characteristicstotoobtain
obtaincoincident
coincidentelectromotive
electromotive force
force waveforms. The
The results
resultsof
ofthese
thesecorrections
correctionsare
areshown
shownin inFigure
Figure4.4.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.Figure
Correction of the characteristics
4. Correction of permanent
of the characteristics magnets used
of permanent in synchronous
magnets motors: (a) motors:
used in synchronous
magnet 30
(a)×magnet
15 × 2 N38;
30 ×(b)
15 magnet
× 2 N38;42(b)
× 20 × 5 N35H.
magnet 42 × 20 × 5 N35H.

The analysis
The analysis shows
shows that forthat
a 30for
× 15 × 2×
a 30 15 ×
N38 2 N38 magnet,
magnet, the
the actual actual remanence
remanence inductioninduction
value isvalue
0.847 is
T 0.847 T instead
instead of and
of 1.21 T, 1.21 for
T, and
a 42for × 5×N35H
a 42
× 20 20 × 5magnet,
N35H magnet, it instead
it is 1.1 T is 1.1 T instead
of of
1.21 T. The characteristics were therefore corrected by approximately 30% and 10%. There
is a more significant deterioration in these characteristics for smaller-sized magnets. The
above analysis was used to estimate the changes in the characteristics of the magnets used
in the designed generators.
NdFeB permanent magnets were used in the designed generators, the parameters of
 Electronics 2024, 13, 1929 6 of 16

1.21 T. The characteristics were therefore corrected by approximately 30% and 10%. There
is a more significant deterioration in these characteristics for smaller-sized magnets. The
above analysis was used to estimate the changes in the characteristics of the magnets used
in the designed generators.
NdFeB permanent magnets were used in the designed generators, the parameters of
which are shown in Table 3. The characteristics of these magnets were corrected. The actual
characteristics are not known, and at the design stage, there are no ready-made prototype
machines that could indirectly, by measuring electromotive forces, be used to correct
them. Therefore, based on the results of the corrections for the above-discussed permanent
magnets used in actual machines, the following estimated changes in characteristics were
assumed—see Table 3.

Table 3. Basic parameters of the magnets used in the designed generators.

Order Material Size Manufacturer’s Adjusted Manufacturer’s Adjusted Adjustment Max.

Identification
No. Type (mm) Br (T) Br (T) Hc (A/m) Hc (A/m) (%) Temperature (◦ C)
1 25 × 10 × 5 N38 N38 25 × 10 × 5 1.21 0.79 −899,000 −584,350 35 80
20 × 10 × 5
2 N38 20 × 10 × 5 1.21 0.76 −899,000 −566,370 37 120
N38H
40 × 20 × 10 N 80
3 ◦ C, VMM7-N42 N42 40 × 20 × 10 1.29 1.16 −876,000 −788,400 10 80
4 30 × 20 × 5 N38 N38 30 × 20 × 5 1.24 1.05 −937,400 −749,920 20 80
5 25 × 25 × 10 N38 N38 25 × 25 × 10 1.21 0.91 −899,000 −674,250 25 80
42 × 20 × 5
6 N35 42 × 20 × 5 1.21 1.10 −900,000 −800,000 10 120
N35H
Electronics 40 × 20 × 5 N 80
7 2024, 13,
◦ C, x FOR PEER REVIEW
N35 40 × 20 × 5 1.29 1.10 −876,000 −744,600 15 780of 17
VMM7-N42
20 × 20 × 10 N 80
8 ◦ C, VMM7-N42 N42 20 × 20 × 10 1.29 0.97 −876,000 −657,000 25 80

The permanent magnet characteristics obtained from the above analysis were
adoptedThe permanent
for the magnet characteristics obtained from the above analysis were adopted
design calculations.
for the design calculations.
2.5. Calculations Methods
2.5. Calculations Methods
The d-q model of the generator created in MotorSolve (product of Simcenter – Mo-
The d-q model of the generator created in MotorSolve (product of Simcenter – Motor-
torSolve, ver. 2020.2) was used for the design calculations. The MotorSolve software pro-
Solve, ver. 2020.2) was used for the design calculations. The MotorSolve software provides
vides parameterized models, which allow different variants of the designed machines to
parameterized models, which allow different variants of the designed machines to be
be created easily and quickly and calculation results to be obtained quickly.
created easily and quickly and calculation results to be obtained quickly.
During the design phase, thermal calculations were also made to determine the rated
During the design phase, thermal calculations were also made to determine the rated
current of the generator and to check that the permissible operating temperature of the
current of the generator and to check that the permissible operating temperature of the
permanent
permanentmagnets
magnetsandand
windings
windings waswas
notnot
exceeded. A three-dimensional
exceeded. A three-dimensional calculation
calculation
model and the finite-element method were used for these calculations. The
model and the finite-element method were used for these calculations. The modelmodel includes
includes
a section of the machine with all the components involved in heat transfer: the body, shaft,
a section of the machine with all the components involved in heat transfer: the body, shaft,
andand
bearings. A model
bearings. of one
A model variant
of one of the
variant designed
of the machine
designed is shown
machine in Figure
is shown 5. 5.
in Figure

