CHAPTER II

GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO TRANSFORMATION
In Chapter 1, sets of axioms provided the basis for the study of geometries. In this chapter, the
concept of transformation provides a different way of studying some geometries. In early experiences in
geometry, students may use flips, turns and slides to study geometric relations informally. In high school
geometry, students encounter rotation and translation. Some triangles are congruent, and others are
similar. Recall that the ratio of lengths of two sides of a triangle remains invariant for the corresponding
sides of another triangle that is similar to the first. In pre calculus texts, transformations are often
encountered in the study of graphing equations. Graphs of functions may be found as transformations of
more basic graphs.
For example, if y = f(x), then y = f(x + 1) can be graph by shifting the graph of y = f(x) one unit
to the left. In geometries to be studied later, the ideas of inversion and projection are discussed. All these
ideas are related to a very basic concept in geometry: geometric transformation
Before giving a precise definition of transformation, it is necessary to understand the idea of mapping.
DEFINITION
f is a mapping of a set A into a set B if  aA,  bB that is paired with a; this pairing is
denoted by f(a) = b.
The set A is called the domain of f, and the set B is called the co-domain of f.
DEFINITION
Given a mapping f from A to B, the images of f is the set of points b such that b = f(a) for some a
in A.
DEFINITION
A mapping f from A to B is onto a set B if the range of f is equal to B. (surjective)
DEFINITION
A mapping f from A to B is a one-to-one mapping if each element in the range of f is the image of
exactly one element of A. (injective)
That is, if f(a) = f(c), then a = c.
Examples
1. Let N = set of natural numbers and T = {0, 1}
The function  : N  T defined by
(x) = 0 if x is odd and (x) = 1 if x is even is surjective but not injective.
2. The function  : N  N defined by (x) = 2x  x  N is injective but not surjective.
3. The function  : N  E+ defined by (x) = 2x is both injective and surjective. i.e. bijective.
DEFINITION
A transformation is a mapping f of A onto B such that each element of B is the image of exactly
one element of A.
A B

If f is a transformation from A onto B and g is a transformation from B onto C, then the product h = gf is
defined as the transformation from A onto C such that h(P) = G[f(P)] for each point of A.
The definition of the product of transformations is equivalent to the definition of the composition of
functions.
 In the figure below, the pairs in h are (a1, c3), (a2, c2), (a3, c1).

DEFINITION
An identity transformation is one that leaves every element fixed. An identity, designated by I,
must satisfy the equation fI = If = f for all transformations f.
DEFINITION
The inverse of a transformation f is a transformation that undoes f. Thus, g is the inverse of f if
and only if fg = gf = I. The notation f-1 is used to indicate the inverse of f.
2.2 GROUP OF TRANSFORMATION
DEFINITION
A group is a set S together with a binary operation  such that
1. If a and b are in S, then a  b  S and b  a  S
2. If a, b, c  S, then (a  b)  c = a  (b  c)
3.  I in S such that I  a = a  I = a for all a  S
4. For every a  S,  a-1  S such that a-1 a = a  a-1 = I
DEFINITION
A group of transformations of the set A is a non-empty set S of transformations of the set A onto
itself that is closed under products and inverses. i.e. If f and g are in S, then fg and f-1 are also in S.
REMARKS:
1. The closure property for group of transformations means that the product of any two transformations in
the set is also a transformation in the set.
2. The associative property, is a consequence of the definition of the product of transformations.
3. The notation f(gh) and (fg)h indicates the product of the same three transformations in the same order.
4. For groups of transformations, since the product of a transformation and the identity is transformation,
the effect of the identity is to leave each point invariant.
5. Since the product of transformation and its inverse is the identity, the effect of the inverse is to undo the
transformation, returning each point to the original position.
6. The commutative property if it hold for all pairs of elements in a group, the group is called
commutative or abelian group.

