INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

TUTORIAL 1 – CREATING MODELS OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

This tutorial is of interest to any student studying control systems and in particular the EC
module D227 – Control System Engineering. The purpose of this tutorial is to introduce
students to the basic elements of engineering systems and how to create a transfer function
for them. The tutorial is mainly informative and consists of examples showing the derivation
of models for real hardware systems. The self assessment material is based on basic general
engineering knowledge.

On completion of this tutorial, you should be able to do the following.

• Derive the mathematical models of basic mechanical systems.

• Derive the mathematical models of basic fluid power systems.

• Derive the mathematical models of basic thermal systems.

• Derive the mathematical models of basic electrical systems.

• Recognise the similarity between models of different systems.

• Explain the standard first and second order transfer functions.

• Explain the link between open and closed loop transfer functions.

If you are not familiar with instrumentation used in control engineering, you should complete
the tutorials on Instrumentation Systems.

In order to complete this tutorial, you must be familiar with basic mechanical and electrical
science. You should also be familiar with the Laplace transform and a tutorial on this may be
found in the maths section. You can also find tutorials on fluid power on this site.

Tutorial 2 in this series gives a detailed account of electric motor models and you may wish
to study this first.

© D.J.DUNN 1
1. INTRODUCTION

Engineering systems is a very broad area ranging from control of a power station to control of a motor’s
speed. The student needs to have a broad base knowledge of engineering science in order to understand the
various elements and see how many of them are mathematically the same (analogues of each other).

Different kinds of engineering systems often conform to similar laws and there are clear analogies between
electrical, mechanical, thermal and fluid systems. The basic laws which we use most often concern
Resistance R, Capacitance C, Inductance L and conservation laws. You do not need to study all these in
detail and the appropriate law will be explained as required.

Here is a table showing the main analogue components. It is useful to note that capacitance is a zero order
differential equation, resistance is a first order differential equation and Inductance/inertia/inertance is a
second order differential equation.

MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL THERMAL FLUID

Spring Electrical Capacitor Thermal capacitor Fluid Capacitor

x = C F = (1/k) F Q=CV Q = C ∆T M = C x ∆p

Damper Ohm's Law Heat Transfer Laws

Fluid friction Laws do
Force = kd x velocity V=RI ∆T = R Φ not conform to this
F = kd dx/dt V = R dQ/dt ∆T = R dQ/dt pattern.
Torque = kd x Ang.vel

Newton's 2nd Law of Law of Inductors No equivalence Fluid inertance

motion
Force = Mass x acceleration
F = M d2x/dt2 V = L d2q/dt2 ∆p = Ld2v/dt2

D'Alembert's Principles Kirchoff's Laws Law of Conservation Law of Conservation

of Energy of Mass
∑Force = 0 ∑current = 0
∑Moment = 0 ∑Energy = constant ∑Mass = constant

Let’s look at the similarity of the various quantities used in these systems.

© D.J.DUNN 2
2. SIMILARITY OF ELEMENTS

CAPACITANCE

The symbol C will be used for electrical, thermal and fluid capacitance. Mechanical capacitance is equivalent
to 1/k for mechanical systems where k is the spring stiffness.

RESISTANCE

The symbol R will be used for electrical and thermal resistance. Mechanical/hydraulic resistance is called the
damping coefficient and has various symbols.

INDUCTANCE / INERTIA / INERTANCE

The symbol L will be used for electrical inductance and fluid inertance. In mechanical systems, mass M is
the equivalent property for linear motion and moment of inertia I for angular motion.

OTHER EQUIVALENT PROPERTIES

Q is the symbol for electric charge and quantity of heat. This is equivalent to displacement in mechanical
systems, these being distance (usually x) or angle (usually θ).

V is the symbol for electric voltage (potential difference or e.m.f) and is equivalent to temperature T for
thermal systems, Force F for mechanical systems and pressure p for fluid systems.

v or u is the symbol for velocity in mechanical systems and this is equivalent to electric current (I or i) and
heat flow rate Φ.

3 LAPLACE TRANSFORM and TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

Laplace is covered in detail in later tutorials and in the maths section. The purpose of this transform is to
allow differential equations to be converted into a normal algebraic equation in which the quantity s is just a
normal algebraic quantity. In this tutorial we should simply regard it as a shorthand method of writing
differential coefficients such that:
dθ d 2θ 2 dnθ n
becomes s θ 2
becomes s θ n becomes s θ
dt dt dt

4 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

The models of systems are often written in the form of a ratio of Output/Input. If the models are turned into a
function of s it is called a transfer function and this is usually denoted as G(s).

Output
G(s) = The output and input are functions of s.
Input

Now let’s examine the mathematical models of some mechanical systems.

© D.J.DUNN 3
5. BASIC MODELS OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

5.1 GENERAL PROCEDURE

The general procedure for mechanical systems is as follows.

i. Adopt a suitable co-ordinate system with an appropriate sign convention. For linear motion, up is
positive and left to right is positive. For rotation anticlockwise is positive and clockwise is negative.
These may be ignored when convenient.
ii. Identify any disturbing forces acting on the system (inputs to the system).
iii. Identify displacements and/or velocities (outputs from the system).
iv. Draw a free body diagram for each mass showing all the forces and moments acting on it.
v. Apply Newton's 2nd Law to each free body diagram (F = Mass x Acceleration).
vi. Rearrange the equation(s) into a suitable form for solution by a convenient method.

Note that unless otherwise specified, ignore gravitational effects.

Let’s now examine mechanical elements in detail.

5.2 LINEAR MECHANICAL SYSTEMS.

5.2.1 SPRING

The basic law of a mechanical spring is Force ∝ change in length. The diagram shows the model with
mechanical symbols and as a block diagram.

Figure 1

The relationship has no derivatives in it may be written as a function of t or s with no transform involved.
As a function of time we write F(t) = k x(t) where k is the spring stiffness.
As a function of s we write F(s) = kx(s)
x
This can be arranged as a transfer function such that (s) = 1/k = C
F
C is the reciprocal of stiffness and it is called mechanical capacitance. The use of k is usually preferred in
mechanics but C is used in systems as it is directly analogous to electrical capacitance.

5.2.2 DAMPER or DASHPOT

Figure 2

© D.J.DUNN 4
A damper may be idealised as a loosely fitting piston moving in a viscous fluid such that the force is directly
proportional to velocity. F ∝ v. Velocity v is the first derivative of distance so F ∝ dx/dt
dx
The basic law of a dashpot is: F(t) = k d kd is the damping coefficient.
dt
Changed into Laplace form. F = kd s x
x 1
Rearranged into a transfer function (s) =
F k ds
kd is the damping coefficient with units of Force/Velocity or N s/m. The diagram shows the model with
mechanical symbols and the control block.

5.2.3 MASS

When a mass is accelerated, the inertia has to be overcome and the inertia force is given by Newton’s Second
Law of Motion Force = Mass x Acceleration. Acceleration is the second derivative of x with time.
d2x
Basic Law F(t) = M 2
dt
Changed into Laplace form. F = Ms x2
x 1
Rearranged into a transfer function (s) =
F Ms 2

Figure 3
5.2.4 MASS - SPRING SYSTEM

For this spring - mass system, motion only occurs in one direction so the system has a single degree of
freedom. It is normal for the direction of motion to be expressed as the x direction regardless of the actual
direction. The free body diagram is as shown. The input is a disturbing force F which is a function of time
F(t). This could, for example, be a sinusoidal force. The output is a motion x which is a function of time x(t).
Let x be positive upwards.

Figure 4

© D.J.DUNN 5
The input force is opposed by the spring force and the inertia force (which always opposes changes in the
motion as stated in Newton’s third law of motion).

Spring force = k x
Inertia force = M d2x/dt2

D'Alembert's Principle is that all the forces and moments on the body must add up to zero. In this case it
means
F(t) - kx(t) - M d2x/dt2(t) = 0
or F(t) = M d2x/dt2(t) + kx (t)

Changing to a function of s we have F(s) = Ms2 x + kx = x [Ms2 + k]

F F(1/M )
x(s) = 2
= 2
Ms + k s + k/M
x(s) 1/M
This may be shown as a transfer function. G(s) = = 2
F(s) s + k/M
The block diagram for use in systems is as shown.

Figure 5

5.2.5 SPRING DAMPER

Force balance as a function of time. F(t) = k x + kd dx/dt

Force balance as a function of s F(s) = k x + kd s x
x 1/k
(s) =
Rearrange into a transfer function.
F ( )
k d /k s + 1
The units of kd/k are seconds and this is the time constant for the system T = kd/k
x 1/k This is the standard first order equation which we shall study many times in these tutorials.
(s) = .
F Ts + 1

Figure 6

© D.J.DUNN 6
5.2.6 MASS -SPRING - DAMPER SYSTEM

The input is the force F and the output is the movement x, both being functions of time.
Spring force Fs = kx
Damping force Fd = kd dx/dt
Inertia force Fi = Md2x/dt2

The three forces oppose motion so if the total force on the system is zero then F = Fi + Fd + Fs
2
d x dx x 1/k
F(t) = M 2 + k d + kx F(s) = Ms 2 x + k d sx + kx G(s) = (s) = 2
dt dt F s (M/k) + s(k d /k) + 1
If we examine the units of (M/k)1/2 we find it is seconds and this is the second order time constant also with
the symbol T. The transfer function may be written as
x 1/k
G(s) = (s) = 2 2
F T s + 2 δ Ts + 1
δ is the damping ratio defined as δ = kd/Cc and Cc is the critical damping ratio defined as (4Mk)½. The
k 2k d M/k 2k d M k
term 2δT is hence 2 d T = = = d and so the forgoing is correct.
Cc 4Mk 2 M k k k

Figure 7

This is the standard 2nd order transfer function which will be analysed in detail later.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

A mass – spring –system has the following parameters.

Stiffness K = 800 N/m Mass M = 3 kg Damping Coefficient kd = 20 Ns/m

i. Calculate the time constant, critical damping coefficient and the damping ratio.

ii. Derive the equation for the force required when the piston is accelerating.

iii. Use the equation to evaluate the static deflection when F = 12 N.

iv. Use the equation to evaluate the force needed to make the mass accelerate at 4 m/s2 at the
moment when the velocity is 0.5 m/s.