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Three-dimensional
Figure FEMFEM
5. Three-dimensional thermal model–solid
thermal model
model–solid andand
model mesh: (a) IPM-01;
mesh: (b) SM-07.
(a) IPM-01; (b) SM-07.

The final stage of the design was to analyze the operation of the designed generator
cooperating with the proto bridge. The calculations necessary for this analysis were made
using two-dimensional field-circuit models of the machine and the finite-element method.
The Opera 2D software was used to create these models and calculations considering the
rotor’s rotational movement and modelling the 6D rectifier bridge system with resistive
 (a) (b)
Electronics 2024, 13, 1929 Figure 5. Three-dimensional FEM thermal model–solid model and mesh: (a) IPM-01; (b) SM-07. 7 of 16

The final stage of the design was to analyze the operation of the designed generator
cooperating withstage
The final the proto bridge.
of the designThe
wascalculations
to analyze necessary for this
the operation analysis
of the weregenerator
designed made
using two-dimensional field-circuit models of the machine and the finite-element method.
cooperating with the proto bridge. The calculations necessary for this analysis were made
Theusing
Opera 2D software was
two-dimensional used to create
field-circuit these
models models
of the and calculations
machine considering
and the finite-element the
method.
rotor’s rotational
The Opera movement
2D software wasand modelling
used to createthe 6Dmodels
these rectifierand
bridge system with
calculations resistivethe
considering
load. The field-circuit
rotor’s models ofand
rotational movement the generator
modellingvariants are shown
the 6D rectifier in Figure
bridge 6. with resistive
system
load. The field-circuit models of the generator variants are shown in Figure 6.

Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 6. 6.
Figure Two-dimensional
Two-dimensionalFEMFEMelectromagnetic
electromagneticmodel—geometry
model—geometry and mesh
and of of
mesh two variants
two of of
variants
generators: (a) H-SIPM-01, (b) H = SM-07, and (c) circuit model of the bridge.
generators: (a) H-SIPM-01, (b) H = SM-07, and (c) circuit model of the bridge.

3. 3. Selecting
Selecting the
the Best
Best Design
Design
Based
Based onon
thethe selected
selected fourfour
rotorrotor variants
variants (IPM-01,
(IPM-01, IPM-03,IPM-03, IPM-12,
IPM-12, and SM-07—
and SM-07—Fig-
Figures 1 and 2) and seven stator variants (Table 2), twenty-eight
ures 1 and 2) and seven stator variants (Table 2), twenty-eight generator variants were generator variants were
developed,and
developed, andthe
thebasic
basiccharacteristics
characteristicswere
weredetermined
determinedfor for them:
them: UUff==f(P
f(P2),2 ),IfI=f =
f(Pf(P ) and
2) 2and
η = f(P 2 ), where U f is the phase voltage, I f is the phase current, η is the generator
η = f(P2), where Uf is the phase voltage, If is the phase current, η is the generator efficiency, efficiency,
andand P2Pis2 is
thethe output
output power.
power. The
The comparison
comparison ofof the
the characteristics
characteristics allowed
allowed a preliminary
a preliminary
selection and elimination of those designs that did not meet the basic requirements ofof
selection and elimination of those designs that did not meet the basic requirements
achievable
achievable output
output power
power andefficiency
and efficiencyand andpotentially
potentiallyacceptable
acceptablephase
phasecurrent.current.AsAs aa
result, twelve designs were obtained. For these machines, the current
result, twelve designs were obtained. For these machines, the current rating was deter- rating was determined
basedbased
mined on thermal calculations
on thermal and the
calculations andcharacteristics determined
the characteristics previously.
determined previously. The current
The
rating was assumed such that the temperature of the permanent magnets did not exceed the
current rating was assumed such that the temperature of the permanent magnets did not
permissible temperature of 80 ◦ C or 120 ◦ C at an ambient temperature of 40 ◦ C. In addition,
exceed the permissible temperature of 80 °C or 120 °C at an ambient temperature of 40 °C.
In addition, the permissible temperature for class H insulation of the windings was con-
sidered. To ensure that the permanent magnets did not operate in the temperature range
close to the maximum temperatures (80 °C and 120 °C), temperatures of 60 °C for 80 °C
magnets and 100 °C for 120 °C magnets were adopted as the temperature limit for deter-
 Electronics 2024, 13, 1929 8 of 16

