This document is NO LONGER IN USE by the World Bank Group.

The new version of the World Bank Group Environmental, Health and Safety
Guidelines are available at http://www.ifc.org/ehsguidelines

Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines

OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT

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Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines

for Offshore Oil and Gas Development

Introduction
1. The Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines are technical reference documents with
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general and industry-specific examples of Good International Industry Practice (GIIP). When one or
more members of the World Bank Group are involved in a project, these EHS Guidelines are applied as
required by their respective policies and standards. These industry sector EHS guidelines are designed to
be used together with the General EHS Guidelines document, which provides guidance to users on
common EHS issues potentially applicable to all industry sectors. For complex projects, use of multiple
industry sector guidelines may be necessary. A complete list of industry sector guidelines can be found
at: www.ifc.org/ehsguidelines.

2. The EHS Guidelines contain the performance levels and measures that are generally considered to
be achievable in new facilities by existing technology at reasonable costs. Application of the EHS
Guidelines to existing facilities may involve the establishment of site-specific targets, with an appropriate
timetable for achieving them.

3. The applicability of the EHS Guidelines should be tailored to the hazards and risks established for
each project on the basis of the results of an environmental assessment in which site-specific variables,
such as host country context, assimilative capacity of the environment, and other project factors, are
taken into account. The applicability of specific technical recommendations should be based on the
professional opinion of qualified and experienced persons.

4. When host country regulations differ from the levels and measures presented in the EHS Guidelines,
projects are expected to achieve whichever are more stringent. If less stringent levels or measures than
those provided in these EHS Guidelines are appropriate, in view of specific project circumstances, a full
and detailed justification for any proposed alternatives is needed as part of the site-specific environmental
assessment. This justification should demonstrate that the choice for any alternate performance levels is
protective of human health and the environment.

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Defined as the exercise of professional skill, diligence, prudence and foresight that would be reasonably expected from skilled and
experienced professionals engaged in the same type of undertaking under the same or similar circumstances globally. The
circumstances that skilled and experienced professionals may find when evaluating the range of pollution prevention and control
techniques available to a project may include, but are not limited to, varying levels of environmental degradation and environmental
assimilative capacity as well as varying levels of financial and technical feasibility.

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Applicability
5. The EHS Guidelines for Offshore Oil and Gas Development include information relevant to seismic
exploration, exploratory and production drilling, development and production activities, offshore pipeline
operations, offshore transportation, tanker loading and unloading, ancillary and support operations, and
decommissioning. They also address potential onshore impacts that may result from offshore oil and gas
activities. This document is organized according to the following sections:

Section 1.0 — Industry-Specific Impacts and Management

Section 2.0 — Performance Indicators and Monitoring

Section 3.0 — References

Annex A — General Description of Industry Activities

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1.0 Industry-Specific Impacts and Management

6. This section provides a summary of EHS issues associated with offshore oil and gas development,
along with recommendations for their management. These issues may be relevant to any of the activities
listed as applicable to these guidelines. Guidance for the management of EHS issues common to most
large industrial facilities during the construction phase is provided in the General EHS Guidelines.

1.1 Environment
7. The following environmental issues should be considered as part of a comprehensive assessment
and management program that addresses project-specific risks and potential impacts. Potential
environmental issues associated with offshore oil and gas development projects include the following:

• Air emissions
• Wastewater discharges
• Solid and liquid waste management
• Noise generation (including underwater)
• Spills
• Energy efficiency and resource conservation

Air Emissions
8. The main sources of air emissions (continuous or intermittent) resulting from offshore activities
include: combustion sources from power and heat generation; the use of compressors, pumps, and
reciprocating engines (boilers, turbines, and other engines) on offshore facilities, including support and
supply vessels and helicopters; emissions resulting from flaring and venting of hydrocarbons; and fugitive
emissions.

