LESSON 00 - INTRODUCTION - MATERIALS SCIENCE & of this reflected light is transmitted through the disk).

And, the
ENGINEERING disk on the right is opaque—i.e., none of the light passes through
it. These differences in optical properties are a consequence of
LEARNING OBJECTIVES differences in structure of these materials, which have resulted
• Discuss what Materials Engineering is.
• Identify the scope of the field of Materials Engineering.
• Enumerate classifications of materials.
• Give some properties, characteristics, and applications
of materials.

ROLE OF PACKAGING
• To deliver products safely to consumers.
• It extends products' shelf-life,
• Minimizes breakage and spoilage,
• Reduces transportation and handling costs, from the way the materials were processed.
• Offers product information
• Provides convenience to the consumer. Stone Age / Bronze Age / Iron Age

START OF MATERIAL SCIENCE

PROS AND CONS OF USING METALS CONTAINERS
Pros: Stone Age – People began to make tools from stone and other
• Aluminum alloy is relatively strong (but easily dented), natural materials, about two million years ago.
• is a very good barrier to the diffusion of carbon dioxide,
Natural Materials: Stone, wood, clay, skins ant etc.
• easily recycled,
• beverages are cooled rapidly, and Bronze Age started 5000 years ago; Bronze was introduced in the
• labels may be painted onto its surface. Far East. Bronze is an alloy (a metal made up of more than one
Cons: element of Copper and Tin). Bronze can be forged or cast into a
• On the other hand, cans are optically opaque, and variety of shapes, can be made harder by alloying, corrode only
• relatively expensive to produce. slowly after a surface oxide film forms.

PROS AND CONS OF USING GLASS CONTAINERS Copper is mined and alloyed with Tin to produce bronze
Pros:
Bronze is harder that can copper with properties such
• Glass is impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide,
as stiffness, ductile or machinability.
• is a relatively inexpensive material, may be recycled,
Cons: Alloy is a substance composed of two or more metals,
• but it cracks and fractures easily, or of a metal or metals with a nonmetal, intimately
• are relatively heavy. mixed, as by fusion or electrodeposition. a less costly
metal mixed with a more valuable one. Alloys are used
in a wide variety of applications. In some cases, a
PROS AND CONS OF USING PLASTIC CONTAINERS
combination of metals may reduce the overall cost of
Pros:
the material while preserving important properties
• plastic is relatively strong,
• may be made optically transparent, Iron Age began about 3000 years ago and continues today. Use of
• is inexpensive, iron and steel: a stronger and cheaper material; changed
• lightweight, and drastically the daily life of a common person
• recyclable
Cons: THROUGHOUT THE IRON AGE
• It is not as impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide
The next big step was the discovery of a cheap process to make
as the aluminum and glass.
steel around 1850, which enabled the railroads and the building
• Impervious not allowing fluid to pass through.
of the modern infrastructure of the industrial world.

Aluminum Oxide Steels are alloys of iron and other elements, primarily carbon,
Photograph of three thin disk specimens of aluminum oxide, widely used in construction and other applications because of
which have been placed over a printed page in order to their high tensile strengths and low costs.
demonstrate their differences in light-transmittance
characteristics. The disk on the left is transparent (that is, virtually Iron is 4th most abundant element in the Earth’s crust/ 6th in the
all light that is reflected from the page passes through it), universe. Carbon is 15th most abundant element in the universe
whereas the one in the center is translucent (meaning that some New types of materials have been introduced;
Ceramic / Polymers / Composites / Semiconductors • Usually relates to the arrangement of its internal
components.
• Understanding of the relationship among structure, • Levels of Structure
properties, processing, and performance of materials o Subatomic Level
have been considered. o Atomic Level
• Intelligent design of new materials o Microscopic Level
• With time they discovered techniques for producing o Macroscopic Level
materials with properties superior to those natural
ones. SUBATOMIC LEVEL
• It was discovered that the properties of materials could Refers to the electronic structure of individual atoms
be altered. that defines interaction among atoms (inter-atomic
• Different materials have evolved with rather specialized bonding).
characteristics that meet the needs of modern society.
• A better understanding of structure-composition ATOMIC LEVEL
properties relations has led to a remarkable progress in The structure that encompasses the organization of
properties of materials. atoms or molecules relative to one another.