the permissible temperature for class H insulation of the windings was considered. To
ensure that the permanent magnets did not operate in the temperature range close to the
maximum temperatures (80 ◦ C and 120 ◦ C), temperatures of 60 ◦ C for 80 ◦ C magnets and
100 ◦ C for 120 ◦ C magnets were adopted as the temperature limit for determining the
rated current.
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW As a result, five designs, designated as machine G IPM-12, machine H IPM-01, machine
99 of
of 17
17
H IPM-12, machine H SM-07, and machine J SM-07, were selected, from among which the best
one was chosen. The characteristics of the selected generators are shown in Figures 7 and 8.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 7. Generator
7. 7.
Figure Generator variants
variants
Generator characteristics:
characteristics:(a)
characteristics:
variants (a)phase
(a) phasevoltage
phase voltagevs.
voltage vs.output
vs. outputpower;
output power; (b)
(b) phase current
phase current
phase currentvs.
vs. output
vs.output power.
outputpower.
power.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 8.
Figure
Figure Generator
8.8. Generatorvariants
Generator variants characteristics:
variants characteristics: (a)
characteristics:(a) efficiency
(a)efficiency vs.vs.
efficiency output
output
vs. power;
power;
output (b)
(b) torque
(b) torque
power; vs.
vs. phase
vs. phase
torque current.
phase
current.
current.
The selection of the best design was based on the benefit K-index, which was deter-
mined
The by the following
The selection
selection of
of the formula:
the best
best design
design was
was based
based on on the
the benefit
benefit K-index,
K-index, which
which was
was deter-
deter-
mined
mined by
by the
the following
following formula:
formula:
η 2 · PN2 ·p
K= ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ , (1)
𝐾
𝐾U=
=N · D · l · z · ,δU (1)
⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅ 1 , % ⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅ %
(1)
%

where
where
where ηis is
ηη is the
thethe efficiency
efficiency
efficiency ofof
of thethe
the generator,
generator,
generator, PPNNPis is
is the
N thethe rated
rated
rated active
active
active power,
power,
power, p
is is
pp is thethe
the overload
overload
overload
capacity,
capacity, U
capacity, UN is NU is is the rated voltage, D is the outer diameter of the stator,
N the rated voltage, D is the outer diameter of the stator, l is the length of
the rated voltage, D is the outer diameter of the stator, l l
is is
the the length
length ofof
thethe
the
package,
package,
package, and and
and zz11 isz is
is1 the the number
the number
number of of series
of series windings.
series windings.
windings. The The K-index
The K-index
K-index is is a proprietary
is aa proprietary
proprietary concept concept
concept
developed
developed for the selection of the most suitable design. In Formula
developed for the selection of the most suitable design. In Formula (1), the magnitudes in
for the selection of the most suitable design. In Formula (1),(1),
the the magnitudes
magnitudes inin
thethe denominator are to be as large as possible, while those in the numerator are to be as
the denominator
denominator are are to to be
be as
as large
large as as possible,
possible, while
while those
those inin the
the numerator
numerator are are to
to be
be as
as
small as
small possible. In addition, the exponents of the powers are to increase the significance
small asas possible.
possible. In In addition,
addition, thethe exponents
exponents of of the
the powers
powers are
are toto increase
increase the the significance
significance
of of
thethe parameter.
parameter.
of the parameter.
The The parameter appearing in Formula (1) is the voltage variation determined from the
The parameter
parameter appearingappearing in in Formula
Formula (1) (1) is
is the
the voltage
voltage variation
variation determined
determined from from the
the
following
following relationship:
following relationship:
relationship:
𝛿𝑈
𝛿𝑈%% =
= ⋅⋅ 100%,
100%, (2)
(2)
Where
Where U U00 is
is the
the voltage
voltage at
at the
the terminals
terminals of
of the
the non-loaded
non-loaded generator.
generator. The
The value
value of
of
this K-index indicates which of the analyzed designs is the best: The higher it is,
this K-index indicates which of the analyzed designs is the best: The higher it is, the betterthe better
the
the design,
design, from
from thethe point
point of
of view
view ofof the
the requirements.
requirements.
The
The results of the K-index calculations are
results of the K-index calculations are shown
shown in in Table
Table 4.
4.
 Electronics 2024, 13, 1929 9 of 16