9. The main component of these emission sources is carbon dioxide (CO2). Principal pollutants include
nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulates. Additional pollutants
can include: hydrogen sulfide (H2S); volatile organic compounds (VOCs) methane and ethane; benzene,
ethyl benzene, toluene, and xylenes (BTEX); glycols; and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).
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Firefighting and refrigeration systems may contain Halon and chlorofluorocarbons.

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See also http://www.oilandgasuk.co.uk/knowledgecentre/atmospheric_emissions.cfm.

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10. Significant (>25,000 tons CO2 equivalent per year) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from all
facilities and offshore support activities should be quantified annually as aggregate emissions, in
accordance with internationally recognized methodologies and reporting procedures.

11. All reasonable attempts should be made to maximize energy efficiency and design facilities for
lowest energy use. The overall objective is to reduce air emissions. Cost-effective and technically feasible
options for reducing emissions should be evaluated. Additional recommendations on the management of
greenhouse gases and energy conservation are addressed in the General EHS Guidelines.

Exhaust Gases
12. Exhaust gas emissions produced by the combustion of gas or liquid fuels in turbines, boilers,
compressors, pumps, and other engines for power and heat generation, or for water injection or oil and
gas export, can be the most significant source of air emissions from offshore facilities. During equipment
selection, air emission specifications should be considered.

13. Guidance for the management of small combustion source emissions with a capacity of up to 50
megawatt thermal (MWth), including air emission standards for exhaust emissions, is provided in the
General EHS Guidelines. For combustion source emissions with a capacity of greater than 50 MWth,
refer to the EHS Guidelines for Thermal Power.

Venting and Flaring

14. Associated gas brought to the surface with crude oil during oil production is sometimes disposed of
at offshore facilities by venting or flaring. This practice is now widely recognized to be a waste of valuable
resources, as well as a significant source of GHG emissions.

15. However, flaring and venting are important safety measures on offshore oil and gas facilities to
ensure that gas and other hydrocarbons are safely disposed of in the event of an emergency, a power or
equipment failure, or other plant upset condition. Risk assessment processes (e.g., hazard and operability
study (HAZOP), hazard identification study (HAZID), etc.) to estimate and record the potential discharges
are used in such facilities.

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16. Measures consistent with the Global Gas Flaring and Venting Reduction Voluntary Standard (part
of the World Bank Group’s Global Gas Flaring Reduction Public-Private Partnership, GGFR program)

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World Bank 2004. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2004/05/4946640/voluntary-standard-global-gas-flaring-venting-
reduction.

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should be adopted when considering venting and flaring options for offshore activities. The standard
provides guidance on how to eliminate or achieve reductions in the flaring and venting of natural gas.

17. Continuous venting of associated gas is not good practice and should be avoided. The associated
gas stream should be routed to an efficient flare system, although continuous flaring of gas should be
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avoided if alternatives are available. Before flaring is adopted, all feasible alternatives for the gas’s use
should be evaluated to the maximum extent possible and integrated into production design.

18. Alternative options may include gas utilization for on-site energy needs, gas injection for reservoir
pressure maintenance, enhanced recovery using gas lift, or export of the gas to a neighboring facility or to
market. An assessment of alternatives should be adequately documented. If none of the options for the
associated gas’s use is feasible, measures to minimize flare volumes should be evaluated and flaring
should be considered as an interim solution, with the elimination of continuous production-associated gas
flaring as the preferred goal.

19. New facilities should be designed, constructed, and operated so as to avoid routine flaring. Cost-
effective options to reduce flaring from existing/legacy facilities that offer sustainable social benefits (e.g.,
gas-to-power) should be identified and evaluated in collaboration with host country governments and
other stakeholders and with a particular focus on GHG emissions.

20. If flaring is the only viable solution, continuous improvement of flaring through the implementation of
good practices and new technologies should be demonstrated. The following pollution prevention and
control measures should be considered for gas flaring:

• Implement source gas reduction measures to the extent possible.