Exercise
Verify that the set of symmetries of an equilateral triangle constitute a group.
Let I = Identity, a rotation through an angle of 0 +n(360 ) counterclockwise. n= 0,1,2,…
R1 = reflection about the axis through vertex 1.
R2 = reflection about the axis through vertex 2.
R3 = reflection about the axis through vertex 3.
R(120) = rotation through an angle of 120 counter clockwise.
R(240) = rotation through an angle of 240 counter clockwise.
Solution:
Identify first the elements of the symmetries of equilateral triangle
Note that the elements are permutations

1 2 3
I   
1 2 3 
1 2 3
R1    1 is fixed
1 3 2 
 1 2 3
R 2    2 is fixed
 3 2 1
 1 2 3
R3    3 is fixed
 2 1 3
 1 2 3
R(120)   
 2 3 1
1 2 3
R (240)   
3 1 2

The elements of the symmetries are {I, R1, R2, R3, R(120), R(240)}
A. Closure – to verify this property, the product of two or more permutation must be an element of the
set, i.e.
1 2 3   1 2 3  1 2 3
R1R2=         R120
1 3 2   3 2 1  2 3 1
R1 R2
Row VS Column

Starting from the first element in the second permutation 1 goes to 3, then in the first
permutation we have 3 goes to 2 which is the first element in the product. Do the same for the second
element and the third element of the second permutation to find the product.
 1 2 3  1 2 3  1 2 3
R120R3=         R 2
 2 3 1  2 1 3  3 2 1 
R120 R3
Row VS Column

Starting from the first element in the second permutation 1 goes to 2, then in the first
permutation we have 2 goes to 3 which is the first element in the product. Do the same for the second
element and the third element of the second permutation to find the product.

Operation Table(Group table)

I R1 R2 R3 R(120) R(240)
I I R1 R2 R3 R(120) R(240)
R1 R1 I R(120) R(240) R2 R3
R2 R2 R(240) I R(120) R3 R1
R3 R3 R(120) R(240) I R1 R2
R(120) R(120) R3 R1 R2 R(240) I
R(240) R(240) R2 R3 R1 I R(120)

Closure property is satisfied.

B. Associativity is a consequence of the closure property

1 2 3 
C. There is an identity element I   
1 2 3 

D. Existence of an inverse element

f f-1
I I
R1 R1
R2 R2
R3 R3
R(120) R(240)
R(240) R(120)

Thus, the symmetries of an equilateral triangle is a group.

2.3 EUCLIDEAN MOTIONS OF THE PLANE

The essential characteristic of the transformations of Euclidean geometry is that distance is
preserved. i.e. distance must be an invariant property.
DEFINITIONS
1. ISOMETRY -
A transformation f is an isometry of A onto B if it preserves distances.
For any two points P1, P2 of A, the distance
from P1 to P2 is equal to the distance from f(P1) to f(P2).
If an isometry exists between two segments, we also say
the segments are congruent. P1P2 = f(P1)f(P2)

2. INVARIANT PROPERTY
– Properties of figures that do not change under a set of transformations.
3. MOTION
– An isometry of a set of points onto itself.
4. IDENTITY
– A translation with zero vector.
TYPES OF PLANE MOTION
1. TRANSLATION
A correspondence between points and their image points so that each image is the same distance
in the same direction from the original point.
Translations are described synthetically using vectors of
direct line segments.
OBSERVATIONS ABOUT A TRANSLATION
i. A segment is translated into a parallel segment.
ii. All the vectors connecting corresponding points
are equal. (equal vectors have the same length
and direction)
iii. The inverse of a translation is another translation with the same distance in the opposite direction.
iv. The product of two translations is a translation. The vector for the product is the sum of the vectors
for the two translations.
v. The set of all translations form a group.
2. ROTATION
– The symbol R(O, ) is a rotation through an angle  about the point O.
A counterclockwise rotation is associated with a positive angle.
OBSERVATIONS ABOUT ROTATION
i. A segment is usually not parallel to its image, but it may be.
ii. The inverse of a rotation is a rotation about the same point
and with an angle of rotation of the same size, but measured in
the opposite sense.
iii. The product of two rotations about the same point is another
rotation about that point.
iv. The set of all rotations about one fixed point is a group of transformations.
v. Rotations with center O and angles  and  + n360 are the same rotations for n = 1, 2, 3, …
REMARK
The set of all translations and rotations is called the set of RIGID MOTIONS or
DISPLACEMENTS.