U0 − UN
δU% = · 100%, (2)
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW UN 10 of 17
where U0 is the voltage at the terminals of the non-loaded generator. The value of this
K-index indicates which of the analyzed designs is the best: The higher it is, the better the
Tabledesign, from
4. K-index the point of view of the requirements.
values.
The results of the K-index calculations are shown in Table 4.
Construc- IN U0 UN p z1 D l
η (%) PN (kW) δU% (%) K
tion (A) (V) (V) 4. K-index values.
Table (-) (-) (m) (m)
G IPM-12 9 45.6 37.2 91.9 1 1.15 22.6 144 0.155 0.1 5
IN U0 UN PN p δU% z1 D l
Construction
H IPM-01 4 124 123 94.9 η (%)
1.48 3.48 0.8 192 0.208 0.1 172 K
(A) (V) (V) (kW) (-) (%) (-) (m) (m)
H IPM-12 2 194 192 93.3 1.15 8.91 1.0 192 0.208 0.1 128
G IPM-12 9 45.6 37.2 91.9 1 1.15 22.6 144 0.155 0.1 5
H SM-07 4.5
H IPM-01 113
4 109
124 94.7
123 1.55
94.9 3.55
1.48 4.6
3.48 192
0.8 0.208
192 0.1
0.208 42
0.1 172
J SM-07H IPM-124 94.5
2 91.3
194 94.5
192 1.09
93.3 3.94
1.15 3.5
8.91 192
1.0 0.182
192 0.1
0.208 37
0.1 128
H SM-07 4.5 113 109 94.7 1.55 3.55 4.6 192 0.208 0.1 42
J SM-07 4 94.5
Based on 91.3 94.5
the data presented 1.09
in Table 4,3.94
it can be 3.5
concluded192
that the0.182 0.1is the 37
best design
H IPM-01 machine; the K-index value for this machine is 172 and is the highest. This ma-
chine is characterized
Based on theby thepresented
data highest efficiency
in Table 4,atitthe
canrated current, that
be concluded withthe
thebest
active power
design is the H
of thisIPM-01
machinemachine; the K-index value for this machine is 172 and is the highest. Thisvolt-
being 0.38 kW higher than required. This machine also has the lowest machine
age variation of 0.8% by
is characterized andthe
anhighest
overload capacityatofthe
efficiency 3.48.
rated current, with the active power of this
The second K-index value was achieved
machine being 0.38 kW higher than required. by machine H IPM-12,
This machine alsowhich is inferior
has the to
lowest voltage
machine H IPM-01
variation of 0.8%mainly
and aninoverload
terms ofcapacity
rated power,
of 3.48.efficiency, and significantly higher
voltage. However, it has the highest overload capacity
The second K-index value was achieved by machine of all theHdesigns.
IPM-12, which is inferior to
The third K-index value was achieved by the H SM-07
machine H IPM-01 mainly in terms of rated power, efficiency, machine,and which has a higher
significantly higher
power rating than the H IPM-01 machine, slightly lower efficiency,
voltage. However, it has the highest overload capacity of all the designs. similar overload ca-
pacity, andThehigher
thirdvoltage
K-indexvariability,
value waswhich is typical
achieved by theofHmachines with surface-mounted
SM-07 machine, which has a higher
magnets.
power rating than the H IPM-01 machine, slightly lower efficiency, similar overload capacity,
The higher
and H IPM-01 machine
voltage and the
variability, H SM-07
which machine
is typical were selected
of machines for further design
with surface-mounted magnets.
calculations
Thedue to the simplest
H IPM-01 machinerotor
anddesign, whichmachine
the H SM-07 possibly were
allowselected
lower rotor plate cut-
for further design
ting costs.
calculations due to the simplest rotor design, which possibly allow lower rotor plate
cutting costs.
4. Construction Calculations
4. Construction
Additional Calculations
calculations related to the design of selected machine variants were also
Additional
carried out. calculations
These were aimed atrelated to thethe
increasing design
powerof output
selectedand
machine variants
improving thewere
effi- also
carried out. These were aimed at increasing the power output and improving
ciency of the machines. The calculations were performed for different values of selected the efficiency
rotorofplate
the machines.
dimensionsThe calculations
(Figure 9a,b) aswere
well performed
as differentfor different
numbers of values of selected
coils. The effect ofrotor
theseplate dimensions
dimensions (Figure
on the 9a,b)
value of theas well aswas
K-index different numbers of coils. The effect of these
analyzed.
dimensions on the value of the K-index was analyzed.

(a) (b)
Figure 9. Modified
Figure rotor rotor
9. Modified plate plate
dimensions of theof(a)
dimensions H(a)
the IPM-01 and (b)
H IPM-01 andH(b)
SM-07 machines.
H SM-07 machines.