• Use efficient flare tips, and optimize the size and number of burning nozzles.
• Maximize flare combustion efficiency by controlling and optimizing flare fuel/air/steam flow
rates to ensure the correct ratio of assist stream to flare stream.
• Minimize flaring from purges and pilots—without compromising safety—through measures
including installation of purge gas reduction devices, flare gas recovery units, inert purge gas,
soft seat valve technology where appropriate, and installation of conservation pilots.
• Minimize risk of pilot blow-out by ensuring sufficient exit velocity and providing wind guards.
• Use a reliable pilot ignition system.
• Install high-integrity instrument pressure protection systems, where appropriate, to reduce
over-pressure events and avoid or reduce flaring situations.

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Ibid.

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• Minimize liquid carryover and entrainment in the gas flare stream with a suitable liquid
separation system.
• Minimize flame lift off and/or flame lick.
• Operate flare to control odor and visible smoke emissions (no visible black smoke).
• Situate flare at a safe distance from accommodation units.
• Implement burner maintenance and replacement programs to ensure continuous maximum
flare efficiency.
• Meter flare gas.

21. In the event of an emergency or equipment breakdown, or when faced with plant upset conditions,
excess gas should not be vented but rather sent to an efficient flare gas system. Emergency venting may
be necessary under specific field conditions where flaring of the gas stream is not possible, or where a
flare gas system is not available, such as a lack of sufficient hydrocarbon content in the gas stream to
support combustion or a lack of sufficient gas pressure to allow it to enter the flare system. Justification
for excluding a gas flaring system on offshore facilities should be fully documented before an emergency
gas venting facility is considered.

22. To minimize flaring events as a result of equipment breakdowns and plant upsets, plant reliability
should be high (>95 percent) and provisions should be made for equipment sparing and plant turn-down
protocols.

23. Flaring volumes for new facilities should be estimated during the initial commissioning period so that
appropriate flaring targets can be developed. The volumes of gas flared for all flaring events should be
recorded and reported.

Well Testing
24. During well testing, flaring of produced hydrocarbons should be avoided, especially in
environmentally sensitive areas. Feasible alternatives should be evaluated for the recovery of these test
fluids, while considering the safety of handling volatile hydrocarbons, either for transfer to a processing
facility or for alternative disposal options. An evaluation of alternatives for produced hydrocarbons should
be adequately documented.

25. If flaring is the only option available for the disposal of test fluids, only the minimum volume of
hydrocarbons required for the test should be flowed and well test durations should be reduced to the
extent practical. An efficient test flare burner head equipped with an appropriate combustion

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enhancement system should be selected to minimize incomplete combustion, black smoke, and
hydrocarbon fallout to the sea. Volumes of hydrocarbons flared should be recorded.

Fugitive Emissions
26. Fugitive emissions in offshore facilities may be associated with cold vents, leaking tubing, valves,
connections, flanges, packings, open-ended lines, pump seals, compressor seals, pressure relief valves,
and hydrocarbon loading and unloading operations.

27. Methods for controlling and reducing fugitive emissions should be considered and implemented in
the design, operation, and maintenance of offshore facilities. The selection of appropriate valves, flanges,
fittings, seals, and packings should consider safety and suitability requirements, as well as their capacity
to reduce gas leaks and fugitive emissions. Additionally, leak detection and repair programs should be
implemented.

Wastewaters
Produced Water
28. Oil and gas reservoirs contain water (formation water) that becomes produced water when brought
to the surface during hydrocarbon production. Oil reservoirs can contain large volumes of this water,
whereas gas reservoirs typically produce smaller quantities. A specific case is that of Coal Bed Methane
(CBM) reservoirs, from which a large amount of produced water is generated. CBM reservoirs are
infrequently exploited offshore. In addition, in many fields, water is injected into the reservoir to maintain
pressure and/or maximize production. The total produced water stream can be one of the largest waste
products, by volume, and therefore requires management by offshore operations.

29. Produced water contains a complex mixture of inorganic (dissolved salts, trace concentrations of
certain metals, suspended particles), organic (free and trace concentrations of dissolved hydrocarbons),
and in some cases, residual trace concentrations of chemical additives (for example, scale and corrosion
inhibitors, hydrate inhibitors), that are sometimes used to enhance the hydrocarbon production process.