© D.J.DUNN 7
 SOLUTION

i. T = √(M/k) = √(3/800) = 0.0612 seconds

cc = √4MK = √(4 x 3 x 800) = 97.97 Ns/m
δ = kd/ cc = 20/97.97 = 0.204

ii. For a constant acceleration s2x = a (acceleration) and sx = v (velocity)

x
F
(s) = 2 2
1/k
T s + 2 δ Ts + 1
(
F = kx T 2s 2 + 2 δ Ts + 1 )
(
F = 800x 0.0612 2 s 2 + 2 x 0.204 x 0.0612s + 1 )
( )
F = x 3 s 2 + 20 s + 800 = 0.00374s 2 x + 20 sx + 800 x
F = 3 a + 20 v + 800 x

iii. For a constant force and a static position there will be neither velocity nor acceleration so the s
and s2 terms are zero.
F 12
= 800 x = = 0.015 m or 15mm
x 800

iv. For velocity = 0.5 m/s and a = 4 m/s2

F = 3 a + 20 v + 800 x = 12 + 10 + 800x = 22 + 800 x

The deflection x would need to be evaluated from other methods x = v2/2a = 0.031 m

F = 46.8 N

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. A mass – spring –system has the following parameters.

Stiffness K = 1200 N/m Mass M = 15 kg Damping Coefficient kd = 120 Ns/m

i. Calculate the time constant, critical damping coefficient and the damping ratio.
(0.112 s, 268.3 Ns/m and 0.447)

ii. If a constant force of 22 N is applied, what will be the static position of the mass?
(18 mm)

iii. Calculate the force needed to make the mass move with a constant acceleration of 12 m/s2 at the
point where the velocity is 1.2 m/s.
(396 N)

© D.J.DUNN 8
5.3 ROTARY MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

The following is the rotary equivalent of the previous work.

5.3.1 TORSION BAR

This is the equivalent of a mass and spring. A metal rod clamped at one end and twisted at the other end
produces a torque opposing the twisting directly proportional to the angle of twist. The ratio T/θ is the
torsion stiffness of the torsion spring and is denoted with a k.

T is torque ( N m)
θ is the angle of twist (radian)
k is the torsional stiffness ( N m/rad )

Balancing the torques we have T(t) = kθ (t)

Change to Laplace form. T(s) = kθ (s)
θ 1
Write as a transfer function. (s) =
T k

Figure 8

5.3.2 TORSION DAMPER

A torsion damper may be idealised as vanes rotating in a viscous fluid so that the torque required to rotate it
is directly proportional to the angular velocity. kd is the torsion damping coefficient in N m s/radian

dθ θ 1
T(t) = k d T(s) = k d s θ G(s) = (s) =
dt T k ds

Figure 9

© D.J.DUNN 9
5.3.3 MOMENT OF INERTIA

Rotating masses oppose changes to the motion and Newton's 2nd law for rotating masses is T = I d2θ/dt2
I is the moment of inertia in kg m2.
d 2θ θ 1
T(t) = I 2 T(s) = I s 2 θ G(s) = (s) = 2 . Note many text books also use J for moment of inertia.
dt T Is

Figure 10

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

Derive the transfer function for a mass on a torsion bar fitted with a damper and show it is another
example of the second order transfer function. T is torque and J is moment of inertia.

θ 1/k 1/k
G(s) = (s) = 2
= 2 2
T (J/k)s + (Jk d /k)s + 1 T s + 2 δ Ts + 1

© D.J.DUNN 10
5.3.4 GEARED SYSTEMS

When a mass is rotated through a gear system, the affect of the inertia is dramatically altered. Consider a
motor coupled to a load through a speed changing device such as a gear box. There is damping (viscous
friction) on the two bearings.

Figure 11
θm is the motor rotation and θo the output rotation. The gear ratio is Gr = θo/θm
Since this is a fixed number and is not a function of time, the speed and acceleration are also in the same
ratio.
dθm/dt = ωm dθo/dt = ωo Gr = ωo/ωm ω is the angular velocity

d2θm/dt2= αm d2θo/dt2 = αo Gr = αo/αm α is the angular acceleration.

The power transmitted by a shaft is given by Power = ωT. If there is no power lost, the output and input
power must be equal so it follows that
ωm Tm = ωo To hence
Tm = ωo To /ωm = GrTo
(In reality friction significantly affects the torque)

Consider the inertia torque due the inertia on the output shaft Io.
To = Ioαo = Io αm x Gr Tm = To x Gr = Io αm x Gr2

Now consider the damping torque on the output shaft.

To = kdo ωo = kdo ωmGr Tm = To x Gr = kdo ωm Gr2

Now consider that there is an inertia and damping torque on the motor shaft and on the output shaft. The total
torque produced on the motor shaft is

Tm = Imαm + kdm ωm + Gr To
To = Ioαo + kdo ωo
Tm = Imαm + kdm ωm + Gr { Ioαo + kdo ωo}
Tm = Imαm + kdm ωm + Gr2 Io αm + Gr2 kdo ωm
Tm = αm (Im +Gr2 Io) + ωm (kdm +Gr2 kdo)

(Im +Gr2 Io) is the effective moment of inertia Ie and (kdm +Gr2 kdo) is the effective damping coefficient kde.

The equation may be written as Tm = αm (Ie) + ωm (kde)

In calculus form this becomes Tm = d2θ/dt2 (Ie) + dθ/dt (kde)

© D.J.DUNN 11
Changing this into a function of s we have Tm(s) = s2θ(Ie) + sθ (kde) = sθ{sIe + kde}

The output is the motor angle and the input is the motor torque so the geared system may be presented as a
transfer function thus. θ (s)/Tm (s) = (1/Ie)/s{s + Kde/Ie}

Figure 12

WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

A DC Servo motor has a moment of inertia of 0.5 kg m2. It is coupled to an aerial rotator through a gear
reduction ratio of 10. The driven mass has a moment of inertia of 1.2 kg m2. The damping on the motor
is 0.1 N m s/rad and on the rotator bearings it is 0.05 N m s/rad.

Write down the transfer function θ/Tm in the simplest form. Calculate the torque required from the motor
to

i. Turn the aerial at a constant rate of 0.02 rad/s.

ii. Accelerate the rotator at 0.005 rad/s2 at the start when ω = 0

SOLUTION

i. Ie = (Im +Gr2 Io) = (0.5 + 102 x 1.2) = 120.5 kg m2.

Kde = (kdm +Gr2 kdo) = (0.1 + 102 x 0.05) = 5.1 N m s/rad.
θ (s)/Tm (s) = (1/Ie)/s{s + Kde/Ie}
θ 1/I e
(s) =
Tm ( )
s s + k de /I e
Tm = I e α + K de ω
Tm = 120.5α + 5.1ω

If the rotator is moving at constant speed α (acceleration) is zero. Hence:

Tm = 5.1ω = 5.1 x 0.02 = 0.102 Nm

ii. When accelerating at 0.005 rad/s2 the motor acceleration is 10 times larger at 0.05 rad/s2.

Tm = 120.5α + 5.1ω = 60.25 Nm when ω = 0

© D.J.DUNN 12
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

A DC Servo motor has a moment of inertia of 12 kg m2. It is coupled to an aerial rotator through a gear
reduction ratio of 4. The driven mass has a moment of inertia of 15 kg m2. The damping on the motor is
0.2 N m s/rad and on the rotator bearings it is 0.4 N m s/rad.

Calculate the torque required from the motor to

i. Turn the aerial at a constant rate of 0.5 rad/s. (3.3 N)

ii. Accelerate the rotator at 0.02 rad/s2 at the start when ω = 0 (20.16 Nm)

© D.J.DUNN 13
6. THERMAL SYSTEM MODELS

6.1 HEATING and COOLING

Consider a mass M kg at temperature θ1. The mass is placed in a hot environment at temperature θ2 and heat
Q is transferred into the mass causing its temperature to rise. The system could be for example, a resistance
thermometer, and we want to know how long it takes for the sensor to warm up to the same temperature as
the liquid.

Figure 13
The laws of heat transfer tell us that the temperature rise is directly proportional to the heat added so:
dQ = Mc dθ1 = C dθ1

c is the specific heat capacity. C = Mc is the thermal capacitance in Joules/Kelvin.

dQ dθ
Divide both sides by dt and: = Φ = C 1
dt dt
The rate of heat transfer into the mass is Φ = C dθ1/dt and the rate is governed by the thermal resistance
between the liquid and the mass. This obeys a law similar to Ohm’s Law so that:

Φ = (θ2 - θ1)/R R is the thermal resistance in Kelvin per Watt.

dθ1 θ1 − θ 2 dθ1 θ1 − θ 2
Equating for Φ we have C = =
dt R dt RC
dθ1 θ1 θ2
+ =
dt RC RC
In all systems, the product of the resistance and capacitance is the time constant T so we have
dθ1 θ θ
+ 1 = 2
dt T T
Changing from a function of time into a function of s we have
θ θ θ1 1
sθ1 + 1 = 2 θ1 (Ts + 1) = θ 2 (s) =
T T θ2 (Ts + 1)

Figure 14

Note that this transfer function is the same standard first order equations derived for the spring - damper
system and thermal capacitance C is equivalent to 1/k and resistance R is equivalent to kd.
© D.J.DUNN 14
6.2 INDUSTRIAL HEATING SYSTEM

The diagram shows a schematic of an industrial process for controlling the temperature of a tank of liquid.
The pneumatic controller will not be explained here but it has an input temperature set by adjustment of the
control. The temperature of the liquid is measured with a suitable device and turned into a standard signal in
the range 0.2 – 1 bar. This is connected to the controller and pressure sensing devices produce another air
signal (0.2 – 1 bar) depending on the error. This is sent to a valve that is opened pneumatically working on
the standard range. The overall result is that if the liquid is too cool, steam is allowed through to heat the
liquid.

If the valve opened instead of closing and a cooling fluid was used instead of steam, the system control is by
cooling.

The control equipment could just as likely be all electronic. Pneumatics are used in dangerous environments
such as heating up oil tanks.

Figure 15
The model for the above system will not be derived here but it will be more complicated than simply
θ1 1
(s) = because the controller has the facility to do more than proportional control. (Three term
θ2 (Ts + 1)
control is covered in later tutorials)

WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

θo 1
A simple thermal heating system has a transfer function (s) =
θi (Ts + 1)
The temperature of the system at any time is θo and this is at 20oC when the set temperature θi is
changed from 20 oC to 100 oC. The time constant ‘T’ is 4 seconds. Deduce the formulae for how the
system temperature changes with time and sketch the graph.