WHY SHOULD WE KNOW ABOUT MATERIALS? MICROSCOPIC LEVEL

A larger structural realm, which contains large group of
• Well, as an engineer, whether you are an electronics atoms that are normally agglomerated together.
engineer, electrical engineer, mechanical engineer or
whatever engineer, at some stage in your career you MACRPOSCOPIC LEVEL
will have to select materials for a specific application. A structural element that may be viewed by the naked
eye.
• This selection will be based upon a material’s properties
of structure, performance, processing, cost, etc. PROPERTIES
• The way material responds to the environment and
external forces.
WHAT IS MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING?
• Categories: Mechanical, Electrical, Thermal, Magnetic,
Optical, Deteriorative
MATERIALS SCIENCE - is a discipline of investigating the
relationships that exist between structure and properties of
o Mechanical Properties is the response to
materials.
mechanical forces. It has strength, hardness,
MATERIALS ENGINEERING - Focus is on how to translate or ductility, impact resistance and fracture
transform materials into a useful device or structure toughness.
o Electrical and Magnetic Properties is the
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF MSE response to electrical and magnetic fields,
• PROCESSING conductivity, etc.
• STRUCTURE o Thermal properties: can be represented in
• PROPERTIES terms of heat capacity and thermal
• PERFORMANCE conductivity. Other important properties are
thermal (transmission of heat, heat capacity),
PROCESSING optical (absorption, transmission and
• Processing means how materials are shaped into useful scattering of light), and the chemical stability
components to cause changes in the properties of in contact with the environment (like
materials. corrosion resistance).
• It refers to the application of heat (heat treatment), o Magnetic properties: demonstrate the
mechanical forces, etc. to affect the microstructure and response of a material to the application of a
therefore their properties. magnetic field.
• Synthesis - refers to how materials are made from o Optical properties: the stimulus is
naturally occurring or man-made chemicals. electromagnetic or light radiation
o Deteriorative characteristics: relate to the
chemical reactivity of materials

STRUCTURE
PERFORMANCE
 • The action or process of carrying out or accomplishing WHY DID TITANIC SINK IN 1912?
an action, task or function.
Composition of the Steel: The steel used in the Titanic’s
hull contained a relatively high amount of sulfur and
WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY MATERIALS ENGINEERING?
phosphorus, impurities that can increase the brittleness
of steel, especially at low temperatures.
• To be able to select a material for a given use based on
considerations of cost and performance. Impact of Cold Water: The North Atlantic waters where
• To understand the limits of materials and change of the Titanic sank were near freezing. The low
their properties with use. temperature would have exacerbated the steel’s
• To be able to create a new material that will have some brittleness, making it more likely to fracture upon
desirable properties impact with the iceberg.

CRITERIA OF SELECTING THE RIGHT MATERIAL Brittle Fracture: When the Titanic struck the iceberg,
• In-service conditions the hull’s steel plates fractured rather than deforming.
• Deterioration of material properties Modern analysis suggests that the steel’s brittle nature
• Economics (product’s cost) led to cracks that spread quickly across the hull,
allowing water to flood the compartments.
MAJOR CLASSES OF MATERIALS
Weak Rivets
• Metals
• Ceramics TITAN SUBMARINE
• Polymers
• Composites The Titan submersible, operated by OceanGate
• Semiconductors Expeditions, tragically imploded during a deep-sea dive
• New Materials (Biomaterials, Nanomaterials, Liquid to explore the wreck of the Titanic in June 2023. The
crystal, smart materials) disaster highlighted the critical importance of material
METALS - are usually strong, conduct electricity and heat well and selection, structural integrity, and safety protocols in
are opaque to light (shiny if polished). Examples: aluminum, steel, deep-sea exploration.
brass, gold.
Material Fatigue:

CERAMICS - Compounds between metallic and nonmetallic • Carbon Fiber Hull: The Titan’s main pressure hull was
elements. These materials are typically insulators and more made of carbon fiber composite, a material known for
resistant to high temperature. its high strength-to-weight ratio but also for being
susceptible to fatigue over time, especially under cyclic
POLYMERS - Includes the familiar plastic and rubber materials.
loading.
Many of them are organic compounds, which are chemically
based on carbon, hydrogen and other non-metallic elements. • Repeated Dives: The submersible had performed
multiple deep-sea dives, each exposing the hull to
COMPOSITES - Consists of more than one material type, is
extreme pressures. The repeated compression and
designed to display a combination of the best characteristics of
decompression cycles could have induced fatigue in the
each of the materials.
carbon fiber, leading to micro-cracks or delamination.
SEMICONDUCTORS - Any of various solid crystalline substances,
Material Selection and Design Issues:
such as germanium or silicon, having electrical conductivity
greater than insulators but less than good conductors. • Hybrid Material Use: The Titan’s hull combined carbon
fiber with titanium, a metal known for its strength and
NEW MATERIALS - Smart Material - “smart” implies that these can
corrosion resistance. However, bonding different
sense changes in their environment. example: sensors
materials, each with different mechanical properties
BIOMATERIALS and responses to stress, can introduce failure points.
o Are employed in components implanted into the
• Interface Weaknesses: The interface between the
human body for replacement of diseased or damaged
carbon fiber and titanium components may have been a
body parts.
critical point of vulnerability, where stress
o Must not produce toxic substances and must be
concentrations could lead to failure.
compatible with body tissues
o Materials: metals, ceramics, polymers and composites THE COMET: FIRST JET PASSENGER PLANE -1954