3. REFLECTION
– A reflection Rl uses a fixed line l. A point on l is its own image.
Any other point P is mapped
into a point P` such that l is a
perpendicular bisector of segment PP`.
OBSERVATIONS ABOUT REFLECTION
i. A segment is not parallel to its image, except in some special cases.
ii. The inverse of a reflection is the same reflection.
iii. The product of two reflections about the same line is not a reflection.
iv. A reflection cannot be considered a sliding in the plane

4. GLIDE REFLECTION
The product of a reflection and a translation parallel to the fixed line of reflection.

Example
Sketch the image of triangle ABC under each
of the following conditions:
a. A translation represented by the given vector .
b. A rotation R(X, 90) in counter clockwise direction
c. A reflection about 
d. A glide reflection about  using a translation vector 
Solution:
a. A translation represented by the given vector .

b. A rotation R(X, 90) in counter clockwise direction

c. A reflection about 

d. A glide reflection about  using a translation vector 

2.4 SETS OF EQUATIONS FOR MOTIONS OF PLANE
Motions of the plane can be expressed as sets of linear equations.
Example
If P(1,2) has the image P’(3,3), then the translation
may be represented by the equations
x’ = x + 2 and y’ = y + 1
i.e. x’ = 1 + 2 y’ = 2 + 1
x’ = 3 y’ = 3
DEFINITION
A translation can be defined as a transformation with equations of the form x’ = x + a andy’ =
y + b for a and b any real numbers. The inverse of this transformation has the equation
x = x’ – a and y = y’ – b
Example
Find the image of (5, 2) under the translation with equations x’ = x + 7 and y’ = y + 3.
Solution: x’ = x + 7 and y’ = y + 3
x’ = 5 + 7 and y’ = 2 + 3
x’ = 12 and y’ = 5; thus, the image is (12, 5)
Example
Find the image of the line 3x – 2y + 7 = 0 under the translation with equations
x’ = x + 7 and y’ = y + 3.
Solution: First solve x the values of x and y in terms of x’ and y’ then substitute in the equation of
the line
3x – 2y + 7 = 0.
3(x’ – 7) – 2(y’ – 3) + 7 = 0
3x’ – 21 – 2y’ + 6 + 7 = 0; 3x’ – 2y’ – 8 = 0

DEFINITION
To find the equations for a rotation about the origin, we use the following:
x’ = x cos  – y sin 
and y’ = x sin  + y cos 
Example
Find the image of P(2, 3) under a rotation of 60 degrees about the origin.
Solution
x’ = x cos  – y sin  and y’ = x sin  + y cos 
x’ = 2 cos 60° – 3 sin 60° and y’ = 2 sin 60° + 3 cos 60°
 1   3   3 1
x` 2   3 y` 2 3
 2   2 
and
 2   2   
3 3 3
x` 1  and y` 3 
2 2
 3 3 3
Thus, the image is P` 1  , 3 
 2 2 
DEFINITION
The equations of rotation about a point (h, k) are
x’– h = (x – h)cos  – (y – k) sin  and y’ – k = (x – h) sin  + (y – k) cos 
Example
Find the image of P(2, 3) under a rotation of 60 about the point (-2, -3).
Solution
x’ + 2 = (2 + 2) cos 60 – (3 + 3) sin 60; x’ = – 33
y’ + 3 = (2 + 2) sin 60 + (3 + 3) cos 60; y’ = 33

DEFINITION
A halfturn is a rotation of 180. The equation of a halfturn can be found from the general equation
of a rotation.
Since P is the mid-point of AA`, we have
x  x` y  y`
c and d
2 2
x  x` 2c and y  y` 2d
x` x  2c and y`  y  2d

REMARK
The product of two halfturn is a translation.
DEFINITION
The equation of reflection about the axis are x’ = x and y’ = – y

DEFINITION
A reflection about the line y = mx as shown in the figure,where m = tan  are
x’ = x cos 2 + y sin 2 and y’ = x sin 2 – y cos 2
The reflection about y = mx is a reflection about the x-axis combined
by a rotation through an angle 2 about the origin.