© D.J.DUNN 15
 SOLUTION

θo 1
= θ i = Tsθ o + θ o
θi Ts + 1
θi is a constant (100oC) at all values of time after t = 0 (the start of the change).
dθ
θ i − θ o = Ts θ o = T o
dt
Let θ i − θ o = x
dθ o dx
Differentiate and - dθ o = dx The equation becomes x = T = −T
dt dt
dt dx
Rearrange and − =
T x
t
Integrate without limits − = ln(x) + A
T
t
Substitute for x − = ln(θ i - θ o ) + A
T
When t = 0, θo = starting temperature = θ1 Hence
t
− = 0 = ln(θ i - θ1 ) + A A = - ln(θ i - θ1 ) θi - θ1 = change in temperature ∆θ
T
t (θ - θ o )
Substitute for A and − = ln(θ i - θ o ) − ln(∆ θ ) = ln i
T ∆θ
t (θ - θ )
− o
Take anti logs and e T = i
∆θ
t
−
∆θ e T = (θ i - θ o )
t
−
θ o = θ i − ∆θ e T

Put in the values T = 4 ∆θ = 100 – 20 = 80 θi = 100

θo = 100 – 80e-t/4 Evaluating and plotting produces the result below. It is an exponential growth.

Figure 16

© D.J.DUNN 16
7. HYDRAULIC SYSTEM MODELS

The basic theory for hydraulic and pneumatic components may be found in the tutorials on fluid power.

7.1 HYDRAULIC MOTOR

The following is the derivation of a model for use in control
theory. The formula relating flow rate Q and speed of rotation ω
dθ
is Q = k q ω = k q
dt
kq is a constant known as the nominal displacement with units
of m3 per radian. θ is the angle of rotation in radian. Written as
a function of s this becomes Q = kq sθ

If we take the flow rate as the input and the angle of rotation as
θ 1
the output the transfer function is: G(s) = =
Q k qs
The formula that relates system pressure p to the output torque
T is T = kq p

If pressure is the input and torque the output then

T
Figure 17 G(s) = = k q This is a further definition of the constant kq.
p

WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

A hydraulic motor has a nominal displacement of 8 cm3/radian. Calculate the torque produced at a
pressure of 90 bar.

SOLUTION

T = p kq = 90 x 105 (N/m2) x 8 x 10-6 (m3/rad) = 72 Nm

© D.J.DUNN 17
7.2 HYDRAULIC CYLINDER

Figure 18

The flow rate and movement are related by the law Q = A dx/dt. Expressed as a transfer function with x
x 1
being the output and Q the input we have: G(s) = =
Q As
Force and pressure are related by the law F = pA. The transfer function with p as the input and F as the
F
output is: G(s) = = A
p

7.3 MODEL FOR A FLOW METERING VALVE AND ACTUATOR

Figure 19

The input to the system is the movement of the valve xi. This allows a flow of oil into the cylinder of Q m3/s
which makes the cylinder move a distance xo.

© D.J.DUNN 18
Making a big assumption that for a constant supply pressure the flow rate is directly proportional to the valve
position we may say Q = kv xi

kv is the valve constant and examining its units we find they are m2/s

The area of the piston is A m2.

The velocity of the actuator is v = dxo/dt and this is related to the flow and the piston area by the law of
dx
continuity such that Q = k vxi = A o
dt
Changing to a function of s this becomes kv xi = Asxo
x 1
Expressed as a transfer function we have G(s) = o (s) =
xi (A/k v )s
The units of A/kv are seconds and we deduce this is yet another time constant T.
x 1
G(s) = o (s) =
xi Ts
Note that this is not quite the standard first order equation 1/{Ts+1} and the difference is that the output will
keep changing for a given input, unlike the previous examples where a limit is imposed on the output.

If the actuator is a motor instead of a cylinder the equation is similar but the output is angle instead of linear
motion.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.5

A hydraulic cylinder has bore of 90 mm and is controlled with a valve with a constant kv = 0.2 m2/s

Calculate the time constant T. Given that xi and xo are zero when t = 0, calculate the velocity of the
piston and the output position after 0.1 seconds when the input is changed suddenly to 5 mm.

SOLUTION

A = πD2/4 = 6.362 x 10-3 m2

T = A/kv = 6.362 x 10-3 / 0.2 = 0.032 seconds

xo 1
G(s) = (s) =
xi Ts
Tsx o = x i
dx o dx o x 0.005 m
T = xi = velocity = i = = 0.156 m/s
dt dt T 0.032 s

Velocity = distance /time distance = xo = v t = 0.156 x 0.1 = 0.0156 or 15.6 mm assuming the
velocity is constant.

© D.J.DUNN 19
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.4

1. A hydraulic motor has a nominal displacement of 5 cm3/radian. Calculate the torque produced at a
pressure of 120 bar.
(60 N m)

2. A hydraulic cylinder has bore of 50 mm and is controlled with a valve with a constant kv = 0.05 m2/s

Calculate the time constant T. Given that xi and xo are zero when t = 0, calculate the velocity of the
piston and the output position after 0.2 seconds when the input is changed suddenly to 4 mm.

(0.039 s, 0.102 m/s and 20 mm)

© D.J.DUNN 20
7.4 ADVANCED HYDRAULIC MODEL

Consider the same system but this time let the actuator move a mass M kg and have to overcome a damping
force. Further suppose that the valve now meters the pressure and not the flow rate such that the pressure
applied to the cylinder is p = kvxi. Consider the free body diagram of the actuator.

Figure 20

The applied force is due to pressure Fd and this is determined by the pressure acting on the area A such that:
Fp = pA.

The applied force is opposed by the inertia force Fi and the damping force Fd.

Fi = M d2xo/dt2 and Fd = kd dxo/dt.

d2xo dx o
Balancing forces gives pA = M + kd
dt 2 dt
2
d xo dx o
Substituting p = kvxi. we have k vxiA = M 2
+ kd
dt dt
In Laplace form we have k v x i A = Ms 2 x o + k d sx o
xo 1
Rearranging it into a transfer function. G(s) = (s) =
xi (M/Ak v )s 2 + (k d /Ak v )s
If we examine the units we find M/Akv = T2 where T is a time constant.
The critical damping coefficient is Cc = √(4 M A kv) and the damping ratio is δ kd/Cc
x 1
The transfer function becomes: G(s) = o (s) = 2 2
xi T s + 2 δ Ts

Figure 21

Note the similarity with the standard 2nd order equation 1/{T2s2 + 2δTs + 1}. The difference is again due to
there being no limitation on the output. If the actuator is a motor instead of a cylinder, the transfer function is
similar but the output is angle and angular quantities are used instead of linear quantities.

© D.J.DUNN 21
 WORKED EXAMPLE No.6

A hydraulic cylinder has bore of 90 mm and moves a mass of 80 kg. It is controlled with a valve with a
constant kv = 20000 Pa/m. The damping coefficient is 180 Ns/m.
Calculate the time constant T, Cc and δ.
Given that xi and xo are zero when t = 0, calculate the initial acceleration of the mass when the input is
changed suddenly to 5 mm.
Calculate the acceleration when the velocity reaches 2 mm/s.
Calculate the velocity when the acceleration is zero.

SOLUTION

A = πD2/4 = 6.362 x 10-3 m2

T = √(M/Akv)= √{80/(20000 x 6.362 x 10-3) = 0.793 seconds
Cc = √(4 M A kv) = 201.78 Ns/m
δ = kd/Cc = 0.892
x 1
G(s) = o (s) = 2 2 or in terms of time
xi T s + 2 δ Ts
xi = (T2 x acceleration) + (2δT x velocity)

The initial velocity is zero. 0.005 = 0.7932 a + 0 a = 7.952 x 10-3 m/s2

When v = 0.002
0.005 = 0.7932 a + (2 x 0.892 x 0.793 x 0.002)
a = {0.005 - (2 x 0.892 x 0.793 x 0.002)}/0.7932 = 3.452 x 10-3 m/s2

The system initially accelerates and will eventually settle down to a constant velocity with no
acceleration. Put a = 0.
0.005 = 0 + (2 x 0.892 x 0.793) x velocity
velocity = 0.00353 m/s or 3.53 mm/s.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.5

A hydraulic cylinder has bore of 50 mm and moves a mass of 10 kg. It is controlled with a valve with a
constant kv = 80 Pa/m. The damping coefficient is 2 Ns/m.

Calculate the time constant T, Cc and δ. (7.98 s, 2.5.7 Ns/m and 0.798)

Given that xi and xo are zero when t = 0, calculate the initial acceleration of the mass when the input is
changed suddenly to 10 mm. (0.157 mm/s2)

Calculate the acceleration when the velocity reaches 0.1 mm/s. (0.137 mm/s2)

Calculate the velocity when the acceleration is zero. (0.785 mm/s)

© D.J.DUNN 22
8. ELECTRIC SYSTEM ELEMENTS MODELS

8.1 RESISTANCE
Applying Ohm's Law we have V = I R V/I = R
This may be a function of time or of s.
The equation may be expressed in terms of charge Q.
V
Since I = dQ/dt I(s) = sQ hence G(s) = (s) = sR
Q
This is similar to the model for the damper.
Figure 22

8.2 CAPACITANCE
The law of a capacitor is Q = C V V/Q = 1/C
This is similar to the model for spring.
Differentiating with respect to time we have dQ/dt = C dV/dt
dQ/dt is current I so the equation may be expressed as I = C dV/dt
As a function of s this becomes I (s) = C sV
V 1
The transfer function is G(s) = (s) =
I sC
Figure 23

8.3 INDUCTANCE
dI d 2Q
Faraday's Law gives us V = L = L 2
dt dt
This is similar to the model for a mass and can be either a first or 2nd order equation as
required.
Expressed as a function of s we have V (s) = L sI or Ls2Q
V
G(s) = (s) = sL or s 2 Q
I
Figure 24

8.4 POTENTIOMETER

Figure 25

f the supply voltage is constant and the current is negligible, the output voltage V is directly proportional to
the position x or angle θ so a simple transfer function is obtained.
V
G(s) = o (s) = constant = k p (linear)
x
V
G(s) = o (s) = constant = k p (angular)
θ

© D.J.DUNN 23
8.5 R -C SERIES CIRCUIT

The input voltage Vi is the sum of the voltage over the

resistor and the capacitor so
Vi = I R + I /Cs

Vi = I (R + 1/Cs)

The output is the voltage over the capacitor so

Vo = I/Cs

Figure 26
Vo I/Cs 1
The transfer function is then G(s) = (s) = =
Vi I(R + 1/Cs) RCs + 1
The units of RC are seconds and this is another electrical time constant T. The transfer function may be
written as
V 1
G(s) = o (s) =
Vi Ts + 1

This is the standard first order equation and is the same as both the spring and damper and the thermal
example.