Examples: Heart Valve, Joint Replacement In 1949, the COMET aircraft was a newly designed,
modern jet aircraft for passenger travel. It has bright cabins
ACTUAL APPLICATIONS OF MATERIALS ENGINEERING due to large, square windows at most seats. It was
 composed of light-weight aluminum. In early 1950's, the Atomic number (Z)
planes began falling out of the sky. These tragedies changed • Is equal to the number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
the way aircraft were designed and the materials that were • For an electrically neutral or complete atom, the atomic
used. The square windows were a "stress concentrator" and number also equals the number of electrons.
the aluminum alloys used were not "strong" enough to • It is conventionally represented by the symbol Z.
withstand the stresses. Before that, material selection for • The atomic number of a chemical element (also known
mechanical design was not really considered in designs. as its proton number)
• The atomic number determines which element an atom
Conclusion: is. For example, any atom that contains exactly 47
protons in its nucleus is an atom of silver.
• Materials properties then are responsible for helping • This atomic number ranges in integral units from 1 for
achieve engineering advances. hydrogen to 92 for uranium, the highest of the naturally
• Failures, advance understanding and material’s design. occurring elements.

Atomic mass (A)

LESSON 01 - ATOMIC STRUCTURE – Part 1 • Is the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons
within the nucleus.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
• Atom is the smallest unit of a substance
• Every atom is composed of a nucleus made of protons
and neutrons.
• The nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons
Atomic Mass
• The electrons in an atom are bound to the atom by the
electromagnetic force, and the protons and neutrons in
the nucleus are bound to each other by the nuclear • atomic mass/Molar Weight
force
Charges
Isotopes
• Protons are positively charged
• Electrons are negatively charged • are atoms that have the same number of protons but
• Neutrons are neutral different numbers of neutrons
• Proton and electron have the same magnitude
1.60 X 10-19 C
• Both protons and electrons are electrically charged.
• A coulomb (C) is the standard unit of electric charge in
the International System of Units (SI). It is the amount
of electricity that a 1-ampere (A) current carries in one
second (s). A quantity of 1 C is equal to the electrical
charge of approximately 6.24 x 1018 electrons or
protons. Atomic weight
Masses • Is the weighted average of the atomic masses of the all
• Protons and neutrons have the same mass 1.67 X 10-27 naturally occurring isotopes of an element.
kg. • Atomic mass unit (amu) is often used to express atomic
• Mass of electron is much smaller 9.11 X 10-31 kg and can weight.
be neglected in the calculation of atomic mass. • A scale has been established whereby:
• Masses for these subatomic particles are infinitesimally
small;
1
1 amu= of the atomic mass of Carbon−12(12 C)
12

• Carbon-12 (12C); A=12.00000

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Sometimes use of amu per atom or molecule is convenient; on
other occasions g (or kg)/mol is preferred.

The atomic weight of an element depends on the abundance of

its isotopes. If you know the mass of the isotopes and the
fractional abundance of the isotopes, you can calculate the
element's atomic weight.

Key Elements of the Diagram: Fractional abundance the existence of the isotopes in nature
o 12 AMU on the Left Side:
1. The left pan of the scale represents 12 Isotopes exist in varying proportions in nature, so their atomic
atomic mass units. masses cannot be factored evenly in calculating the atomic
2. This reflects the mass of a single carbon-12 weight
(12C12C) atom, which is exactly defined as
12 AMU by international convention. If chlorine has two naturally-occurring isotopes, what is the
o Most Common Carbon Isotope on the Right Side: atomic weight of Chlorine?
1. The right pan represents the most common
Where:
isotope of carbon, 12C12C.
Cl-35 mass is 34.968852 and fractional abundance is 0.7577
2. It shows that the atomic mass unit is directly
Cl-37 mass is 36.965303 and fractional abundance is 0.2423
tied to the mass of one 12C12C atom,
symbolizing how the mass of other atoms is
masst = massa + massb
compared to 12C12C.
fracta = massa/ masst
o The Balance:
fractb = massb/ masst
1. The balance scale emphasizes equivalence,
showing that the mass of one carbon-12 atom
atomic weight = massa x fracta + massb x fractb
is precisely 12 atomic mass units.
atomic weight = 34.968852 x 0.7577 + 36.965303 x 0.2423
atomic weight = 26.496 amu + 8.9566 amu
The atomic weight of an element or the molecular weight of a
atomic weight = 35.45 amu
compound may be specified on the basis of amu per atom
(molecule) or mass per mole of material.
Element X occurs naturally as X-73 and X-75. Which isotope is
more abundant?
In one mole of a substance there are 6.023 x 1023 (Avogadro’s
number) atoms or molecules.
Solution:
Look up the atomic weight of Element X = 73.5 amu
These two atomic weight schemes are related through the
Since our average value is closer to 73 than to 75, we conclude
following equation:
that X-73 is the more abundant isotope.
1 amu 1g
=
atom ( ¿ molecule ) mol d
n=Nav( )
M
The atomic weight of an element or the molecular weight of a
n = the number of atoms per cm3
compound can be expressed as atomic mass units (AMU) per
d = density (g/cm3)
atom (or molecule) or as mass per mole. One mole of a substance
M = Atomic weight (g/mol)
contains 6.023×10236.023×1023 atoms or molecules, known as
Avogadro’s Number = 6.023 x 1023
Avogadro's number.