Example
Find the image of (2, 3) under a reflection about the line y = x.
Solution
The value of  = 45, so 2 = 90, cos 2 = 0 and sin 2 = 1, thus
x’ = x cos 2 + y sin 2 and y’ = x sin 2 – y cos 2
x’ = x (0) + y(1) and y’= x(1) – y(0)
x’ = y and y’ = x
x’ = 3 and y’ = 2
thus, the image is (3, 2)

DEFINITION
The equations for reflection about a line y = mx + b are x’ = x cos 2 + y sin 2 + 2d cos  and
y’ = x sin 2 – y cos 2 + 2d sin 

REMARK
The equations are obtained from the special case of reflection about a line through the origin by a
translation through a distance twice the perpendicular distance “d”
from y = mx to y = mx + b,as shown in the
figure. Since the translation is in the
direction indicated by  with  + (90 - )
= 360,
the equations of the translation are
x’ = x + 2d cos 
x’ = x cos 2 + y sin 2 + 2d cos 
and
y’ = y + 2d sin 
y’ = x sin 2 – y cos 2 + 2d sin 
Example
Find the image of the point (2, 6) under a reflection about the line such that  = 30;  = 300 and d = 2.
solution
Substituting the given values in the equation of translation, we have
x’ = x cos 2 + y sin 2 + 2d cos  and y’ = x sin 2 – y cos 2 + 2d sin 
x’ = 2cos2(30) + 6sin2(30) + 2(2)cos(300) and y’ = 2sin2(30) – 6cos2(30) + 2(2)sin(300)
x’ = 2cos60 + 60sin60 + 4cos(300) and y’ = 2sin60 – 6cos 60 + 4sin(300)
1  3  3  3
x’ = 2   + 6   + 4  1  and
1
y’ = 2   – 6   + 4  
2 2  2 2  2 
   2   
x’ = 3 3 3 and y’ =  3  3

THEOREM 2.1
If a transformation is a plane motion, then it has the equation of the form
x` = ax + by + c and y` = ±(-bx + ay) + d
for a, b, c, d   such that a + b2 = 1
2

The restriction is given using the concept of determinant for the determinant of the coefficients of the
variable
a b a b
 a2  b2  1 or  a 2  b 2  1
b a b a

THEOREM 2.2
If a transformation has equations of the form
x’ = ax + by + c and y’ =  (- bx + ay) + d
for a, b, c, d  R such that a2 + b2 = 1, then it is a plane motion.

Example
 1   1   1   1 
The equations x`  x  
 
y  3
 and y`  x  
 
y  7

 2  2  2  2
Having a2 + b2 = 1 represent a plane motion.

REMARK
The equations for the inverse of transformation can be found by solving the set of equations for x
and y.

Example
Find the inverse equation of the transformation with the following equations:
x` = x cos 30 + y sin 30 ….. eq. 1 and
y` = x sin 30 – y cos 30 ….. eq. 2
Solution:
Multiply eq. 1 by sin 30 and eq. 2 by cos 30, then subtract eq. 2 from eq. 1.
x’ sin 30 = x cos 30 sin 30 + y sin 30 sin 30 ….. eq. 1
y’ cos 30 = x sin 30 cos 30 – y cos 30 cos 30 ….. eq. 2 ;
the difference is
x’ sin 30 - y’ cos 30 = y(sin2 30 + cos2 30); thus
 y = x’ sin 30 - y’ cos 30
Now, we multiply eq. 1 by cos 30 and eq. 2 by sin 30, then add the two equations
x’ cos 30 = x cos 30 cos 30 + y sin 30 cos 30 ….. eq. 1
y’ sin 30 = x sin 30 sin 30 – y cos 30 sin 30 ….. eq. 2;
the sum is
x’ cos 30 + y’ sin 30 = x(sin2 30 + cos2 30); thus
x = x’ sin 30 - y’ cos 30

2.5 APPLICATION OF TRANSFORMATIONS IN COMPUTER

COMPUTER GRAPHICS refers to the use of computer to store, manipulate, and show pictorial
information.
REMARKS
i. Computer graphics conventions are followed for rows and columns and the order of operations
using matrices.
ii. In computer graphics, a point in two dimensions can be represented as a row matrix (x y). i.e. the
point (2, 3) is represented by the matrix (2 3).
iii. Many transformations of two dimensions can be represented as 2 x 2 matrices.
iv. Matrix multiplication can be used to show the effect of the transformation on the point
( )( ) ( )
v. In considering the application of computer graphics, we can see the importance of
transformations as providing the means, through matrix multiplication that will change the picture
form one set of points to a modified set.
Example. Find the image of (3, 4) under the transformation with matrix ( )