8.6 L - C - R in SERIES

This is 3 sub-systems in series. In this case we will take the

output as the voltage on the capacitor and the input as the voltage
across the series circuit.

The input voltage is the sum of all three voltages and is found by
adding them up.
Vi = I R + I sL + I/sC

Figure 27

The output voltage is Vo = I/sC The transfer function is then

V I/Cs 1
G(s) = o (s) = =
Vi I(R + sL + 1/Cs) RCs + CLs 2 + 1
Vo 1
G(s) = (s) = 2
Vi s CL + sRC + 1
If we examine the units of CL we find it is seconds2 and we have yet another time constant defined as
T2 = CL and the equation may be rewritten as:
V 1
G(s) = o (s) = 2 2
Vi T s + 2 δ Ts + 1
R L
The damping ratio δ is defined as δ = and 4 is called the critical damping value.
L C
4
C
Note this is the standard 2nd order equation identical to the mass-spring-damper system.

© D.J.DUNN 24
 WORKED EXAMPLE No.7

A Capacitance of 200 µF is connected in series with a resistor of 20 kΩ as shown in figure 26. The
θ 1
transfer function is o (s) =
θi (Ts + 1)
The voltage across the resistor is suddenly changed from 3V to 10V.

Calculate the time constant T and derive formulae for how the voltage across the capacitor varies with
time. Sketch the graph.

SOLUTION

T = RC = 20 x 103 x 200 x 10-6 = 4 seconds

The derivation is identical to that in example 3 simply changing θ to V we get the result.
t
−
Vo = Vi − ∆V e T

Put in the values T = 4 ∆V = 10 – 3 = 8 Vi = 10

-t/4
Vo = 10 – 7e Evaluating and plotting produces the result below. It is an exponential growth.

Figure 28

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.6

1. Calculate the time constant for an RC circuit with a resistance of 220 Ω and capacitance of 470 nF.
(103 µs)

2. Calculate the second order time constant and the damping ratio for a R-L-C circuit with L = 5 µH,
C= 60 µF and R=6.8 Ω.
(17.3 µs and 11.8 )

© D.J.DUNN 25
9 ELECTRIC MOTORS

This is covered in greater depth in tutorial 2. Here are the basic models.

9.1 FIELD CONTROLLED MOTOR,

The main theory of electric motors is covered in another tutorial. It can be shown that for a d.c. servo motor
with field control
T = kf if
If the motor drives an inertial load and has damping the dynamic equation becomes

d 2θ dθ
T = I 2 + kd
dt dt
T = Is θ + k d sθ = θ(Is 2 + k d s) = k f i f
2

θ k
G(s) = (s) = 2 f
if Is + sk d
This models the relationship between the shaft angle and the
control current.
Figure 29

9.2 ARMATURE CONTROLLED MOTOR

It can be shown that the torque is related to armature voltage

dθ ⎞ k
and resistance by the formula T = ⎛⎜ Va − k ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ R a
The torque must overcome inertia and damping as before so

T = Is 2θ + k d sθ
Equating we get
k k k 2sθ
T = θ(Is 2 + k d s) = (Va − ksθ ) = Va −
Ra Ra Ra
⎛ k 2s ⎞ k
θ⎜⎜ Is 2 + k d s + ⎟ =
⎟ Va
⎝ Ra ⎠ Ra
Figure 30
θ (k/R a )
With rearrangement we find G(s) = (s) = 2
Va Is + sk d − k 2s/R a
This models the relationship between the angle of the shaft and the control voltage.

Worked examples and self assessment exercise for this section may be found in tutorial 2.

© D.J.DUNN 26
10. CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS TRANSFER FUNCTION WITH UNITARY FEED BACK.

Consider a simple system with an input θi and output θo related by the transfer function G(s). If the system is
to be a controlled system in which we require the output to change and match the value of the input (set
value), we must make the input the error θe instead of the set value. The error is obtained by comparing the
output value with the input value with the signal summing device. This produces the result θe = θi - θo and
because θo is subtracted, this idea is called NEGATIVE FEED BACK. The block diagram shows that the
signal passes around a closed loop hence the name CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM.

Figure 31
θ
G(s) = o substitute θ e = θ i - θ o
θe
θo
G(s) = divide the bottom line by θ o
θi - θo
1 θi 1
G(s) = rearrange -1 =
θi θo G(s)
-1
θo
θi 1 1 + G(s)
= +1 = invert
θo G(s) G(s)
θo G(s) 1
= or
θi 1 + G(s) 1/G(s) + 1
θo 1
The transfer function for the closed system is hence =
θi 1/G(s) + 1
G(s) is the transfer function of the open loop system.

Let’s revisit the hydraulic open loop transfer functions derived previously.

When the hydraulic valve and actuator is turned into a closed loop system, the two transfer functions
become:
1 1
G(c.l) = for the first order version and G(c.l) = 2 2 for the second order version.
Ts + 1 T s + 2 δ Ts + 1

These models are mathematically identical to the transfer function of the mass-spring- damper and the L-C-R
circuits.

Note that for any system with an open loop transfer function G(s) the closed loop transfer function with unit
1
feedback is G cl =
1/G(s) + 1

© D.J.DUNN 27
 WORKED EXAMPLE No.8

An open loop system has a transfer function G(s) = 2/(s2 + 2s + 1). Derive the closed loop function when
unit feedback is used.

SOLUTION

1 1 2 2
G cl = = 2 = 2 = 2
1/G(s) + 1 s + 2s + 1 s + 2s + 1 + 2 s + 2s + 3
+1
2

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.7

1. An open loop system has a transfer function G(s) = 5/(4s2 + 2s + 2). Derive the closed loop function
when unit feedback is used.
Gcl = 5/(4s2 + 2s + 7)

2. An open loop system has a transfer function G(s) = 10/(s3 +5s). Derive the closed loop function when
unit feedback is used.
Gcl = 10/(s3 + 5s + 10)

© D.J.DUNN 28
 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

TUTORIAL 2 – SENSORS AND PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS

This tutorial provides an overview of instrument sensors used in process and automatic
control. It is useful to anyone studying measurement systems and instrumentation but it is
provided mainly in support of the EC module D227 – Control System Engineering. This
tutorial is mainly descriptive.

Control is a broad concept and the following might apply to an automated system such as
a robot or to a process control system such as a pneumatic valve controlling the flow of
steam in a pipe.

On completion of this tutorial, you should be able to do the following.

• Explain a basic measurement system.

• Explain the basic working principles of a variety of temperature sensors.

• Explain the basic working principles of a variety of pressure sensors.

• Explain the basic working principles of a variety of speed transducers.

• Explain the basic working principles of a variety of flow meters.

• Explain the basic working principles of a variety of force gauges.

• Explain the basic working principles of a variety of displacement gauges.

• Explain the basic working principles of a variety of level (depth) gauges.

• Explain in some detail the theory and use of strain gauges.

In order to complete the theoretical part of this tutorial, you must be familiar with basic
mechanical and electrical science.

 D.J.Dunn 1
1. INTRODUCTION

A basic instrument system consists of three elements:

i SENSOR or INPUT DEVICE

ii SIGNAL PROCESSOR
iii RECEIVER or OUTPUT DEVICE

This tutorial is devoted to input devices but you can never separate it from the rest of the system as in many cases
they are all integral (e.g. a mechanical pressure gauge incorporates all of these elements). A block diagram of a
basic system is shown but they are usually more complex.

Figure 1

Most modern analogue equipment works on the following standard signal ranges.
• Electric 4 to 20 mA
• Pneumatic 0.2 to 1.0 bar
Older electrical equipment use 0 to 10 V. Increasingly the instruments are digital with a binary digital encoder
built in to give a binary digital output. Pneumatic signals are commonly used in process industries for safety
especially when there is a risk of fire or explosion.

The advantage of having a standard range or using digital signals is that all equipment may be purchased ready
calibrated. For analogue systems the minimum signal (Temperature, speed, force, pressure and so on ) is
represented by 4 mA or 0.2 bar and the maximum signal is represented by 20 mA or 1.0 bar.

This tutorial is an attempt to familiarise you with the many types of input sensors on the market today. Usually
such sensors are called PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS.

Things that we commonly measure are:

Temperature Pressure
Speed Flow rate
Force Movement, Velocity and Acceleration
Stress and Strain Level or Depth
Mass or Weight Density
Size or Volume Acidity/Alkalinity

Sensors may operate simple on/off switches to detect the following:

Objects(Proximity switch) Empty or full (level switch)

Hot or cold (thermostat) Pressure high or low (pressure switch)

The block diagram of a sensor is shown below.

Figure 2

 D.J.Dunn 2
2 TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCERS

2.1 THERMOCOUPLES

When two wires with dissimilar electrical properties are joined at both ends and one junction is made hot and the
other cold, a small electric current is produced proportional to the difference in the temperature. Seebeck
discovered this effect. It is true no matter how the ends are joined so the cold end may be joined at a sensitive
millivolt meter. The hot junction forms the sensor end.

Figure 3

The picture shows a typical industrial probe with a flexible extension and standard plug.

Figure 4

Peltier showed that heat is absorbed at the hot end and rejected at the cold end. Thompson showed that part of
the e.m.f. is due to the temperature gradient in the wire as well as the temperature difference between the
junctions. Most thermocouple metals produce a relationship between the two temperatures and the e.m.f as
follows.

e = α(θ1 - θ2) + β(θ12 - θ22

α and β are constants for the type of thermocouple. The relationship is nearly linear over the operating range.
The actual characteristic and suitable operating temperatures depends upon the metals used in the wires. The
various types are designated in international and national standards. Typical linear operating ranges are shown for
standard types.

It is important that thermocouples are standard so that the same e.m.f will always represent the same
temperature.

 D.J.Dunn 3
 Type J 0 to 800oC Thermocouples come in several forms. They may be wires
Type K 0 to 1200oC insulated from each other with plastic or glass fibre materials.
Type T -199 to 250oC For high temperature work, the wire pairs are put inside a
Type E 0 to 600oC tube with mineral insulation. For industrial uses the sensor
Type R/S 0 to 1600oC comes in a metal enclosure such as stainless steel.
Type B 500 to 1800oC
Type N 0 to 1200oC
Type L 0 to 800oC

2.2 RESISTANCE TYPE SENSORS

Figure 5

These work on the principle that the electrical resistance of a conductor change with temperature. If a constant
voltage is applied to the conductor then the current flowing through it will change with temperature. The resistivity
of the conductor change with temperature. This usually means the resistance gets bigger as the conductor gets
hotter. The following law relates the resistance and temperature.