For example, the atomic weight of iron is 55.85 amu/atom, or

55.85 g/mol.
Determine the number of atoms per cubic centimeter in Lead. WAVE MECHANICAL MODEL
• This Bohr model was eventually found to have some
Given: significant limitations because of its inability to explain
density of lead = 11.34 g/cm³ several phenomena involving electrons.
atomic weight of lead = 207.2 g/mole • A resolution was reached with a wave-mechanical
model, in which the electron is considered to exhibit
solution: both wave-like and particle-like characteristics.
n = (11.34 g / cm³) x (1 mole / 207.2g) x (6.022x10^23 • By the mid-1920s it had become apparent that the Bohr
atoms/mole) model was incorrect. so, a resolution was reached with
= 3.30 x 10 ^ 22 atoms per cubic centimeter wave mechanical model
• Schrödinger found that he could not precisely describe
ELECTRONS IN ATOMS the electron’s path. His mathematics enabled him only
• During the latter part of the 19th century, it was to predict the probabilities of finding the electron at
realized that many phenomena involving electrons in given points in space around the nucleus.
solids could not be explained in terms of classical • (It behaves simultaneously as a wave and as a stream
mechanics. of particles
• What followed was the establishment of a set of • With this model, an electron is no longer treated as a
principles and laws that govern systems of atomic and particle moving in a discrete orbital; rather, position is
subatomic entities that came to be known as quantum considered to be the probability of an electron’s being
mechanics. at various locations around the nucleus.
• In other words, position is described by a probability
BOHR ATOMIC MODEL distribution or electron cloud.
• Electrons are assumed to revolve around the atomic
nucleus in discrete orbitals, and the position of any
particular electron is more or less well defined in terms
of its orbital.

• One early outgrowth of quantum mechanics was the

simplified Bohr atomic model, (a) Bohr and
• Similar in the structure of the solar system
• Electrostatic forces instead of gravity
• Another important quantum-mechanical principle
stipulates that the energies of electrons are quantized.
• An electron may change energy, but in doing so it must
make a quantum jump either to an allowed higher
energy or to a lower energy
• Quantized; that is, electrons are permitted to have only
specific values of energy.
• higher energy (with absorption of energy) or to a lower
energy (with emission of energy).
• Often, these allowed electron energies as being
associated with energy levels or states.
• These energies are taken to be negative, whereas the
zero reference is the unbound or free electron. Of
course, the single electron associated with the
hydrogen atom will fill only one of these states.

• Thus, the Bohr model represents an early attempt to

describe electrons in atoms, in terms of both position
(electron orbitals) and energy (quantized energy levels).
 (b) Wave mechanical atom models in terms of electron "diffuse", or "fundamental", based on their observed fine
distribution. structure. When the first four types of orbitals were described,
QUANTUM NUMBERS they were associated with these spectral line types, but there
were no other names. The designations 'g', 'h', and so on, were
• Using wave mechanics, every electron in an atom is derived by following alphabetical order.
characterized by four parameters called quantum
numbers. S – Spheres
• Quantum numbers describe the location of an electron P – Dumbbells
in an associated atom. D - Cover leaf
• It specifies the properties of the atomic orbitals and the F-
electrons in those orbitals. An electron in an atom or
ion has four quantum numbers to describe its state. MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (m l)
• The number of energy states for each subshell is
PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n ) determined by the third quantum number, Magnetic
• The principal quantum number n , is the main energy Quantum Number m l.
level occupied by the electron. • For an s subshell, there is a single energy state, whereas
• Energy levels are fixed distances from the nucleus of a for p, d, and f subshells, three, five, and seven states
given atom. exist, respectively.
• this quantum number, and it only, is also associated
with the Bohr model. SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (m S )
• May take on integral values beginning with one; • Associated with each electron is a spin moment, which
sometimes these shells are designated by the letters K, must be oriented either up or down.
L, M, N, O, and so on, which correspond, respectively, to • Related to this spin moment is the fourth quantum
n=1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5, . . . number, m s for which two values are possible
This quantum number is related to the distance of an

( )
•
+1
electron from the nucleus, or its position. ∧−1
2 one of each of the spin orientations.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM QUANTUM NUMBER (l ) 2
• Angular Momentum numberl , signifies the subshell,
which is denoted by a lowercase letter—an s, p, d, or f; QUANTUM NUMBERS
it is related to the shape of the electron subshell.
• The value of l depends on the value of the principal
quantum number, n . The angular momentum quantum
number can have positive values of zero to (n−1).
• The angular momentum azimuthal quantum number
describes the general shape or region an electron
occupies—its orbital shape. The value of l depends on
the value of the principal quantum number, n.