30. Feasible alternatives to the management and disposal of produced water should be evaluated and
integrated into production design. These alternatives may include injection along with seawater for
reservoir pressure maintenance, injection into a suitable offshore disposal well, or export to shore with
produced hydrocarbons for treatment and disposal.

31. When disposal wells are the adopted solution, geological and technical aspects should be
considered, to avoid leakage of the disposed water to the seabed or shallow confined aquifers. The

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conversion of existing wells to injection wells should be considered first, to minimize both geological risk
and the construction costs of dedicated disposal wells.

32. If none of these alternatives is technically or financially feasible, the Environmental and Social
Impact Assessment (ESIA) should establish mitigation targets for produced water according to the
discharge guidelines provided in Table 1 of Section 2 prior to its disposal into the marine environment.

33. Treatment technologies to consider include combinations of gravity and/or mechanical separation
and chemical treatment, and may include a multistage system, typically including a skim tank or a parallel
plate separator, followed by a gas flotation cell or hydrocyclone. A number of treatment package
technologies are available and should be considered, depending on the application and particular field
conditions.

34. Sufficient treatment system backup capability should be in place to ensure continual operation and
should be available for use if an alternative disposal method—for example, a produced water injection
system—should fail.

35. Where disposal to sea is necessary, all means to reduce the volume of produced water should be
considered, including:

• Adequate well management during well completion activities to minimize water production.
• Recompletion of high water-producing wells to minimize water production.
• Use of downhole fluid separation techniques, where possible, and water shutoff techniques,
when technically and economically feasible.
• Shutting off in high water-producing wells.

36. To minimize environmental hazards related to residual chemical additives in the produced water
stream, where surface disposal methods are used, production chemicals should be selected carefully by
taking into account their application rate, toxicity, bioavailability, and bioaccumulation potential. In
particular, the use and dispersion of Kinetic Hydrate Inhibitors (KHI) should be assessed to avoid possible
accumulation of poorly degraded residuals.

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Hydraulic Fracturing
37. If hydraulic fracturing is planned or forms part of the project, as in the case of shale gas projects or
CBM, all environmental aspects—including fracture propagation, fracturing fluid management, and the
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fate and management of flowback water—should be evaluated.

Flowback Water
38. The water that flows back from the well to the surface after hydraulic fracturing, generally referred to
as “flowback water,” requires considerations separate from or in addition to those bearing on produced
water. Flowback water characteristics depend on the type of fluid injected to induce rock fracturing and
can also be present in large quantities. Flowback water can thus constitute the main environmental
management issue for hydraulic fracturing operations.

39. Feasible alternatives for the management and disposal of flowback water should be evaluated and
integrated into operational design. Alternatives may include injection into a suitable offshore disposal well,
temporary storage for re-use in further hydraulic fracturing operations, or the export of flowback water to
shore with the produced hydrocarbons for treatment and disposal. If none of these alternatives is
technically or economically feasible, flowback water should be treated according to the discharge
guidelines provided in Table 1 of Section 2 for oil and grease content prior to its disposal into the marine
environment. An assessment of alternatives should be adequately documented. In addition, an
environmental risk assessment on the chemicals mixed with the hydraulic fracturing water—including their
toxicity, bioavailability, and bioaccumulation potential—should be conducted to assess the maximum site-
specific allowable concentrations.

Hydrostatic Testing Water

40. Hydrostatic testing of offshore equipment and marine pipelines involves pressure testing with water
(typically filtered seawater, unless equipment specifications do not allow it) to verify equipment and
pipeline integrity. Chemical additives (corrosion inhibitors, oxygen scavengers, biocides, and dyes) may
be added to the water to prevent internal corrosion or to identify leaks. In managing hydrotest waters, the
following pollution prevention and control measures should be considered:

• Minimize the volume of hydrotest water offshore by testing equipment at an onshore site prior
to loading the equipment onto the offshore facilities.
• Use the same water for multiple tests.