The results
The results of analysis
of this this analysis are shown
are shown ingraphs
in the the graphs below.
below.
Figure 10a shows that for machine H IPM-01, the highest value of the K-index was
achieved for a bridge thickness dimension equal to 2 mm and core gap width equal to 1
mm. For machine H SM-07 (Figure 10b), the highest K-index value was achieved for the
dimension magnet inset depth equal to 4 mm and magnet gap width equal to 4 mm.
 Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17

Electronics 2024, 13, 1929 The changes made to the selected dimensions did not significantly improve machine 10 of 16
performance (Figure 11a). The increase in K-index values was mainly due to a marked
reduction in voltage variation δU (Figure 12a) and an increase in rated power PN (Figure
13a). The varying
Figure rotor dimensions,
10a shows on theHother
that for machine hand,
IPM-01, the significantly
highest valueaffect the K-index
of the rated volt-
was
age
achieved for a bridge thickness dimension equal to 2 mm and core gap widthvoltage
value: The difference between the variant with the largest and smallest rated equal to
value
1 mm.is about 30 V (Figure
For machine 14a).(Figure
H SM-07 The best solution
10b), was obtained
the highest for a core
K-index value wasgap widthfor
achieved of the
1
mm and a bridge
dimension magnetthickness of 2 mm.
inset depth equal to 4 mm and magnet gap width equal to 4 mm.

Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17

The changes made to the selected dimensions did not significantly improve machine
performance (Figure 11a). The increase in K-index values was mainly due to a marked
(a)
reduction in voltage variation δU (Figure 12a) and an increase in rated (b) power PN (Figure
13a). The
Figure
Figure varying
10.10.
Influance rotor
of of
Influance dimensions,
selected rotor
selected on the other
dimensions
rotor dimensionsononhand,
K-index significantly
value:
K-index (a) (a)
value: Haffect
H IPM-01
IPM-01 theand
and rated
(b) volt-
H SM-07
(b) H SM-07
age value:
machines.
machines. The difference between the variant with the largest and smallest rated voltage
value is about 30 V (Figure 14a). The best solution was obtained for a core gap width of 1
mm andThe a bridge
changesthickness
made to ofthe
2 mm.
selected dimensions did not significantly improve machine
performance (Figure 11a). The increase in K-index values was mainly due to a marked re-
duction in voltage variation δU (Figure 12a) and an increase in rated power PN (Figure 13a).
The varying rotor dimensions, on the other hand, significantly affect the rated voltage
value: The difference between the variant with the largest and smallest rated voltage value
is about 30 V (Figure 14a). The best solution was obtained for a core gap width of 1 mm
and a bridge thickness of 2 mm.
As a result, the differences between the K-index values are small (Figure 10b). In the
case of the H SM-07 machine, the changed dimensions did not affect the efficiency, nor did
the power rating (Figures 11b and 13b). A small effect of dimensions can be seen for some
variants, such as in the case of voltage variation (Figure 14b). The solution with the highest
K-index value was(a) obtained for magnet gap width and magnet (b)inset depth parameters
equal to 4 mm.
Figure 11. Influancethe
Changing of number
selected rotor dimensions
of winding coil on efficiency:
windings did(a)not
H IPM-01
improve andthe
(b)efficiency
H SM-07 ma-of the
chines. (a) (b)
machines. Reducing the number of windings mainly reduced the value of the voltage
Figure 10. Influance
variation of selected
δU, which rotorthe
increased dimensions
value ofon
theK-index value:
K-index. (a) H 11
Finally, IPM-01 and (b)
windings H SM-07
were selected
machines.
for the H IPM-01 machine and 10 windings for the H SM-07 machine.

(a) (b)
Figure 12. Influence of selected rotor dimensions on voltage variation: (a) H IPM-01 and (b) H SM-
07 machines. (a) (b)
Figure 11. Influance
Figure of selected
11. Influance rotor rotor
of selected dimensions on efficiency:
dimensions (a) H IPM-01
on efficiency: and (b) H
(a) H IPM-01 SM-07
and (b) Hma-
SM-07
chines.
machines.
 (a) (b)
Electronics 2024, 13, 1929 Figure 11. Influance of selected rotor dimensions on efficiency: (a) H IPM-01 and (b) H SM-07 ma-
11 of 16
chines.

Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW (a) (b) 12 of 17

Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17
Figure 12.12.
Figure Influence of selected
Influence rotor
of selected dimensions
rotor onon
dimensions voltage
voltagevariation:
variation:(a)(a)HHIPM-01
IPM-01and
and(b)
(b)HHSM-
SM-07
07 machines.
machines.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 13. 13.
13.
Figure Influence
Influence of selected
of
Influence selected rotor
rotor
of selected dimensions
dimensions
rotor on on
on
dimensions active
active power
power
active rating:
rating:
power (a) (a)
(a)
rating: H IPM-01
H IPM-01 andand
and
H IPM-01 (b)(b)
(b) H H
H
SM-07 machines.
SM-07 machines.
SM-07 machines.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 14. 14.
Figure
Figure 14. Influence
Influence of selected
Influence
of selected rotor
of selected
rotor dimensions
rotor on on
dimensions
dimensions on voltage rating:
voltage
voltage (a) (a)
rating:
rating: (a) H IPM-01
H IPM-01 andand
H IPM-01
and (b) (b)
(b) H SM-07
H SM-07
H SM-07
machines.
machines.
machines.

5. As
Calculation of Output Parameters
betweenofthe a Generator Cooperating with a Bridge
10b).Rectifier
As aa result,
result, the
the differences
differences between the K-index values
K-index values are small
are small (Figure
(Figure 10b). In the
In the
case of the
The H SM-07
final stage machine,
of the the
project changed
was to dimensions
determine the did not
voltage affect
case of the H SM-07 machine, the changed dimensions did not affect the efficiency, nor of
and the
current efficiency,
at the nor
output
didthe
did therectifier
the power bridge
power rating (Figures
rating (Figures
operating 11b and
in and
11b 13b). with
a system
13b). A small
A small effect of
a generator
effect of under
dimensions can be
be seen
a single-phase
dimensions can seen for
resistive
for
some variants, such as in the case of voltage variation (Figure 14b). The solution
some variants, such as in the case of voltage variation (Figure 14b). The solution with the on
load. For this purpose, the circuit-field models shown in Figure 7 were used. with the
Based
calculations
highest
highest K-index
K-index performed
value was
value was with these models,
obtained
obtained for magnet
for the characteristics
magnet gap width
gap width and ofmagnet
and both considered
magnet inset depth
inset generator
depth pa-
pa-
variants
rameters were
equal todetermined.
rameters equal to 4 mm.4 mm. These characteristics were compared with the characteristics
of Changing
the generators
Changing the determined
the number
number of using the
of winding
winding coild-q
coil model.did
windings
windings Thenot
did results
not improve
improveof thethe
thecalculations
efficiency of
efficiency ofthe
of these
the
characteristics
machines. Reducing are the
presented
number inofFigures
windings15 and 16. reduced the value of the voltage var-
mainly
machines. Reducing the number of windings mainly reduced the value of the voltage var-
iation δU,
iation δU, which
which increased
increased thethe value
value ofof the
the K-index.
K-index. Finally,
Finally, 11
11 windings
windings were were selected
selected
for the
for the HH IPM-01
IPM-01 machine
machine andand 1010 windings
windings for for the
the HH SM-07
SM-07 machine.
machine.

5. Calculation
5. Calculation of
of Output
Output Parameters
Parameters of
of aa Generator
Generator Cooperating
Cooperating with
with aa
Bridge Rectifier
Bridge Rectifier
Electronics2024,
Electronics 2024,13,
13,xxFOR
FOR PEER REVIEW 13ofof17
17
Electronics 2024, 13, 1929 PEER REVIEW 13
12 of 16

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

(c)
(c) (d)
(d)
Figure
Figure
Figure
15.
15.
15.
Comparison
Comparison
Comparison
ofof
of the
the characteristics
characteristics
the characteristics
ofof
of the
the IPM-01
IPM-01
the IPM-01
generator
generator
generator
calculated
calculated
calculated
using
using the
the
using
d-q
d-q
the
model
model
d-q model
and
and the FEM
thethe
FEM model:
model: (a) phase
(a)(a)
phase voltage,
voltage, (b) current
(b)(b)
current voltage,
voltage, (c) efficiency
(c)(c)
efficiency and
and (d)
(d)(d)torque.
torque.
and FEM model: phase voltage, current voltage, efficiency and torque.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

(c)
(c) (d)
(d)
Figure
Figure
Figure 16.
16.
16. Comparison
Comparison
Comparison ofof
of the
the characteristics
the characteristics
characteristics ofof
of the
the SM-07
the SM-07
SM-07 generator
generator
generator calculated
calculated
calculated using
using
using the
the d-q
the model
d-q
d-q model
model
and
and
and the
the FEM
the
FEMFEMmodel:
model:
model: (a)(a)
(a) phase
phase
phase voltage,
voltage,
voltage, (b)
(b) current
(b) current
current voltage,
voltage,
voltage, (c)(c)
(c) efficiency
efficiency
efficiency and
and
and (d)
(d)
(d) torque.
torque.
torque.
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
Electronics 2024, 13, 1929 13 of 16