Thus, the Bohr model was further refined by wave

mechanics, in which the introduction of three new
quantum numbers gives rise to electron subshells
within each shell.

ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
• The electron configuration or structure of an atom
represents the way these states are occupied.
• Is the representation of the arrangement of electrons
that are distributed among the orbital shells and
subshells.
• an "address" that shows where the electrons can be
Azimuthal quantum numbers found in an atom
The notation 's', 'p', 'd', and 'f' originate from a now-discredited
system of categorizing spectral lines as "sharp", "principal", Writing Electron Configurations
 • Remember that for a neutral atom, the number of • In other words, electrons will occupy the lowest-energy
electrons must be equal to the atomic number (the orbital first before filling higher-energy orbitals.
number of protons).
• Electron configurations show the sublevel (1s, 2s, 2p,
etc) and the number of electrons in each sublevel as a
superscript after the sublevel"
s, p, d, f Blocks in the Periodic Table

3 Ways of Writing the Electron Configurations

• spdf Notation
• Noble Gas Notation (condensed notation)
• Orbital Diagram

Pauli Exclusion Principle

Electron Distribution Mnemonics or Diagonal Rule
• The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two
• This gives the same order of increasing energy.
electrons can have the same four quantum numbers.
• The order in which sublevels are filled with increasing
• The first three (n , l , and m l) may be the same, but the
numbers of electrons.
fourth quantum number must be different.
• A single orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons,
which must have opposing spins; otherwise, they would
have the same four quantum numbers, which is
forbidden.
• One electron is spin up (m s = +1/2) and the other
would spin down ¿ = -1/2¿ .

Aufbau Principle Hund’s Rule

The Aufbau principle states: • states that orbitals of equal energy are each occupied
• In the ground state of an atom, atomic orbitals are filled by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a
by electrons in the order of their increasing energies. second electron, and that each of the single electrons
must have the same spin.

Take Note! Exceptions:

• Although the Aufbau rule accurately predicts the
electron configuration of most elements, there are
notable exceptions among the transition metals and
heavier elements.
 • Here, the elements are situated, with increasing atomic
number, in seven horizontal rows called periods.
• These properties change gradually, moving horizontally
across each period and vertically down each column.

• The elements positioned in Group 0, the rightmost

group, are the inert gases, which have filled electron
shells and stable electron configurations.
• Group VIIA and VIA elements are one and two electrons
deficient, respectively, from having stable structures.
• The Group VIIA elements (F, Cl, Br, I, and At) are
sometimes termed the halogens.
• The reason these exceptions occur is that some • The alkali and the alkaline earth metals (Li, Na, K, Be,
elements are more stable with fewer electrons in some Mg, Ca, etc.) are labeled as Groups IA and IIA, having,
subshells and more electrons in others respectively, one and two electrons in excess of stable
structures.
• The elements in the three long periods, Groups IIIB
VALENCE ELECTRONS through IIB, are termed the transition metals, which
• Valence electrons are those that occupy the outermost have partially filled d electron states and in some cases
shell. one or two electrons in the next higher energy shell.
• These electrons are extremely important; as will be • Groups IIIA, IVA, and VA (B, Si, Ge, As, etc.) display
seen, they participate in the bonding between atoms to characteristics that are intermediate between the
form atomic and molecular aggregates. metals and nonmetals by virtue of their valence
• Furthermore, many of the physical and chemical electron structures.
properties of solids are based on these valence • As may be noted from the periodic table, most of the
electrons. elements really come under the metal classification.
• Some atoms have what are termed “stable electron • These are sometimes termed electropositive elements,
configurations”; that is, the states within the outermost indicating that they are capable of giving up their few
or valence electron shell are completely filled. valence electrons to become positively charged ions.
• Normally this corresponds to the occupation of just the • Furthermore, the elements situated on the right-hand
s and p states for the outermost shell by a total of eight side of the table are electronegative; that is, they
electrons, as in neon, argon, and krypton; one readily accept electrons to form negatively charged
exception is helium, which contains only two 1s ions, or sometimes they share electrons with other
electrons. atoms.
• These elements are the inert, or noble, gases, which are • As a general rule, electronegativity increases in moving
virtually unreactive chemically. from left to right and from bottom to top.
• Some atoms of the elements that have unfilled valence • Atoms are more likely to accept electrons if their outer
shells assume stable electron configurations by gaining shells are almost full, and if they are less “shielded”
or losing electrons to form charged ions, or by sharing from (i.e., closer to) the nucleus.
electrons with other atoms. • Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes
• This is the basis for some chemical reactions, and also the tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards
for atomic bonding in solids. itself
• The higher the associated electronegativity number, the
PERIODIC TABLE more an element or compound attracts electrons
• All the elements have been classified according to towards it
electron configuration in the periodic table. • High electronegativity: F = 4
 • Low Electronegativity: Cs = 0.7 • Note: Noble gases have full outer shell (Helium (He),
Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), and the
radioactive Radon (Rn).
• Every atom tries to have 8 electrons in its outermost (or
valence) shell. This may require them to give up, share,
or take electrons.
• Some atoms are "happier" than others.
• For example, neon, as with other noble gases naturally
has 8 valence electrons. (10 total - 2 in the 1st energy
level=8 in the 2nd)
• Not surprisingly, neon hardly ever reacts with anything.
• By contrast, the atoms in the Alkaline metals' column,
such as sodium, have one valence electron, with a layer
containing 8 electrons in the shell below.
• That means that if sodium only must give up that one
electron in order to complete the octet rule and does so
LESSON 02 - INTERATOMIC BONDING if given the chance.
• All materials are made up of atoms. • Therefore, sodium is so chemically reactive
• These atoms are held together by forces called
interatomic bonds which are incredibly important in PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
determining the properties of materials. • Ionic Bonding
• Interatomic bonding is the attraction between atoms • Covalent Bonding
that allows the formation of chemical substances that • Metallic Bonding
contain two or more atoms
• Three different types of primary or chemical bond are IONIC BONDING
found in solids—ionic, covalent, and metallic. • A bond formed between a negative ion (anion) and
• Each type, the bonding necessarily involves the valence a positive ion (cation)
electrons; furthermore, the nature of the bond depends • Requires electron transfer
on the electron structures of the constituent atoms. • The electrostatic attractions between the positive
• In general, each of these three types of bonding arises and negative ions hold the compound together
from the tendency of the atoms to assume stable • If the electronegativity difference between the two
electron structures. elements is greater than 2.0 ionic bond is formed
• Product of a metal (donates electron) and a
VALENCE ELECTRONS nonmetal (accepts electron)
• Valence electrons are those that occupy the outermost • Predominant bonding in Ceramics
shell. • RULE OF THUMB
• These electrons are extremely important; as will be • elements with more than 4 valence é in its outer
seen, they participate in the bonding between atoms to shell gain é
form atomic and molecular aggregates. • elements with less than 4 valence é in its outer
shell lose é