R = Ro(1 + αθ)

α is the temperature coefficient of resistance. Ro is the resistance at 0oC. Sometimes the equation is given as
R = Ro(1 αθ - βθ2)

A basic temperature sensor is made by winding a thin resistance wire into a small sensor head. The resistance of
the wire then represents the temperature. This has an advantage over a thermocouple in that it is unaffected by the
temperature of the gauge end. The main type of wire used is PLATINUM. The sensors are usually manufactured
to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0oC and the value of α is 0.00385 to 0.00390. A typical operating range is -
200 to 400oC.

A special type of resistance sensor is called a THERMISTOR. They are made from a small piece of semi-
conductor material. The material is special because the resistance changes a lot for a small change in temperature
and so can be made into a small sensor and it costs less than platinum wire. The temperature range is limited.
They are only used for a typical range of -20 to 120oC and are commonly used in small hand held thermometers
for every day use. The relationship between resistance and temperature is of the form R = AeB/θ

 D.J.Dunn 4
 WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

A Platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 100 Ω at 0oC and the value of α is 0.00385. In
operation the resistance is 101 Ω. Calculate the temperature.

SOLUTION

Rearrange the formula to make θ the subject and evaluate.

R
−1 105 −1
R
?= o = 100 = 12.987 o C
a 0.00385

WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

A thermocouple produces an e.m.f. in mV according to the temperature difference between the sensor tip θ1
and the gauge head θ2 such that
e = α(θ1-θ2) + β(θ12-θ22)
α = 3.5 x 10-2 and β = 8.2 x 10-6 The gauge head is at 20oC. The mV output is 12 mV. Calculate the
temperature at the sensor.

SOLUTION

10 = 0.035(? 1 − 20) + 8.2 x 10 −6 (? 12 − 20 2 )

10 = 0.035? 1 − 0.7 + 8.2 x 10 − 6 ? 12 − 0.00328
10 = 8.2x10 − 6 ?12 + 0.035? 1 − 0.69672
8.2 x 10 −6 ?12 + 0.035?1 − 9.30328 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation yields θ1 = 251oC

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. A thermocouple produces an e.m.f. in mV according to the temperature difference between the sensor tip θ1
and the gauge head θ2 such that e = α(θ1-θ2) + β(θ12-θ22)
Given α = 3.5 x 10-2 and β = 8.2 x 10-6 determine the mV output when the tip is at 220oC and the
gauge head at 20oC.
(Answer 7.394 mV)

2. Describe the basic construction of a resistance type temperature sensor and state the reason why it is
unaffected by the temperature of the gauge head.

3. State two reasons why instrument systems use standard transmission signal of either 4 - 20 mA or 0.2 - 1
bar.

 D.J.Dunn 5
2.3 LIQUID EXPANSION and VAPOUR PRESSURE SENSORS

These are thermometers filled with either a liquid such as mercury or an evaporating fluid such as used in
refrigerators. In both cases the inside of the sensor head and the connecting tube are completely full. Any rise in
temperature produces expansion or evaporation of the liquid so the sensor becomes pressurised. The pressure is
related to the temperature and it may be indicated on a simple pressure gauge.

Ways and means exist to convert the pressure into an electrical signal. The movement may also directly operate a
thermostat. These instruments are robust and used over a wide range. They can be fitted with electric switches to
set off alarms.

Figure 6
2.4 BIMETALLIC TYPES

It is a well-known principle that if two metals are rigidly joined together as a two-layer strip and heated, the
difference in the expansion rate causes the strip to bend.

Figure 7

In the industrial type, the strip is twisted into a long thin coil inside a tube. One end is fixed at the bottom of the
tube and the other turns and moves a pointer on a dial. The outward appearance is very similar to the pressure
type. They can be made to operate limit switches and set off alarms or act as a thermostat. (e.g. on a boiler).

 D.J.Dunn 6
2.5 GLASS THERMOMETER

The ordinary glass thermometer is also a complete system. Again the bulb is the sensor but the column of liquid
and the scale on the glass is the processor and indicator. Mercury is used for hot temperatures and coloured
alcohol for cold temperatures.

Figure 8

The problems with glass thermometers are that they are

• Brittle
• Mercury solidifies at -40oC.
• Alcohol boils at around 120 oC.
• Accurate manufacture is needed and this makes accurate ones expensive.
• It is easy for people to make mistakes reading them.

Glass thermometers are not used much now in industry but if they are, they are usually protected by a shield from
accidental breakage. In order to measure the temperature of something inside a pipe they are placed in
thermometer pockets.

 D.J.Dunn 7
3. PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

Pressure sensors either convert the pressure into mechanical movement or into an electrical output. Complete
gauges not only sense the pressure but indicate them on a dial or scale.

Mechanical movement is produced with the following elements.

• Bourdon Tube.

• Spring and Piston.

• Bellows and capsules.

• Diaphragm.

3.1. BOURDON TUBE

Figure 9

The Bourdon tube is a hollow tube with an elliptical cross section. When a pressure difference exists between the
inside and outside, the tube tends to straighten out and the end moves. The movement is usually coupled to a
needle on a dial to make a complete gauge. It can also be connected to a secondary device such as an air nozzle
to control air pressure or to a suitable transducer to convert it into an electric signal. This type can be used for
measuring pressure difference.

 D.J.Dunn 8
3.2 PISTON TYPE

The pressure acts directly on the piston and compresses the spring. The
position of the piston is directly related to the pressure. A window in the
outer case allows the pressure to be indicated. This type is usually used in
hydraulics where the ability to withstand shock, vibration and sudden
pressure changes is needed (shock proof gauge). The piston movement may
be connected to a secondary device to convert movement into an electrical
signal.

Figure 10

3.3. CAPSULES AND BELLOWS

A bellows is made of several capsules. These are hollow flattened

structures made from thin metal plate. When pressurised the bellows
expand and produce mechanical movement. If the bellows is encapsulated
inside an outer container, then the movement is proportional to the
difference between the pressure on the inside and outside. Bellows and
single capsules are used in many instruments. They are very useful for
measuring small pressures.

Figure 11

3.4 DIAPHRAGMS

These are similar in principle to the capsule but the diaphragm is

usually very thin and perhaps made of rubber. The diaphragm
expands when very small pressures are applied. The movement
is transmitted to a pointer on a dial through a fine mechanical
linkage.

Figure 12

3.5 ELECTRICAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

There are various ways of converting the mechanical movement of the preceding types into an electric signal. Th
following are types that directly produce an electric signal.

• Strain Gauge types.

• Piezo electric types.
• Other electric effects.

 D.J.Dunn 9
3.5.1 STRAIN GAUGE TYPES

Figure 13

The principles of electric strain gauges are covered later. Strain gauges are small elements that are fixed to a
surface that is strained. The change in length of the element produces changes in the electrical resistance. This is
processed and converted into a voltage. A typical pressure transducer would contain a metal diaphragm which
bends under pressure.

3.5.2. PIEZO ELECTRIC TYPES

The element used here is a piece of crystalline material that produces an electric charge on its surface when it is
mechanically stressed. The electric charge may be converted into voltage. This principle is used in the pick up
crystal of a record player, in microphones and even to generate a spark in a gas ignitor. When placed inside a
pressure transducer, the pressure is converted into an electric signal.

3.5.3. OTHER ELECTRIC EFFECTS

Other electric effects commonly used in transducers are CAPACITIVE and INDUCTIVE. In these cases, the
pressure produces a change in the capacitance or inductance of an electronic component in the transducer. Both
these effects are commonly used in an electronic oscillator and one way they may be used is to change the
frequency of the oscillation. The frequency may be converted into a voltage representing the pressure.

4. SPEED TRANSDUCERS
Speed transducers are widely used for measuring the output speed of a rotating object. There are many types
using different principles and most of them produce an electrical output.

4.1 OPTICAL TYPES

Figure 14

These use a light beam and a light sensitive cell. The beam is either reflected or interrupted so that pulses are
produced for each revolution. The pulses are then counted over a fixed time and the speed obtained. Electronic
processing is required to time the pulses and turn the result into an analogue or digital signal.

 D.J.Dunn 10
4.2 MAGNETIC PICK UPS

Figure 15

These use an inductive coil placed near to the rotating body. A small magnet on the body generates a pulse every
time it passes the coil. If the body is made of ferrous material, it will work without a magnet. A discontinuity in the
surface such as a notch will cause a change in the magnetic field and generate a pulse. The pulses must be
processed to produce an analogue or digital output.

4.3 TACHOMETERS

There are two types, A.C. and D.C. The A.C. type generates a sinusoidal output. The frequency of the voltage
represents the speed of rotation. The frequency must be counted and processed. The D.C. type generates a
voltage directly proportional to the speed. Both types must be coupled to the rotating body. very often the
tachometer is built into electric motors to measure their speed.

Figure 16

 D.J.Dunn 11
5. FLOW METERS

There are many hundreds of types of flow meters depending on the make and application. They may be classified
roughly as follows.

• POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT TYPES

• INFERENTIAL TYPES
• VARIABLE AREA TYPES
• DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TYPES

5.1. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT TYPES

These types have a mechanical element that makes the shaft of the meter rotate once for an exact known quantity
of fluid. The quantity of fluid hence depends on the number of revolutions of the meter shaft and the flow rate
depends upon the speed of rotation. Both the revolutions and speed may be measured with mechanical or
electronic devices. Some of the most common listed below.

• Rotary piston type.

• Vane type.
• Lobe type or meshing rotor.
• Reciprocating piston type
• Fluted spiral gear.

5.1.1 MESHING ROTOR

Figure 17

The MESHING ROTOR type consists of two rotors with lobes. When fluid is forced in, the rotors turn and
operate the indicating system.

5.2. INFERENTIAL TYPE METERS

The flow of the fluid is inferred from some effect produced by the flow. Usually this is a rotor which is made to
spin and the speed of the rotor is sensed mechanically or electronically. The main types are :

• Turbine rotor types

• Rotary shunt types
• Rotating vane types
• Helical turbine types

 D.J.Dunn 12
5.2.1 TURBINE TYPE

Figure 18
The pictures show two industrial flow meters.

Figure 19

The turbine type shown has an axial rotor which is made to spin by the fluid and the speed represents the flow
rate. This may be sensed electrically by coupling the shaft to a small electric tachometer. Often this consists of a
magnetic slug on the rotor which generates a pulse of electricity each time it passes the sensor.

5.2.2 ROTATING VANE TYPE

Figure 20
The jet of fluid spins around the rotating vane and the speed of the rotor is measured mechanically or
electronically.