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• Reduce the need for chemicals by minimizing the time that test water remains in the
equipment or pipeline.
• Carefully select chemical additives in terms of dose concentration, toxicity, biodegradability,
bioavailability, and bioaccumulation potential.
• Send offshore pipeline hydrotest water to onshore facilities for treatment and disposal, where
practical.

41. If the discharge of hydrotest waters to the sea is the only feasible alternative for disposal, a hydrotest
water disposal plan should be prepared that considers points of discharge, rate of discharge, chemical
use and dispersion, environmental risk, and monitoring. Hydrotest water disposal into shallow coastal
waters and sensitive ecosystems should be avoided.

Cooling Water
42. Antifoulant chemical dosing to prevent marine fouling of offshore facility cooling water systems
should be carefully considered. Available alternatives should be evaluated and, where practical, the
seawater intake depth should be optimized to reduce the need for use of chemicals. An assessment of
alternatives should be adequately documented. Appropriate screens should be fitted to the seawater
intake, if safe and practical.

43. The cooling water discharge depth should be selected to maximize mixing and cooling of the thermal
plume to ensure that the temperature is within 3 degrees Celsius of ambient seawater temperature at the
edge of the defined mixing zone, or if the mixing zone is not defined, within 100 meters of the discharge
point, as noted in Table 1 of Section 2 of these Guidelines.

Desalination Brine
44. Operators should consider mixing desalination brine from the potable water system with cooling
water. If mixing with other discharge streams is not feasible, the discharge location should be carefully
selected with respect to potential environmental impacts. In particular, in the case of coastal and/or
brackish water, the salinity of the rejected effluent should be reduced by adjusting the Reverse Osmosis
(RO) process.

Other Waste Waters

45. Other waste waters routinely generated at offshore facilities are listed below, along with appropriate
treatment measures:

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• Sewage: Gray and black water from showers, toilets, and kitchen facilities should be treated in
an appropriate on-site marine sanitary treatment unit in compliance with MARPOL 73/78
requirements.
• Food waste: Organic (food) waste from the kitchen should, at a minimum, be macerated to
acceptable levels and discharged to sea, in compliance with MARPOL 73/78 requirements.
• Storage displacement water: Water pumped into and out of storage during loading and off-
loading operations should be contained and treated before discharge to meet the guidelines
provided in Table 1 of Section 2.
• Bilge waters: Bilge waters from machinery spaces in offshore facilities and support vessels
should be routed to the facility’s closed drainage system, or contained and treated before
discharge to meet the guidelines provided in Table 1 of Section 2. If treatment to this standard
is not possible, these waters should be contained and shipped to shore for disposal.
• Deck drainage water: Drainage water generated from precipitation, sea spray, or routine
operations, such as deck and equipment cleaning and fire drills, should be routed to separate
drainage systems in offshore facilities. This includes drainage water from process areas that
could be contaminated with oil (closed drains) and drainage water from non-process areas
(open drains). All process areas should be bunded to ensure that drainage water flows into the
closed drainage system. Drip trays should be used to collect runoff from equipment that is not
contained within a bunded area and the contents routed to the closed drainage system.
Contaminated drainage waters should be treated before discharge to meet the guidelines
provided in Table 1 of Section 2.

Waste Management
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46. Typical non-hazardous and hazardous wastes routinely generated at offshore facilities include
general office and packaging wastes, waste oils, oil-contaminated rags, hydraulic fluids, used batteries,
paint cans, waste chemicals and used chemical containers, used filters, fluorescent tubes, scrap metals,
and medical waste, among others.

47. At a minimum, these waste materials should be segregated offshore into non-hazardous and
hazardous wastes, and shipped to shore for re-use, recycling, or disposal. A waste management plan for
the offshore facility should be developed and should contain a mechanism allowing waste consignments
to be tracked from the originating location offshore to the final waste treatment and disposal location
onshore. Efforts should be made to eliminate, reduce, or recycle waste at all times.