OCTET RULE • It is convenient to illustrate the nature of the

• The Octet rule is a general rule of thumb that applies to bonding force for the ionic bond because the Fc
most atoms. Basically, it states that every atom wants to follows a simple well-known relationship:
have eight valence electrons in its outermost electron −K
shell
Fc= (1)
a2
• full shell = stability Where:
F c = coulombic force of attraction between two opposite
charged ions a = separation distance between the centers of the
ions
• If electrons are gained by an atom, negative ions are
formed.
K=ko(Z 1 q)(Z 2 q)

Sample Problem:
Calculate F c between Na+¿ and Cl−¿ in NaCl. What is the

F R in this case?
radii of the elements:
r Na+ ¿ 0.098 nm, r Cl−¿ 0.181 nm
Given:
radii of the elements:
rNa+ = 0.098 nm, rCl- = 0.181 nm
ao = r Na+ + rCl-
ao = 0.098 nm + 0.181 nm = 0.278nm (
1 X 10−9 m • A negative ion is sometimes called an anion.
¿=0.278 x 10−9 m
1 nm

Using the formula of:

PROPERTIES (IONIC BONDING)
−K
Fc= K=ko ( Z 1 q ) ( Z 2 q ) o Melting temperatures are relatively high
a2 o Brittle
o Hard
−K o As solids they are good insulators
Fc=
a2 o Dissolved in water, ionic bonds are aqueous, that is
Fc=−¿ ¿ they can conduct

COVALENT BONDING
Note: 1 V . C=1 J , then 1 J =1 N .m
• A bond formed when atoms share one or more pairs of
F c =2.98 x 10−9 N electrons.
F R+ FC =0 • There is no net charge on either atom; the attractive
force is produced by interaction of the electron pair
F R=−FC
with the nuclei of both atoms.
F R=−2.98 x 10−9 N • is formed when electronegativity difference between
Sodium Chloride: the two elements is 0 to1.9
• Sodium (2,8,1) has 1 electron more than a stable noble
gas structure (2,8). If it gave away that electron it would EXAMPLE: CH4
become more stable. C: has 4 valence e, needs 4 more
• Chlorine (2,8,7) has 1 electron short of a stable noble H: has 1 valence e, needs 1 more
gas structure (2,8,8). If it could gain an electron from e = 4 + 1(4) = 8e
somewhere it too would become more stable.
shared electrons
H
from carbon atom
IONIC BONDING Continuation: CH 4
• The sodium has lost an electron, so it no longer has
equal numbers of electrons and protons.
H C H
• Because it has one more proton than electron, it has a
charge of 1+. shared electrons
• If electrons are lost from an atom, positive ions are from hydrogen
H
formed. atoms
• Positive ions are sometimes called cations.
• The chlorine has gained an electron, so it now has one
more electron than proton. It therefore has a charge of
1-.
 column IVA
H2O IONIC VS METALLIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
H2 F2
C(diamond)
H He
2.1
SiC - Cl2
Li Be C O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.5 2.0 4.0 -
Na Mg Si Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.8 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn Ga Ge As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr Sn I Xe
0.8 1.0 1.8 2.5 -
Cs Ba Pb At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.8 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9 GaAs