Solution: ( )( ) = (3- 4 6 + 12) = (-1 18)

The image would be (-1 18).

vi. Some special 2 x 2 matrices representing particular geometric manipulations that are useful in
computer graphics are:
1. ( ) Identity
2. ( ) Scale change in x direction

3. ( ) Reflection about the x-axis

4. ( ) Reflection about the y-axis

5. ( ) Shear in y direction

6. ( ) Rotation of 90°
7. ( ) Rotation of 180°

8. ( ) Rotation of 270°
9. ( ) Reflection about the
10. ( ) Scaling change both in x and y direction
 11. ( ) Unequal scaling change
12. ( ) General rotation about the origin

Changing one point at a time would be a very tedious way of changing the appearance of a picture in
computer graphics. However, more than one point can be changed at the same time. i.e. the entire polygon
can be transformed by transforming the vertices.

Example
Find the image of a triangle with vertices at A(3, 2); B(5, 9); C(8, 11)
1. under a scale change of 3 units in the x direction.
2. under a shear of 2 units in the y direction.
3. under rotation of 270.

DEFINITION
Products of transformations can be represented by a matrix that is the product of the matrices for
the transformations.

Example
Find a matrix that represent a rotation of 90 followed by a reflection about the line y = x.

Example
Find a matrix that represent a reflection about the y-axis followed by a scaling change in both x
and y directions.

REMARK
A single matrix equation can be used to find the image of the vertices of a polygon under a
product of transformations

Example
Find the image of the triangle with vertices (2, 5),
(7, 3) and (6, 4) under a rotation of 180, a scale change of 2 and 3 units in x direction and y direction
respectively, the a reflection about the y-axis.

Example
Find the image of the triangle in example 3, under a scaling change of 3 units in the x-direction, a
rotation of 270, a reflection about the line y = x, followed by a y-shear of 2 units.

2.6 PROPERTIES OF THE GROUP OF EUCLIDEAN MOTIONS

DEFINITION
A plane motion is direct motion if it is the product of an even number of reflections. It is an
opposite motion if it is the product of odd number of reflections.
Direct motion preserves the orientation while opposite motion changes the orientation.
Product of Direct and Opposite Motion
Direct Opposite
Direct Direct Opposite
Opposite Opposite Direct
THEOREM 2.3
A motion of the plane is
uniquely determined by an isometry
of one triangle onto another.
Proof:
Let ABC  A’B’C’ .
 That one triangle is the image of the other under a motion.
 A, A’; B, B’; and C, C’ are pairs of corresponding points.
NTS: There is exactly one motion of the plane satisfying
this isometry.

Let P be any point of the plane other than A, B, or C.

If the isometry is
direct, then P’ is
uniquely determined
by constructing B’A’P’
 BAP and A’P’ = AP.
If it is opposite, the angle is constructed in the opposite sense.
Let P1 and P2 be two
points of the plane.
Then, AP1P2 
A’P1’P2’, since AP1 = A’P1’,
AP2 = A’P2’, and P1AP2  P1’A’P2’.
Thus, P1P2 = P1’P2’, so a motion is determined because distance between two points is preserved.
Since, for any given point P, there is only one point P’ of the plane such that PA = P’A’, PB = P’B’, and
PC = P’C’; P’ is the image of P; and the motion is the only one for which  ABC has  A’B’C’ as its
image.(QED)
THEOREM 2.4
The four types of Euclidean motion of the plane constitute a group of transformation.
THEOREM 2.5
If a transformation is a plane motion, then it is the product of three or fewer reflections.
The converse is also true.
The theorem can be proved in two parts.
Part 1.
Translation and Rotation
The product of reflections about two different lines in a plane is a translation or a rotation.
There are two cases, depending on whether the two lines of reflection intersect or parallel.
Case 1.
If l1 and l2 are any two lines of plane intersect at O
and if the angle from l1 to l2 is , then Rl1Rl2 = R(O, 2).
In the figure,the product of two reflections about l1 and l2
is the rotation that transforms PQ into P’’Q’’.
Conversely, if R(O,2) is a rotation,
then l1 can be chosen arbitrarily in
POP’’; then l2 is determined
uniquely so that the rotation is a
product of two reflections.
Case 2.
If l1 and l2 are parallel lines and if they are
perpendicular to a translation vector OP and
at a distance |OP|/2 apart, then Rl1Rl2 = Tp.
In the figure, The product of two reflections about l1 and l2
is the translation that transforms points A and B