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As defined by local legislation or international conventions.

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48. Guidance for onshore management of these typical wastes is provided in the General EHS
Guidelines.

49. Additional waste streams associated with offshore development activities include:

• Drilling fluids and drilled cuttings

• Produced sand
• Completion and well work-over fluids
• Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM)

Drilling Fluids and Drilled Cuttings

50. The primary functions of drilling fluids used in oil and gas field operations include removal of drilled
cuttings (rock chippings) from the wellbore and control of formation pressures. Other important functions
include sealing permeable formations, maintaining wellbore stability, cooling and lubricating the drill bit,
and transmitting hydraulic energy to the drilling tools and bit. Drilled cuttings removed from the wellbore
and spent drilling fluids are typically the largest waste streams, by volume, generated during oil and gas
drilling activities.

51. Though various drilling fluids are available, they can generally be categorized into:

• Water-Based Drilling Fluids (WBDF): Fluids for which the continuous phase and suspending
medium for solids is seawater or a water-miscible fluid. There are many WBDF variations,
including gel, salt-polymer, salt-glycol, and salt-silicate fluids.
• Non-Aqueous Drilling Fluids (NADF): The continuous phase and suspending medium for
solids is a water-immiscible fluid that is oil-based, enhanced mineral oil-based, or synthetic-
based.

52. The selection of a drilling fluid should be made after evaluating its technical suitability and
environmental impact. The use of fluids that contain diesel as the principal component of the liquid phase
is not good practice for offshore drilling programs and should be avoided.

53. Typically, barite (barium sulfate) is the solid medium used to increase the specific density of most
drilling fluids, with bentonite clays also used as a thickener. Drilling fluids contain a number of additional
chemicals, depending on the downhole formation conditions.

54. Drilling fluids are (i) circulated downhole with direct loss to the seabed, along with displaced cuttings,
particularly while drilling well sections nearest to the surface of the seabed; or (ii) recovered for re-use

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when returned to the drilling rig via casing or marine riser and routed to a solids removal system. The
direct loss system is to be considered an interim solution for the first drilling phase and only applied when
the chemical content is low, or water-based drilling mud is used.

55. In the solids removal system, the drilling fluids are separated from the cuttings so that they may be
recirculated downhole, leaving the cuttings behind for disposal. The volume of cuttings produced will
depend on the depth of the well and the diameter of the hole sections drilled. The cuttings contain
residual drilling fluid.

56. The drilling fluid rheological properties and density are adjusted during drilling via solid control
systems; the fluid is eventually replaced (i) when its rheological properties or density can no longer be
maintained, or (ii) at the end of the drilling program. These spent fluids are then contained for reuse or
disposal. Disposal of spent NADF by discharge to the sea must be avoided. Instead, NADF should be
transferred to shore for recycling or treatment and disposal.

57. Feasible alternatives for the disposal of spent WBDF and drilled cuttings from well sections drilled
with either WBDF or NADF should be evaluated. Options include injection into a dedicated disposal well
offshore, injection into the annular space of a well, and containment and transfer to shore for treatment
and disposal. When no alternative options are available, residual WBDF might be discharged to sea at
the end of a drilling program, provided that the overall ESIA conducted for the site has considered this
scenario, demonstrating the environmental acceptability of this practice.

58. When discharge to sea is the only alternative, a drilled cuttings and fluid disposal plan should be
prepared, taking into account cuttings and fluid dispersion, chemical use, environmental risk, and
necessary monitoring. Discharge of cuttings to sea from wells drilled with NADF should be avoided. If
discharge is necessary, cuttings should be treated before discharge to meet the guidelines provided in
Table 1 of Section 2.

59. Guidance for the treatment and disposal of fluids and cuttings shipped to shore is provided in the
EHS Guidelines for Onshore Oil and Gas Development.