 D.J.Dunn 13
5.3.3. VARIABLE AREA TYPES

There are two main types of this meter

• Float type (Rotameter)

• Tapered plug type.

5.3.3.1 FLOAT TYPE

Figure 21

The float is inside a tapered tube. The fluid flows through the annular gap around the edge of the float. The
restriction causes a pressure drop over the float and the pressure forces the float upwards. Because the tube is
tapered, the restriction is decreased as the float moves up. Eventually a level is reached where the restriction is
just right to produce a pressure force that counteracts the weight of the float. The level of the float indicates the
flow rate. If the flow changes the float moves up or down to find a new balance position.

When dangerous fluids are used, protection is needed against the tube fracturing. The tube may be made of a
non-magnetic metal. The float has a magnet on it. As it moves up and down, the magnet moves a follower and
pointer on the outside. The position of the float may be measured electrically by building a movement transducer
into the float.

5.3.3.2 TAPERED PLUG TYPE.

Figure 22

In this meter, a tapered plug is aligned inside a hole or orifice. A spring holds it in place. The flow is restricted as
it passes through the gap and a force is produced which moves the plug. Because it is tapered the restriction
changes and the plug takes up a position where the pressure force just balances the spring force. The movement
of the plug is transmitted with a magnet to an indicator on the outside.

 D.J.Dunn 14
5.4 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METERS

These are a range of meters that convert flow rate into a differential pressure. The important types conform to BS
1042 and are

• ORIFICE METERS.
• VENTURI METERS
• NOZZLE METERS
• PITOT TUBES.

The diagram shows a cross section through the four types of d.p. meters.

Figure 23
The working principle for all these is that something makes the
velocity of the fluid change and this produces a change in the
pressure so that a difference ∆p = p2 - p1 is created. It can be
shown for all these meters that the volume flow rate Q is
related to ∆p by the following formula.

Q = K(∆p)0.5

K is the meter constant. A full explanation of these meters is

covered in the tutorials on fluid mechanics. The picture shows
an industrial d.p.meter. Extra instrumentation heads can be
fitted to produce an electrical output (4 – 20 mA) or a
pneumatic output (0.2 – 1 bar).
Figure 24

 D.J.Dunn 15
 WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

A Venturi meter has a meter constant of 0.008 m4 N-0.5 s-1. Calculate the flow rate when ∆p = 180 Pa

SOLUTION

Q = K(∆p)0.5 = 0.008 m4 N-0.5 s-1(180)0.5 = 0.1073 (m4 N-0.5 s-1)(N 0.5 m-1) or m3/s

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

An Orifice meter has a meter constant of 0.004 m4 N-0.5 s-1. Calculate the flow rate when a differential
pressure of 200 Pa is obtained.

(Answer 0.0566 m3/s)

 D.J.Dunn 16
6. FORCE SENSORS

The main types of force sensors are

• Mechanical types.
• Hydraulic types.
• Electrical strain gauge types.

6.1. MECHANICAL TYPES

Mechanical types are usually complete measuring systems involving some form of spring such as in a simple
spring balance or bathroom scale. It is a basic mechanical principle that the deflection of a spring is directly
proportional to the applied force so if the movement is shown on a scale, the scale represents force.

Figure 25
6.2. HYDRAULIC TYPES

Hydraulic types are often referred to as hydraulic load cells. The cell is a capsule filled with liquid. When the
capsule is squeezed, the liquid becomes pressurised. The pressure represents the force and may be indicated with
a calibrated pressure gauge. The capsule is often a short cylinder with a piston and the pressure produced is
given by p = F/A where F is the force and A the piston area.

Figure 26

 D.J.Dunn 17
6.3 STRAIN GAUGE TYPE

A typical load cell consists of a metal cylinder with strain gauges fixed to it. When the cylinder is stretched or
compressed, the strain gauges convert the force into a change in resistance and hence voltage. Since the elements
require a supply voltage, the cell usually has 4 wires, two for the supply and two for the output.

Figure 27

7. POSITION SENSORS

Position sensors are essential elements in the control of actuators. The position of both linear and rotary actuators
is needed in robotic type mechanisms. There are three principle types.

• RESISTIVE
• OPTICAL
• INDUCTIVE

7.1. RESISTIVE TYPES

Figure 28

A potentiometer is a variable electrical resistance. A length of resistance material has a voltage applied over its
ends. A slider moves along it (either linear or rotary) and picks off the voltage at its position or angle. The tracks
may be made from carbon , resistance wire or piezo resistive material. The latter is the best because it gives a
good analogue output. The wire wound type produces small step changes in the output depending on how fine
the wire is and how closely it is coiled on the track.

 D.J.Dunn 18
7.2 OPTICAL TYPES

Figure 29

Optical types are mainly used for producing digital outputs. A common example is found on machine tools where
they measure the position of the work table and display it in digits on the gauge head. Digital micrometers and
verniers also use this idea. The basic principle is as follows. Light is emitted through a transparent strip or disc
onto a photo electric cell. Often reflected light is used as shown. The strip or disc has very fine lines engraved on
it which interrupt the beam. The number of interruptions are counted electronically and this represents the position
or angle. This is very much over simplified and you should refer to more advanced text to find out how very
accurate measurements are obtained and also the direction of movement.

7.3. INDUCTIVE TYPES

Figure 30

The most common of these is the Linear Variable Differential transformer or LVDT. The transformer is made
with one primary coil and two secondary coils, one placed above and the other below the primary. The coils are
formed into a long narrow hollow tube. A magnetic core slides in the tube and is attached to the mechanism being
monitored with a non magnetic stem (e.g. brass). A constant alternating voltage is applied to the primary coil. This
induces a voltage in both secondary coils. When the core is exactly in the middle, equal voltages are induced and
when connected as shown, they cancel each other out. When the core moves, the voltage in one secondary coil
grows but reduces in the other. The result is an output voltage which represents the position of the core and
hence the mechanism to which it is attached. The output voltage is usually converted into D.C. With suitable
electronic equipment for phase detection, it is possible to detect which direction the core moves and to switch the
DC voltage from plus to minus as the core passes the centre position. These can be very accurate and are widely
used for gauging the dimensions of machined components.

 D.J.Dunn 19
8. DEPTH GAUGES

Depth gauges measure the depth of liquids and powder in tanks. They use a variety of principles and produce
outputs in electrical and pneumatic forms. The type to use depends on the substance in the tank. Here are a few.

Figure 31

The ultrasonic system reflects sound waves from the surface and determines the depth from the time taken to
receive the reflected sound. The electronic version uses a variety of electrical affects including conduction of the
fluid and capacitance. The pneumatic version bubbles air through the liquid and the pressure of the air is related to
the depth. A simple pressure gauge attached to a tank is also indicates the depth since depth is proportional to
pressure.

 D.J.Dunn 20
9. STRAIN GAUGES

Strain gauges are used in many instruments that produce mechanical strain because of the affect being measured.
In their own right, they are used to measure the strain in a structure being stretched or compressed.

The strain gauge element is a very thin wire that is formed into the shape shown. This produces a long wire all in
one direction but on a small surface area. The element is often formed by etching a thin foil on a plastic backing.
The completed element is then glued to the surface of the material or component that will be strained. The axis of
the strain gauge is aligned with the direction of the strain. When the component is stretched or compressed, the
length of the resistance wire is changed. This produces a corresponding change in the electrical resistance.

Let the length of the gauge be L and the change in length be ∆L.
The mechanical strain ε = ∆L/L
Let the resistance of the gauge be R (typically 120 Ω) and the change in resistance be ∆R.
The electrical strain ξ= ∆R/R.
The electrical and mechanical strain are directly proportional and the constant relating them is called the gauge
factor (typically 2).

Gauge Factor = Electrical Strain/Mechanical strain = ξ/ε = L ∆R/R ∆L

WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

A strain gauge is glued to a structure. It has a gauge factor of 2.1 and a resistance of 120.2 Ω. The structure
is stressed and the resistance changes to 120.25 Ω. Calculate the strain and convert this into stress.
Take E = 205 GPa

SOLUTION

∆R = 120.25 – 120.2 = 0.05Ω ξ = ∆R/R1 = 0.05/120.2 = 4.16 x 10-4

ε = ξ/G = 4.16 x 10-4/2.1 = 1.981 x 10-4 σ = εE = 1.981 x 10-4 x 205 x 109 = 40.61 MPa

 D.J.Dunn 21
STRAIN GAUGE ARRANGEMENTS

A strain gauge is of little use unless we can convert the change in resistance into a voltage. This is best done with
a Wheatstone bridge.

If only one active gauge is used, this would be R1 or R2. R1

and R2 must be equal, so must R3 and R4. In this case, the
voltage at points 1 and 2 are equal to Vs/2 and so the output Vo
is zero. In order to ensure this, the balancing resistor RB is
adjusted to make the output zero with no strain applied to the
gauge. Suppose that R1 is the active gauge. If the bridge is
balanced then the voltage at points 1 and 2 is half the supply
voltage. V1 = V2 = Vs/2

Figure 32

When R1 changes its resistance by ∆R the voltage at point 1 becomes:

VsR/(2R + ∆R) (using ratio of resistances)

The output becomes Vo= V2 - V1 = Vs/2 - VsR /(2R + ∆R)
Vo= Vs ∆R/{(4R + 2∆R)}

Dividing top and bottom by R we get Vo= Vs (∆R/R)/{4 + 2∆R/R}

The gauge factor is defined as G = electrical strain/mechanical strain
G = (∆R/R)/ε so (∆R/R) = Gε

Substituting we get Vo= Vs Gε/{4 + 2Gε}

WORKED EXAMPLE No.5

Four strain gauges are formed into bridge with only one active gauge. The nominal resistance of all of them is
120 Ω. The gauge factor is 2.1 and the supply voltage is 10 V. Calculate the strain when the output from the
bridge is 20 mV.

SOLUTION

Vo= Vs Gε/{4 + 2Gε} ε = 4Vo ÷ G(Vs - 2Vo) = (4 x 0.02) ÷ {2.1(10 - 0.04)} = 3.825 x 10-3

 D.J.Dunn 22
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

One of the problems with strain gauges is that the resistance also changes with temperature and so it is vital that
each pair of resistors is maintained at the same temperature.