Part 2.
Reflections & Glide Reflections.
Every reflection or glide reflection is the product of three or fewer reflections. This statement is
trivial for a reflection itself. Since a glide reflection is the product of a reflection and a translation, and
since a translation is the product of two reflections, a glide reflection is the product of three
reflections.(QED)
The type of motion depends on the relative position of the lines of reflection. The possibilities are
summarized in the table below.

Product of two A. If the two lines of reclection are parallel, then the motion is translation
reflections B. If the two lines of reflection are non-parallel, then the motion is a rotation
Product of three A. If two of the lines of reflection coincide, then the motion is a reflection
reflections B. If the three lines of reflection are parallel, then the motion is a reflection
C. If two lines of reflection intersect at a point on the third, the motion is a
reflection
D. If two lines of reflection intersect at a point not on the third, the motion is a
glide reflection

THEOREM 2.6
Each finite group of isometries is either cyclic group or a dihedral group.
DEFINITION
A cyclic group is generated by taking powers of one element.
Example
The finite group of symmetries of an isosceles triangle is a cyclic group generated by taking
powers of the reflection.
Outline of Proof
1. A finite group of isometries can contain only rotations and reflections; otherwise, it would
contain translations that would generate an infinite group.
2. 2. If the finite group contains only rotations, then it is just the identity group or a cyclic group.
3. The assumption that the group contains rotations about more than one point leads to the existence
of a translation in the group, which is impossible.
4. Then it can be shown that all elements are powers of the group element with the minimum angle.
5. 3. If the finite group of isometries contains at least one reflection, then it is a dihedral group.
6. The rotations in this group form a subgroup that is a cyclic group.
7. It can be shown that the number of reflections in the group must equal the number of rotations,
8. so the group consists of the 2n elements of a dihedral group for a regular polygon with n sides.
2.7 MOTIONS AND GRAPHICS OF THREE–SPACE

Illustration
Locate the ordered triple (3, -2, 4) on the xyz-
plane

THREE SIMPLEST MOTION

1. TRANSLATION
The transformation TA such that TA(x) = x + A is a translation
of space in the direction OA.
Example.
If A(2, 4, 8) and x(1, 2, 3), find TA(x)
Solution:
The image point can easily be found by addition of
coordinates. TA(X) = (3, 6, 11).

2. ROTATION
The rotation R(, ) in three space through an angle  about a fixed
line  is a counterclockwise rotation
in a plane perpendicular to .
The image of a point A not on l is a
point B such that AO and OB determine a plane   to l.
Example
Find the image of the point (2, 4, 8) under a rotation
of 60 degrees In the plane x = 2 about the x – axis.

Solution:
To find the image of point P under a rotation, the
x coordinate is fixed then consider the other two coordinates
be an ordered pair i.e. (4, 8) where y is the abscissa and z as
the ordinate. In this case we can use the formula of rotation
about the origin (section 2.4, lesson 7) where the origin is the
point x = 2.
x’ = x cos  – y sin  and y’ = x sin  + y cos 
x’ = y` = y cos  – z sin 
y` = 4 cos 60° – 8 sin 60°
y` = 4(1/2) – 8 ( 3 / 2)
y` = 2 – 4 3  - 4.93
y’ = z` = y sin  + z cos 
z’ = 4 sin 60° + 8 cos 60°
z’ = 4 ( 3 / 2 ) + 8 (1/2)
z’ = 2 3 + 4  7.46
3. REFLECTION
A reflection R in three space is a reflection about
a plane such that for P and its image P`,  is the  bisector
of the segment PP`. A set of points and its image under
reflection are symmetric with respect to the plane of reflection.