60. Pollution prevention and control measures to consider prior to the discharge of spent drilling fluids
and drilled cuttings should include:

• Minimize environmental hazards related to residual chemical additives on discharged cuttings

by careful selection of the fluid system. WBDFs should be selected whenever appropriate.

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• Carefully select fluid additives, taking into account their concentration, toxicity, bioavailability,
and bioaccumulation potential.
• Use high-efficiency solids control equipment to reduce the need for fluid change out.
• Use high-efficiency solids removal and treatment equipment to reduce and minimize the
amount of residual fluid contained in drilled cuttings.
• Use directional drilling (horizontal and extended reach) techniques to avoid sensitive surface
areas and to gain access to the reservoir from less sensitive surface areas.
• Use slim-hole multilateral wells and coiled tubing drilling techniques, when feasible, to reduce
the amount of fluids and cuttings.

61. Drilling fluids to be discharged to sea (including as residual material on drilled cuttings) are subject to
tests for toxicity, barite contamination, and oil content provided in Table 1 of Section 2. Barite
contamination by mercury (Hg) and cadmium (Cd) must be checked to ensure compliance with the
discharge limits provided in Table 1. Suppliers should be asked to guarantee that barite quality meets this
standard with pre-treatment, if necessary.

62. All discharges should be made via a caisson submerged at an appropriate depth (indicatively 15
meters below the sea surface) to ensure suitable dispersion of the effluent; in shallow and calm water, the
caisson depth could be reduced, according to the discharge point characteristics.

Produced Sand
63. Produced sand originating from the reservoir is separated from the formation fluids during
hydrocarbon processing. The produced sand can contain hydrocarbons, and the hydrocarbon content can
vary substantially, depending on location, depth, and reservoir characteristics. Well completion should
aim to reduce the production of sand at source using effective downhole sand control measures.

64. Whenever practical, produced sand removed from process equipment should be transported to
shore for treatment and disposal, or routed to an offshore injection disposal well if available. Discharge to
sea is not good practice. If discharge to sea is the only demonstrably feasible option, then the discharge
should meet the guideline values in Table 1 of Section 2.

65. Any oily water generated from the treatment of produced sand should be recovered and treated to
meet the guideline values for produced water in Table 1 of Section 2.

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Completion and Well Work-Over Fluids

66. Completion and well work-over fluids (including intervention fluids and service fluids) typically
includes weighted brines or acids, methanol and glycols, and other chemical systems. These fluids are
used to clean the wellbore and stimulate the flow of hydrocarbons, or may be used to maintain downhole
pressure. Once used, these fluids may contain contaminants including solid material, oil, and chemical
additives.

67. Feasible disposal options should be considered, including:

• Collect the fluids where handled in closed systems and ship onshore to the original vendors
for recycling.
• Inject in a disposal well, where available.
• Ship onshore for treatment and disposal.

68. If discharge to sea is the only demonstrably feasible option:

• Select chemical systems in relation to their concentration, toxicity, bioavailability, and

bioaccumulation potential.
• Consider routing these fluids to the produced water stream for treatment and disposal, if
available.
• Neutralize spent acids before treatment and disposal.
• Ensure the fluids meet the discharge levels in Table 1 of Section 2.

Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM)

69. Depending on the field reservoir characteristics, naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM 7
may be present in the produced fluids. NORM may precipitate as scale or sludge in process piping and
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production vessels in which the concentration of NORM can be higher than in the fluid). Where NORM is
present, a NORM management program should be developed to ensure the use of appropriate handling
procedures.

70. If removal of NORM is required, disposal options may include: canister disposal during well
abandonment; injection into the annular space of a well; shipment to shore for disposal in a landfill within
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Defined as “Radioactive material containing no significant amounts of radionuclides other than naturally occurring radionuclides.
Material in which the activity concentrations of the naturally occurring radionuclides have been changed by some process are
included in NORM.” International Commission on Radiological Protection. 2007. “The 2007 Recommendations of the International
Commission on Radiological Protection.” ICRP Publication 103. Ann. ICRP 37 (2–4).
8
See International Oil and Gas Producers Association (OGP) 2008a. “Guidelines for the Management of Naturally Occurring
Radioactive Material (NORM) in the Oil and Gas Industry.” Report No. 412. September 2008. OGP.