The calculations made by the two methods coincided. Some differences in the char-
The calculations made by the two methods coincided. Some differences in the charac-
acteristic curves occurred in the range of the highest output power and for maximum
teristic curves occurred in the range of the highest output power and for maximum power.
power. For rated power, the characteristics overlapped.
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
For rated power, the characteristics overlapped.
6. Stress Analysis
6. Stress of the
Analysis Rotors
of the Package
Rotors Package
Stress
The analysis
Stress of the
analysis
calculations rotor
of the
made by package
rotor two was
thepackage performed
was
methods performed using
coincided. 3D models
using
Some 3D andand
models
differences the finite-
thechar-
in the finite-
element method.
elementcurves
acteristic This
method. analysis
This analysis
occurred was carried
in the was out
carried
range of theoutto confirm the
to confirm
highest outputmechanical
thepower
mechanicalstrength
and for of
strength the
maximum of the
selected
power. constructions.
selected
Forconstructions.
rated power,Models were
Models
the made
were foroverlapped.
made
characteristics both analyzed
for both designs:
analyzed IPM-01
designs: andand
IPM-01 SM-07.
SM-07.
Finite-element
Finite-element meshes
meshes were
weregenerated,
generated, containing
containing 7365 7,365hexahedral
hexahedral elements
elements (36,765
(36,765 nodes)
nodes)
6.for for Analysis
the
Stress the IPM-01
IPM-01 ofrotor
rotor (Figure
(Figure
the Rotors 17a)
17a) and
and
Package 48484848 hexahedralelements
hexahedral elements(23,219
(23,219nodes)
nodes) for
for the
the SM-07 rotor (Figure 17b). The The material
material mass density
densityof ofthe two packages was wasassumed
Stress analysis of the rotor package mass
was performed the two
using 3Dpackages
models and assumed
the finite-to
to be
be 7750
7750 kg/m
kg/m 3 and
3 and Young’s
Young’s modulus
modulus 2.1·10
2.1 · 5 MPa.
5 MPa.
10
element method. This analysis was carried out to confirm the mechanical strength of the
selected constructions. Models were made for both analyzed designs: IPM-01 and SM-07.
Finite-element meshes were generated, containing 7,365 hexahedral elements (36,765
nodes) for the IPM-01 rotor (Figure 17a) and 4848 hexahedral elements (23,219 nodes) for
the SM-07 rotor (Figure 17b). The material mass density of the two packages was assumed
to be 7750 kg/m3 and Young’s modulus 2.1·105 MPa.

(a) (b)
Figure 17. Computational
Figure models
17. Computational of rotor
models packages:
of rotor (a) IPM-01
packages: andand
(a) IPM-01 (b) SM-07.
(b) SM-07.

TheThe twisting
twisting torque
torque of Nm
of 50 50 Nmandand the the rotational
rotational speed
speed of 955
of 955 rpmrpmwerewere used
used as as
boundary conditions: values above the expected operating conditions
boundary conditions: values above the expected operating conditions of the generators. of the generators.
TheThe results
results of the
of the calculations
calculations
(a) are are shown
shown in Figures
in Figures 18 and
18 and 19. 19. (b)
The performed calculations, although rough, confirm that the proposed generator
Figure
design17.will
Computational
sustain themodels of rotor
predicted packages:
loads: (a) IPM-01observed
the maximum and (b) SM-07.
displacement is equal to
-5 -5
49.2·10 mm for IPM-01 and 5.2·10 mm for SM-07, and the maximum predicted loads,
3.2 The
MPatwisting torque
for IPM-01 and of
0.3550MPa,
Nm areand65.6the·10
rotational
3 and 60·10speed of higher,
4 times 955 rpm were used than
respectively, as
boundary conditions: values above the expected operating conditions of
the typical values observed for steel. The maximum predicted loads are lower than typicalthe generators.
The results
values of the calculations
of tensile are shown
strength observed in Figures
for steel used for 18generators.
and 19.

(a) (b)
Figure 18. Stress (a) displacement and (b) distributions for rotor’s core IPM-01.

(a) (b)
Figure 18.18.
Figure Stress (a)(a)
Stress displacement and
displacement (b)(b)
and distributions forfor
distributions rotor’s core
rotor’s IPM-01.
core IPM-01.
Electronics
Electronics2024,
2024,13,
13,x1929
FOR PEER REVIEW 1514ofof1716

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure19.
19.Stress
Stress(a)
(a)and
anddisplacement
displacement(b)
(b)distributions
distributionsfor
forrotor’s
rotor’score
coreSM-07.
SM-07.