Example.
Find the image of the point (2, 3, 7) under a reflection
about the plane (a) y = 1, (b) x = 4, and (c) z = 3.
( a) The x and z coordinates are unchanged. Since the y
coordinate is 2 units above 1, the y coordinate of the image
must be 2 units below 1, so the image is (2, -1, 7). (b) and
(c) is an exercise.
Generalization:
For a reflection about the xy plane, the image of (a, b, c) is (a, b, -c); hence, x’ = x; y’ = y and z’ = - z.
For a reflection about the xz plane, the image of (a, b, c) is (a, -b, c); hence, x’ = x; y’ = - y and z’ = z.
For a reflection about the yz plane, the image of (a, b, c) is (-a, b, c); hence, x’ = - x; y’ = y and z’ = z.

REMARKS:
i. The following equations for a translation in three space are analogous to those translation in a
plane. i.e. x’=x+a; y’=y+b; z’=z+c.
ii. For a rotation in space, if the fixed line is the z-axis and the plane is the xy plane, then the image
of a point in that plane can be found using the rotation equations for rotation in a plane about the
origin. For a point in a plane parallel to the xy plane, the z-coordinate will remain constant.
iii. The matrices to accomplish a translation in three space, like those for two space, involve the use
of homogeneous coordinates. The matrices for the reflection about the xy plane

iv. (z=0) is [ ], thus (2 3 7) [ ]= (2 3 -7)

4. SKEW DISPLACEMENT
– Rotation and translation along the axis of motion.
5. GLIDE REFLECTION
– Reflection and translation parallel to a line in the plane of reflection.
6. ROTARY REFLECTION
– Reflection and rotation with axis perpendicular to the plane of reflection.

2.8 SIMILARITY TRANSFORMATIONS

DEFINITION
A plane similarity is a transformation of the plane onto itself such that if AA’ and BB’ are
corresponding points, the length of A’B’ is r times the length of AB,
where r is some nonzero real number. Similarity transformation is a motion. The symbol r is called the
ratio of similarity.

THEOREM 2.7
The set of all similarities of the plane is a transformation group.
Outline of Proof:
The identity ratio of a similarity is r = 1
The inverse of a similarity with ratio r has the ratio 1/r.
The ratio of the product of two similarities is the product of the ratios of the two similarities.
For example, if r1 = 2 and r2 = 3, then the ratio of similarity for the product transformation is r1r2 = 6.
(QED)

THEOREM 2.8
A plane similarity is uniquely determined when a triangle and its image are given. (Report 13)
DEFINITION
The dilation with center O and ratio r,
indicated by the notation H(O, r), is a plane
similarity that maps a point P to a point P’,
where OP’ = rOP, the points P, O, P’ are collinear,
and r  0,
If r < 0, then O is between P and P’, whereas
if r > 0, then P and P’ are on the same side of O.
The point O is called the center, and r is the ratio of the dilation. A dilation is sometimes called a
dilatation or homothety.

Example.
Find the image of the point (3, 4) under a dilation with center at the origin and ratio 5/3.

THEOREM 2.9
The image of a segment under a dilation is a parallel segment.
Proof:
In figure (a) on the right,
We have r = OP’/OP = OQ’/OQ
 OP’/OQ’ = OP/OQ and
OP’Q’  OPQ;
Hence PQ // P’Q’.
(Show the proof in the case where O, P, Q are collinear).

REMARKS
1. A figure and its image under a dilation are sometimes called HOMOTHETIC FIGURE.
2. Homothetic figures are both similar and similarity placed, since their corresponding sides are parallel.
3. The property of parallelism is preserved under a dilation.

THEOREM 2.10
The image of a circle under a dilation
Proof:
Let O be the center of
dilation and P’ and Q’ be
the images of a point P
on the given circle and its
center Q, respectively.
Assume P is not collinear with O, Q.
Since PQ // P’Q’ by theorem 2.9,
P’Q’/PQ = OQ’/OQ, or P’Q’ = (PQ)(OQ’)/(OQ).
But each segment in the expression on the right has a fixed length; hence, P’Q’ is a constant.
For any position of P, P’ lies on a circle with Q’ as center.