If one active gauge is used, say R1, then the other resistor R2
must be placed near to it and this is best done by using a
DUMMY GAUGE fixed close to the active gauge but in a
position where it is unstrained. Better still, make R2 another
active gauge and so double the output from the bridge. For
example, if a beam is used to produce the strain, one gauge is
placed on top and the other on the bottom as shown. Let R1
increase and R2 decrease by ∆R. The voltage at point 1
becomes
Figure 33
Vs(R - ∆R)/2R (using ratio of resistances)
The output becomes Vo= V2 - V1 = Vs/2 - Vs(R - ∆R)/2R
Vo= Vs ∆R/{2(2R + ∆R)}
Dividing top and bottom by R we get Vo= Vs ∆R/2R
Vo= Vs Gε/2 which is almost double the output.

If the load cell only produces tension or compression, the active gauges are R1 and R4 with R2 and R3 being
dummy gauges. All 4 gauges are then at the same temperature. This is shown in the diagram.

Figure 34
The voltage at point 1 becomes VsR /(2R + ∆R)
and at point 2 becomes Vs(R + ∆R)/(2R + ∆R)
The output becomes Vo= V2 - V1 = Vs ∆R/(2R + ∆R)
Dividing top and bottom by R we get Vo= Vs (∆R/R)/{2 + ∆R/R}
Vo= Vs Gε/(2+Gε)
This is double the output of a single active gauge and fully temperature stable.

If a beam is used in the load cell, all 4 gauges may be made

active as shown.
The output at point 1 becomes
V1 =Vs(R-∆R) /2R
and at point 2 becomes
V2= Vs(R + ∆R)/2R

Figure 35
The output becomes Vo= V2 - V1 = Vs∆R/R Vo= Vs Gε
This is 4 times the output of a single active gauge and fully temperature stable.
 D.J.Dunn 23
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

1. A strain gauge is glued to a structure. It has a gauge factor of 2.1 and a resistance of 120.2 Ω. The structure
is stressed and the resistance changes to 120.25 Ω. Calculate the strain and convert this into stress.

Take E = 205 GPa

(Answer 40.6 MPa)

2. A strain gauge has a resistance of 120.6 Ohms at 20oC. Calculate its resistance at 30oC.
α = 8 x 10-6 Ω/Ω oC.

(Answer 120.61 Ω)

3. Describe how to eliminate temperature error in a strain gauge bridge when it has

a. one active gauge.

b. two active gauges.

4. A STRAIN GAUGE has a gauge factor of 2.2. It is glued to tensile test piece and the resistance before
straining is 119.8 Ω . The test piece is stretched and the resistance goes up to 120 Ω. Calculate the
following. The modulus of elasticity E for the test piece is 200 GPa.

i. The strain in the test piece. (7.588 x 10-4)

ii. The stress in the test piece. (15.18 MPa)

 D.J.Dunn 24
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.4

1. State what each of the sensors below measures (flow, temperature and so on)

a. Thermocouple.
b. Potentiometer.
c. Thermistor.
d. Optical fringes.
e. Venturi meter.
f. Pitot tube.
g. Bimetallic type.
h. Platinum resistance probe.
i. D.C. type generator.
j. L.V.D.T.
k. Bourdon tube.
l. Orifice meter.
m. Piezo electric.

2. State two types of sensors that could be used to measure each of the following.

a. Speed of revolution.
b. Flow rate of liquids.
c. Pressure.
d. Temperature.

 D.J.Dunn 25
 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

TUTORIAL 3 – SIGNAL PROCESSORS AND RECEIVERS

This tutorial provides an overview of signal processing and conditioning for use in
instrumentation and automatic control systems. It is provided mainly in support of the EC
module D227 – Control System Engineering. This tutorial is mainly descriptive.

On completion of this tutorial, you should be able to do the following.

• Explain a basic measurement system.

• Describe the various types of signals and their conversion.

• Explain the principles of a selection of signal processors and conditioners.

• Explain in some details the principles Analogue/Digital processing.

• Explain the principles of a range of signal receivers.

In order to complete the theoretical part of this tutorial, you must be familiar with basic
mechanical and electrical science.

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1. INTRODUCTION

A basic instrument system consists of a sensor (tutorial 2), a processor and a receiver. This tutorial is about the
processor and the receiver. The technology used in signal processing is also important for automatic control
systems.

Figure 1

2. SIGNAL PROCESSING AND CONDITIONING

You should now be familiar with transducers and sensors. These were PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS. We must
now examine how to process the output of the transducers into the form required by the rest of the instrument
system. These may also be transducers but in this case, SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS. Most modern
equipment works on the following standard signal ranges.

• Electric 4 to 20 mA
• Pneumatic 0.2 to 1.0 bar
• Digital standards
Older electrical equipment use 0 to 10 V.

The advantage of having a standard range is that all equipment is sold ready calibrated. This means that the
minimum signal (Temperature, speed, force, pressure and so on) is represented by 4 mA or 0.2 bar and the
maximum signal is represented by 20 mA or 1.0 bar. The primary transducer will not produce these standard
ranges so the purpose of processing and conditioning is usually to convert the output into the standard range.

The vast array of instrumentation and control equipment available uses many forms of signals. Here is a summary.

ELECTRICAL - Voltage, current, digital.

MECHANICAL - Force and movement.
PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC – Pressure and flow.
OPTICAL – High speed digital signal transmission.
RADIO – Analogue and digital transmission.
ULTRA VIOLET – Similar application to radio over short ranges.

Processing may do the following things.

• Change the level or value of the signal (e.g. voltage level)

• Change the signal from one form to another. (e.g. current to pneumatic)
• Change the operating characteristic with respect to time.
• Convert analogue and digital signals from one to the other.

First let's examine those processors which change the level or value of the signal.

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2.1 AMPLIFIERS
Amplifiers may amplify VOLTAGE, CURRENT or BOTH in which case it is a POWER
AMPLIFIER.

Amplifier gain may be expressed as a ratio or in decibels. The letter W indicates it refers
Power Output
to power gain. The gain in dbW is given by Gain(dbW) = 10log 10
Power Input
Figure 2

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

Calculate the power gain of an amplifier which has an input of 5 mW and an output of 6 Watts.

SOLUTION

Gain = G = 10 log 6/0.005 = 10 log 1200 = 30.79 dbW

In practice, an amplifier generates some noise and the input

and output terminals have a resistance that governs the ratio
of current to voltage. A model is shown in which a noise
generator is indicated and input and output resistors.

Figure 3
Since electric power into a resistive load is given as
V2 V 2out Vout
P = I 2R = then Gain(dbV) = 10log 10 2 = 20log 10
R V in Vin
The letter V indicates it is a voltage gain.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

Calculate the gain of a VOLTAGE amplifier with an input of 2 mV and output 10 V.

SOLUTION
G = 20 Log10 10/0.002 = 73.98 dbV

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

These have two inputs and the difference between them is amplified. The electronic symbol is shown.

Vout
Voltage Gain = 20log 10
(V2 − V1 )

Figure 4

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

Find the output voltage if the gain 15 db.

SOLUTION

Input = 5 - 2 = 3 V G = 15 = 20log10(Vout/3)
15/20 = 0.75 = log10(Vout/3) Antilog 0.75 = 5.623 = (Vout/3) Vout = 16.87 V

2.2 ATTENUATORS

Sometimes a signal is too big and must be reduced by attenuating it. Electrical signals are attenuated with resistors
which dissipate the electric power as heat. Step down transformers and gear boxes for example, are not strictly
attenuators because they reduce the level, not the power. The gain of an attenuator in db is negative as the next
example shows.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

Calculate voltage the gain of an attenuator with an input voltage of 12 V and output voltage of 2 V.

SOLUTION

G = 20 log10 (2/12) = -15.56 dbV

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. Calculate the power out put of an amplifier that has an input of 20 mW and a gain of 20 dB.
(Answer 2 W)

2. Calculate the voltage output of the differential amplifier shown if the gain is 12 dbV

(Answer -27.87 V)
3. Calculate the power gain of an attenuator that has an input of 2.5 Watts and an output of 0.5 Watt.
(Answer -6.99 dbW)

The term amplification is often used when the level of a signal is increased but not the power. Strictly speaking,
such devices should be called TRANSFORMERS. For example an A.C. electric transformer may increase the
voltage but not the power. We have voltage amplifiers and current amplifiers which do not necessarily change the
power level.
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2.3 TRANSFORMERS

ELECTRICAL
Many devices only change the level of a signal without changing the power. A voltage amplifier is one example.
An electrical transformer for alternating voltages basically consists of two windings, a primary and a secondary.
The coils are wound on a magnetic core.

The primary coil has the input a.c. voltage applied and a.c. current flows
according to the reactance. The flux produced is concentrated in the core
and passes around the core. It follows that the same flux cuts the turns on
the secondary coil and so an e.m.f will be generated in the secondary coil.
The flux depends upon the number of turns T1 and the same flux cuts the
secondary. The e.m.f in the secondary will depend on the number of turns
T2. It follows that V1/V2 = T1/T2

In an ideal transformer there is no energy loss and so the power in and

power out are equal. V1 i1 = V2 i2. It follows that if the voltage is stepped
down, the current is stepped up and vice versa.

Figure 5

WORKED EXAMPLE No.5

A transformer has 1200 turns on the primary coil and 200 on the secondary. If the input is 110 V a.c. what
is the ideal output?

SOLUTION

V1/V2 = T1/T2 110/V2 = 1200/200 = 6 V2 = 110/6 = 18.33 V a.c.

MECHANICAL

Mechanical transformers are levers and gear boxes which change movement, force, speed and torque but not the
power. The are used in many instruments (e.g. a mechanical pressure gauge and the nozzle flapper system
described later).

Figure 6
The gear ratio is in direct proportion to the pitch circle diameters (mean diameters) or number of teeth on each
wheel.

The lever movements at the ends are in direct proportion to the length each side of the fulcrum.

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HYDRAULIC

Figure 7

The hydraulic pressure amplifier shown increases the pressure in direct proportion to the areas of the pistons. It is
also called an intensifier.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.6

The large piston is 40 mm diameter and the smaller piston is 10 mm diameter. Calculate the pressure ratio.

SOLUTION

The force on the input piston = Force on the output piston.

F = A1 p1 = A2 p2
p2/p1 = A1/A2 = (πD12/4) ÷ (πD22/4) = D12/ D22 = 402/102 = 16

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

1. An electrical transformer must produce 12 V a.c. output from 240 V a.c. input. The primary has 2000 turns.
How many turns are needed on the secondary? (Answer 100)

2. A pressure intensifier must increase the pressure from 10 bar to 100 bar. What must be the ratio of the
piston diameters? (Answer 3.162/1)

3. A lever must magnify the movement of a mechanism from 0.1 mm to 2 mm. What must be the ratio of the
lengths either side of the fulcrum? (Answer 20/1)

4. A pair of simple gears must magnify the rotation angle by 4/1. If there are 20 teeth on the small gear, how
many must there be on the large gear? (Answer 80 teeth)

Now let's examine processors which change the form of the signal.