7. Conclusions
The performed calculations, although rough, confirm that the proposed generator
designThis willpaper
sustaindescribes how to loads:
the predicted select the
thebest design of
maximum a permanent
observed magnet synchronous
displacement is equal to
generator
49.2·10 -5 mm designed to work
for IPM-01 with a mm
and 5.2·10 -5 smallfor
wind turbine.
SM-07, and theBased on the determined
maximum character-
predicted loads, 3.2
isticsfor
MPa of IPM-01
the generator variants
and 0.35 MPa, and the value
are 65.6·10 of the
3 and 60·10K-index, the generator
4 times higher, with a rotor
respectively, than with
the
latent magnets,
typical designated
values observed for as H IPM-01,
steel. was selected
The maximum as the best
predicted loadssolution.
are lowerHowever, due to
than typical
the anticipated
values of tensile lower costs
strength and easier
observed for fabrication
steel used forin workshop
generators. conditions, the best solution
among the generators with a rotor with surface-mounted magnets, designated as H SM-07,
was also retained. For both variants, simulations of operation in a system with a diode
7. Conclusions
bridge
Thisrectifier and a resistive
paper describes how to single-phase
select the bestloaddesign
were alsoof aperformed.
permanent These
magnet calculations
synchro-
allow the determination of the output parameters: rectified voltage and current, necessary
nous generator designed to work with a small wind turbine. Based on the determined
for the design of the voltage converter with which the turbine-generator unit will operate.
characteristics of the generator variants and the value of the K-index, the generator with
Prototype tests of the designed generators and tests of the entire turbine and generator
a rotor with latent magnets, designated as H IPM-01, was selected as the best solution.
assembly, including the electronics, are also planned in such a system. Through strength
However, due to the anticipated lower costs and easier fabrication in workshop condi-
analysis, the authors showed that the maximum predicted loads are lower than the typical
tions, the best solution among the generators with a rotor with surface-mounted magnets,
tensile strength values observed for steel used in generators.
designated as H SM-07, was also retained. For both variants, simulations of operation in
aAuthor
systemContributions:
with a diodeConceptualization,
bridge rectifier and M.L.a(Marcin
resistive single-phase
Lefik); methodology,load were
M.L. also Lefik),
(Marcin per-
formed. These calculations allow the determination of the output parameters:
M.B. and T.S.; software, A.F.-N.; validation, M.L. (Marcin Lefik); formal analysis, A.F.-N. and M.L. rectified
voltage
(Michaland current,
Lipian); necessaryM.L.
investigation, for the design
(Marcin of the
Lefik), voltage
A.F.-N., converter
M.L. with which
(Michal Lipian), M.B.theandtur-
T.S.;
bine-generator
resources, A.F.-N.; unit will
data operate.
curation, Prototype
M.L. tests of
(Marcin Lefik); the designed generators
writing—original and tests
draft, M.L. (Marcin of
Lefik),
the entire
A.F.-N. turbine
and and generator
M.L. (Michal assembly, including
Lipian); writing—review the electronics,
and editing, are visualization,
M.B. and T.S.; also plannedM.L. in
(Marcin
such Lefik); supervision,
a system. M.L. (Marcin
Through strength Lefik);
analysis, project
the administration,
authors showed that A.F.-N. and M.L. (Michal
the maximum pre-
Lipian);
dicted funding
loads areacquisition,
lower thanM.L.
the(Michal
typicalLipian).
tensileAll authorsvalues
strength have read and agreed
observed for to the published
steel used in
version of the manuscript.
generators.
Funding: The APC was funded by [Institute of Mechatronics and Information Systems, Lodz Univer-
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.L. (Marcin Lefik); methodology, M.L. (Marcin Lefik),
sity of Technology].
M.B. and T.S.; software, A.F.-N.; validation, M.L. (Marcin Lefik); formal analysis, A.F.-N. and M.L.
Institutional
(Michal Review
Lipian); Board Statement:
investigation, Not Lefik),
M.L. (Marcin applicable.
A.F.-N., M.L. (Michal Lipian), M.B. and T.S.;
resources, A.F.-N.; data curation, M.L. (Marcin
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Lefik); writing—original draft, M.L. (Marcin Lefik),
A.F.-N. and M.L. (Michal Lipian); writing—review and editing, M.B. and T.S.; visualization, M.L.
Data Availability
(Marcin Statement:
Lefik); supervision, Data
M.L. are contained
(Marcin within administration,
Lefik); project the article. A.F.-N. and M.L. (Michal
Lipian);
Conflicts of Interest: The funders had no role in the design of the study; inand
funding acquisition, M.L. (Michal Lipian). All authors have read theagreed to the
collection, pub-
analyses,
lished version of the manuscript.
or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.
Funding: This research received no external funding. The APC was funded by [Institute of Mecha-
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