• Molecules with nonmetals

• Molecules with metals and nonmetals
• Elemental solids (RHS of Periodic Table)
• Compound solids (about column IVA) IONIC VS METALLIC

PROPERTIES (COVALENT BONDING)

o Most have relatively low melting points and boiling
points
o Tend to be soft and relatively flexible
o More flammable than ionic compounds
o Many covalent compounds don't dissolve well in water
o Poor electrical and thermal conductivity

METALLIC BONDING
• The chemical bonding that holds the atoms of a metal
together.
• Metallic bonds are formed from the attraction between
BONDING CHARACTER OF
mobile electrons (delocalized electrons) and fixed,
THE FOUR FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
positively charged metallic atoms.
• Whereas most chemical bonds are localized between
specific neighboring atoms, metallic bonds extend over
the entire molecular structure.
• these valence electrons are not bound to any particular
atom in the solid and are more or less free to drift
throughout the entire metal.

PROPERTIES (METALLIC BONDING)

o Good conductor of heat and electricity
o Generally, has high melting and boiling points
o strong
LESSON 03 - CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS
o Malleable
o Ductile
• Crystals are never perfect with respect to atomic
placements
ELECTRON SEA MODEL • The lattice points are idealized locations where even in
high quality crystals represent only a mean positions
of the atoms
• In reality, all the atoms are constantly in motion due to
thermal effects.

CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS
The most important crystal imperfections are:
• Point Defects
• Linear Defects (Dislocations)
• Planar Defects

POINT DEFECTS
 • Point defect means missing of the atoms in the crystal, • Self interstitial atom is an extra atom that has crowded
from the lattice site its way into an interstitial void in the crystal structure.

TYPES OF POINT DEFECTS

• Vacancies
• Interstitial point defect

VACANCIES
• Are simply empty atom sites.
• By successive jumps of atoms, it is possible for a
vacancy to occur or atoms to move in the lattice
structure.
• Are not only present as a result of solidification but • Occur only in low concentrations in metals because
can be produced by raising the temperature or by they distort and cause high stress to tightly packed
irradiation with fast moving nuclear particles. lattice structure
• All crystalline solids contain vacancies, and, in fact, it is
not possible to create such a material that is free of INTERSTITIAL IMPURITY ATOM
these defects. • interstitial impurity atoms are much smaller than the
• Irradiation is the process by which an object is atoms in the bulk matrix
exposed to radiation. The exposure can originate from • fit into the open space between the bulk atoms of the
various sources, including natural sources. lattice structure
TYPES OF VACANCIES
• Schottky Vacancy is the defect forms when oppositely INTERSTITIAL IMPURITY ATOM
charged ions leave their lattice sites, creating • Substitutional impurity atom
vacancies. is an atom of a different type
• Frenkel Vacancy consists in the displacement of an than the bulk atoms, which
atom from its lattice position to an interstitial site, has replaced one of the bulk
creating a vacancy at the original site and an atoms in the lattice.
• interstitial defect at the new location. • Usually close in size (within
approximately 15%) to the
bulk atom

LINEAR DEFECTS (DISLOCATIONS)

• Are areas where the atoms
are out of position in the crystal structure.
• Are generated and moved when a stress is applied
• The motion of dislocations allows slip – plastic
deformation to occur.
• May be defined as a disturbed region between two
substantially perfect parts of a crystal.
INTERSTITIAL POINT DEFECTS • Are linear defects around which some of the atoms are
Interstitial Point Defect misaligned.
• Is an atom that occupies a place outside the
normal lattice position. TYPES OF LINEAR DEFECTS
• It may be the same type of atom as the others • Edge Dislocation
(self-interstitial) or an impurity atom • Screw Dislocation
Interstice is an empty space or gap between spaces full of
structure or matter EDGE DISLOCATION
• Edge Dislocation occurs
TYPES OF INTERSTITIAL POINT DEFECTS when an extra plane is
• Self-interstitial atom inserted. The dislocation
• Interstitial impurity atoms line is at the end of the
• Substitutional impurity atom plane.

SELF INTERSTITIAL ATOM

 • The inter-atomic bonds are significantly distorted only • Twins are either grown-in during crystallization, or the
in the immediate vicinity of the dislocation line result of mechanical or thermal work

SCREW DISLOCATION
Screw Dislocation - The motion GRAIN BOUNDARIES
of a screw dislocation is also a
result of shear stress, but the
defect line movement is
perpendicular to direction of the
stress and the atom
displacement, rather than
parallel.