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2.4 SIGNAL CONVERTERS

Signal converters change the signal from one form to another. Where ever possible, these are the standard inputs
and output ranges.

Normally we show them on a block diagram as a box

with an input and output with a label to say what it does.
Here are some examples.

All these examples have opposite versions i.e. I/P, P/M

and so on.

Most signal converters have two adjustments – zero and

range and this is explained in the next tutorial.

Figure 8

NOZZLE – FLAPPER and DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE CELLS

The nozzle – flapper system is widely used in D.P. cells. The form shown below converts differential pressure
(e.g. from a differential pressure flow meter) into a standard pneumatic signal. This is widely used in the control of
air operated pipeline valves.

Figure 9

The bellows respond to the differential pressure and moves the lever. This moves the flapper towards or away
from the nozzle. The air supply passes through a restrictor and leaks out of the nozzle. The output pressure hence
depends on how close the flapper is to the end of the nozzle. The range of the instrument is adjusted by moving
the pivot and the zero position is adjusted by moving the relative position of the flapper and nozzle.

This system is used in a variety of forms. Instead of bellows, a bourdon tube might be used and this is operated
by an expansion type temperature sensor to produce a temperature - pneumatic signal converter.
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ELECTRICAL D.P. CELLS

These provide the same functions as the pneumatic versions but given an output of 4 – 20 mA using electrical
pressure transducers. They are typically used with D.P. flow meters.

Figure 10
CURRENT/PRESSURE CONVERSION

The pictures below show typical units for converting 4 – 20 mA into 0.2 – 1 bar and vice versa. They contain
adjustments for range and zero. They are widely used for converting the standard pneumatic and electric signals
back and forth. They can also be adjusted to work with non standard inputs to convert them into a standard
form.

Current to Pressure Converter (I/P) Pressure to Current Converter (P/I)

Figure 11

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ANALOGUE – DIGITAL CONVERSION

So many modern systems now use digital signals that it is important to appreciate how analogue signals are
processed into digital form and vice versa. Analogue to digital conversion is a process of turning an analogue
voltage or current into a digital pattern which can be read by a computer and processed.

Digital to analogue conversion is a process of turning a digital pattern from a computer into an analogue voltage or
current.

REVISION OF BINARY NUMBERS

A number may be represented in digital form by simply setting a pattern of voltages on a line high or low. It is
normal to use 4,8, 16 or 32 lines. An 8 bit binary pattern is shown below.

Figure 12

The total pattern is called a word and the one shown is an 8 bit word. The pattern may be stored in an 8 bit
register. A register is a temporary store where the word may be manipulated.

Bit zero is called the least significant bit (LSB) and the bit with highest value is called the most significant bit
(MSB).

Each bit has a value of zero when off (low) or the value shown when on (high). The maximum value for an 8 bit
word is hence 255.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

Write down the value of the digital number shown below.

(Answer 202)

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PRINCIPLES OF A/D CONVERSION

DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERTERS

These are devices for converting a binary number into an analogue voltage. The change in the binary value from
zero to a maximum corresponds with a change in the analogue value from 0 to a maximum.

RESOLUTION

When a digital number is converted into a voltage, each increment of the binary value corresponds with an
increment in the voltage output. The value of this increment is the resolution.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.7

Determine the resolution of an 8 bit register converted into a voltage in the range 0 to 10 V. What is the
digital value that represents a value of 4 Volts?

SOLUTION

Analogue Range = 0 - 10 V Digital range = 0 – 255 Resolution = 10/255 = 0.039216

4 volts would give a digital value of 4 ÷ 0.039216 = 102

ADDER TYPE CONVERTER

One way to convert a digital pattern into an analogue voltage is with the adder type shown below. The diagram
shows a 5 bit pattern.

Figure 13

The output voltage is controlled by the state of the I/O switches (these might be a register).The output of the
summing amplifier is
Vo = (Vref/2)[1/16 + 1/8 + 1/4 + 1/2 + 1]

1/16 is the least significant bit and 1 is the most significant bit.

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The maximum number represented by the digital number is 31 for the 5 bit system shown. An increase of one
produces a voltage increment of 1/32V. The maximum voltage output is 31V/32.

One problem with this system is that the theoretical resistance values can become ridiculously large.

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 8

If s1 and s4 are on and the others off and Vref = 10, what is the voltage output?

SOLUTION

Vo = (V/2)[1/16 + 1/8 + 1/4 + 1/2 + 1]

Vo = (10/2)[1/16 + 0 + 0 + 1/2 + 0]
Vo = 5[9/16] = 2.8125 V

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.4

What is the incremental voltage for an 8 bit register with a reference of 10V? (Answer 1/128 V)

What is the voltage output when the digital value is 202? (Answer 3.242 V)

LADDER TYPE

Another way to convert a digital signal into an analogue signal is with the ladder type illustrated below.

Figure 14
The output voltage is given by
Vo = (Vref/2)[1/16 + 1/8 + 1/4 + 1/2 +1 ]

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ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

One way to convert analogue into digital is to utilise a counter as shown below.

COUNTER TYPE

Figure 15

The output of the counter is a digital pattern and this is converted back into an analogue signal by the D/A
converter and compared with the input. The input is compared with the feed back signal and so long as it is
smaller, the counter will go on running. When the two become equal, the counter stops and the digital value of the
counter is the digital value of the analogue signal.

Another type uses an integrator as shown

INTEGRATING TYPE

Figure 16

This time no feedback is used. The reference voltage is integrated so the output of the integrator is a ramp which
grows with time. The time taken for the ramp to reach the same value as the input is converted into a digital form
by a counter.

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2.5 SIGNAL CONDITIONERS.

Now let's look at processors which change the characteristic of the signal. These are often referred to as
SIGNAL CONDITIONERS. One example is the square root extractor. For example DP flow meters produce
an output which is directly proportional to the square of the flow. A processor might be used along with the DP
cell to extract the square root so that the resulting signal is directly proportional to flow.

Figure 17

Other conditioners bring in the time element. For example the flow meter produces a signal representing the flow
rate. If the signal is integrated with time, the output is quantity. Such a unit is called an INTEGRATOR and there
are mechanical, pneumatic and electric methods.

Some meters produce a quantity. For example a movement transducer produces distance. If the signal is
differentiated with respect to time, we get the rate or velocity. Such units are called DIFFERENTIATORS.

Figure 18
FILTERS

Another form of signal conditioning is the SIGNAL FILTER. This is used with electric signals to remove
unwanted parts of the signal. For example a signal may contain AC and DC signals. A simple capacitor would
filter out the DC signal. The signal may contain AC signals of different frequencies. A more sophisticated filter
would remove unwanted frequencies.

MULTIPLEX SYSTEMS.

A modern industrial information transmission system requires that many channels be sent from one place to
another using either a single frequency of transmission or a single pair of wires such as a telephone line. A system
that does this is called multiplexing.

Modems are units that receive and transmit the information to each other. They require a marker signal to let each
other know when to receive or transmit. The modem acknowledges a request to receive and this is called
handshaking. When acknowledgement is received by the transmitting modem, it sends the data to the receiving
modem.

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The channels are sampled very rapidly one after another for a fixed period of time. This is called Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM). Each sample is tacked in a queue (a buffer) and sent one after another. The process is
continually repeated. The receiving end reverses the operation. The incoming data is placed in a buffer, extracted
in sequence and diverted to the correct output.

Figure 19

If the information is digital, it sends the information for each channel as a package of digits one channel at a time.

BUFFERS and STORES

Very often a signal value needs to be stored. This is usually done by converting them into a digital number and
storing them in a memory chip. If a system is receiving or sending serial data but the incoming data is arriving
quicker than it can be processed, then the incoming signals are put into a temporary store called a buffer where
they wait to be processed.

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3. SIGNAL RECEIVERS

The input of an instrument system is sensed with a primary transducer and then processed or conditioned before
being sent on to the last item in the chain which is the signal receiver. The signal receiver may be

• an indicator
• a chart recorder
• a plotter
• a printer
• an alarm
• a computer

Each of these is a complete system in its own right and may itself contain further conditioning. They are usually
designed to operate from standard signals. In control systems, the signal receiver might be an actuator. This is
covered in later tutorials on control.

INDICATORS

Indicators may be analogue or digital. Analogue indicators have a scale and a pointer moves along the scale to
indicate the value. Digital indicators may be a display of numerals which change in fixed steps. Sometimes a digital
indicator is made to simulate an analogue scale (e.g. a digital watch with hands). The pointer however moves in
fixed steps. Digital indicators have a minimum resolution and usually this is smaller than the resolution a human eye
can make on an analogue scale so digital indicators are often more accurate to read.
It is easier to make a mistake reading an analogue
scale than a digital indicator. However when the
value indicated is changing rapidly, an analogue
indication is best because you can see the way the
pointer is moving. It would be difficult to read a
rapidly changing set of numerals. For example,
speedometer and altimeters are best displayed on
an analogue scale.
Figure 20

CHART RECORDERS

Chart recorders keep a record of the measurements over a period of time. There are electrical and pneumatic
versions. The recorder may use paper strips or polar charts. The paper moves one way and the marker pen
moves at right angles to this. Often they use more than one pen to record several channels. The recorder is often
part of a controlled system and contains other equipment to do with the control.

Paper recorders are being replaced by computer

systems which store the information on a magnetic
medium and displays either the indicated reading or the
chart record or both on a visual display unit (computer
screen or VDU).

Figure 21

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PLOTTERS AND PRINTERS

Plotters draw graphs or charts. The pen recorders described above are types of plotters specifically for recording
a signal over a long time period. The term plotter usually refers to a system where the paper is stationary and the
pen is able to move in the x and y directions. Often the x direction is time and so the plotter become a recorder.
Plotters are more often used to plot one signal against another. They are very commonly used for producing
engineering drawings created on a computer.

Printers refer to a system where the paper is marked by a printing head. There are many types such as dot
matrix, ink jets, laser and other electrostatic devices. Printers will print text or they may be used to print pictures
and drawings reproducing on paper what can be seen on a VDU.

ALARMS

The purpose of an instrument may be to set off an alarm such as a bell, siren, flashing light and so on. They are
switched on by the signal processor. An example is a smoke detector.

COMPUTERS

Computer technology is taking over many rolls performed by traditional equipment. The signal is processed into
digital form, in other words into numbers. The computer processes the numbers and stores the data, sends it on
to a VDU or to other control equipment.

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