MIXED DISLOCATION
Mixed Dislocation is a combination of the above two dislocation
types • Occur where the crystallographic direction of the
lattice abruptly changes
• Limit the lengths and motions of dislocations.
Therefore, having smaller grains (more grain boundary
surface area) strengthens a material.

PLANAR DEFECTS
• A disruption of the long-range stacking sequence. • The size of the grains can be controlled by the cooling
rate when the material is cast, or heat treated.
TYPES PLANAR DEFECTS Generally, rapid cooling produces smaller grains
• Stacking fault whereas slow cooling result in larger grains.
• Twin region • Tend to decrease the electrical and thermal conductivity
• Grain boundaries of the material.

STACKING FAULT LESSON 04 - CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

• Stacking fault – produced by a
change in the stacking PACKING
sequence over a few atomic
spacing
• a one- or two-layer
interruption in the stacking
sequence of atom planes

FUNDAMENDTAL CONCEPTS
TWIN REGION
• Solid materials may be classified according to the
• Twin Region – produced by a change over many
regularity with which atoms or ions are arranged with
atomic spacing
respect to one another.
• happens when the crystals on either side of a plane
• A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are
are mirror images of each
situated in a repeating or periodic array over large
other
atomic distances; that is, long-range order exists, such
• The boundary between the
that upon solidification, the atoms will position
twinned crystals will be a
themselves in a repetitive three-dimensional pattern, in
single plane of atoms
which each atom is bonded to its nearest-neighbor
atoms.
• Crystallization is the (natural or artificial) process where • smallest structural unit or building block that can
a solid forms where the atoms or molecules are highly describe the crystal structure.
organized in a structure known as a crystal. • Repetition of the unit cell generates the entire crystal
• All metals, many ceramic materials, and certain
polymers form crystalline structures under normal TYPES OF UNIT CELL
solidification conditions.
• For those that do not crystallize, this long-range atomic • Primitive/Simple Unit Cell -
order is absent; these noncrystalline or amorphous when the constituent
materials. particles are present only in
the corners of the unit cell

• Centered Unit Cell - when the

constituent particles are
present at other positions
along with corners

cubic crystals form the simplest and most symmetric of all lattice
types

TYPES OF CENTERED UNIT CELL

• Body Centered
• Face Centered
• End Centered

Body Centered - if the constituent particle

is present at the body center along with
• Crystallography is the experimental science of corners
determining the arrangement of atoms in the crystalline
material Example: Alpha Iron, Cr, Mo, Na, W, V
• Crystal Structure of the material, the manner in which
Characteristics:
atoms, ions, or molecules are spatially arranged.
Lattice points 1. Generally harder than fcc metals
• are the positions (or coordinates) where you can place 2. Will not deform as much before failure
an atom. Therefore, you can find either atoms or 3. Tend to get harder as they deform
vacancies in the lattice points of a crystal structure
• are located at the corners of the unit cells and in some Face Centered Unit Cell - if the constituent
cases at either faces or the center of the unit cell particles are present in the six (6) face
Crystal Lattice centers along with the corners
• is a collection of points called lattice point
• is used to describe the arrangement of atoms or ions Example: Cu, Ag, Au, Gamma Fe

Characteristics:

1. Fairly soft
2. Malleable (easily) and do not harden much as they deform
3. Will deform a great deal before failure

End Centered Unit Cell - if the constituent

particle at centers of any opposite faces
Unit cell
along with corners
• is the subdivision of a crystal
lattice that still retains the
overall characteristics of the
entire lattice. CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
• There are 230 crystal forms.
 • These are classified into 32 classes based on symmetry
which are further divided into seven (7) crystal systems
depending on the crystallographic parameters (a,b,c
and α,β, γ).

NUMBER OF ATOMS IN A UNIT CELL

SEVEN CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

2 MOST IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS

• Atomic Packing Factor is the fraction of space occupied

by atoms, assuming that atoms are hard spheres sized
so that they touch their closest neighbor
• Coordination Number is the number of the nearest-
neighbor or touching atoms
•
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR
BRAVAIS LATTICE APF depends on :
• Crystal structure
Bravais Lattice refers to the 14 different 3-dimensional • How “close” packed the atoms are
configurations into which atoms can be arranged in crystals. • In simple close-packed structure with hard sphere
atoms, independent of atomic radius
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR

SC and BCC structures are relatively open compared to FCC

structures
 • The HCP metals include cadmium, magnesium,

titanium, and zinc

COORDINATION NUMBER

HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED CRYSTAL STRUCTURE (HCP)

• Not all metals have unit cells with cubic symmetry; the
final common metallic crystal structure has a unit cell
that is hexagonal, which is termed hexagonal close-
packed (HCP);

• The coordination number and the atomic packing factor

for the HCP crystal structure are the same as for FCC: 12
and 0.74, respectively.