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sealed containers; and, depending on the type of NORM and in cases where no other option is available,
discharge to sea with the facility drainage.

71. NORM-containing sludge, scale, or equipment should be treated, processed, isolated and/or
9
disposed of according to good international industry practices, so that potential future human exposure
10
to the treated waste would be within internationally accepted limits.

Hazardous Materials Management

72. Hazardous materials are used in offshore oil and gas operations. General guidance for the
management of hazardous materials is provided in the General EHS Guidelines.

73. The following additional principles should be followed for offshore chemicals:

• Use chemical hazard assessment and risk management techniques to evaluate chemicals
and their effects.
• Only select those chemicals that have been previously tested for environmental hazards.
•
11
Select chemicals based on the OSPAR Harmonized Offshore Chemical Notification Format
(HOCNF), or similar internationally recognized system.
• Select chemicals with the least hazard and lowest potential environmental and health impacts,
whenever possible.
• Avoid chemicals suspected to cause taint or known endocrine disruptors.
•
12
For new offshore oil and gas facilities, Ozone Depleting Substances should not be used;
action plans for phasing-out Ozone Depleting Substances present in existing facilities should
be developed and documented.
• Avoid chemicals known to contain heavy metals, in anything other than trace quantities.

Noise
74. Offshore oil and gas development activities generating noise include seismic operations, drilling and
production activities, offshore and nearshore structural installation (especially pile driving) and

9
For more on the management of NORM residues, see: International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). 2013. “Management of NORM
Residues.” IAEA–TECDOC series. ISSN 1011-4289. No. 1712. IAEA.
10
ICRP 2007.
11
Oslo–-Paris Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR), http://www.ospar.org/
12
As defined by the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer.

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construction activities, and marine traffic. Noise from offshore activities (especially from seismic
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operations) can temporarily affect fish and marine mammals.

75. Environmental parameters that determine sound propagation in the sea are site-specific, and
different species of marine life have different hearing sensitivities as a function of frequency. An impact
assessment should be conducted to (i) identify where and/or when anthropogenic sound has the potential
to create significant impacts and (ii) determine what mitigation measures, if any, are appropriate.
Recommended measures to reduce the risk of sound impact to marine species include:

• Identify sensitive areas for marine life, such as feeding, breeding, calving, and spawning
grounds.
• Plan seismic surveys and offshore construction activities so as to avoid sensitive times of the
year.
• Identify fishing areas and reduce disturbances by scheduling seismic surveys and construction
activities for less productive times of the year, where possible.
• Maximize the efficiency of seismic surveys to reduce operation times, where possible.
• If sensitive species are anticipated in the area, monitor their presence before the onset of
sound-creating activities that have the potential to produce adverse effects, and continue
monitoring throughout the seismic program or construction. In areas where significant impacts
to sensitive species are anticipated, use experienced observers.
• When marine mammals are observed congregating close to the area of planned activities,
seismic start-up or construction should begin at least 500 meters away.
• If marine mammals are sighted within 500 meters of the proposed seismic array or
construction area, postpone start-up of seismic activities or construction until they have moved
away, allowing adequate time after the last sighting.
• Use soft-start procedures—also called ramp-up or slow buildup—in areas of known marine
mammal activity. This involves a gradual increase in sound pressure to full operational levels.
• Use the lowest practicable power levels to image the target surface throughout the seismic
surveys and document their use.
• Where possible, use methods to reduce and/or baffle unnecessary high-frequency noise
produced by air guns or other acoustic energy sources.

13
See Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) Guidelines 2010. International Association of Geophysical Contractors (IAGC)
2011, Joint OGP/IAGC Position Paper 2011, and further references in Section 3.0.

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Spills
76. Spills from offshore facilities can occur due to leaks, equipment failure, accidents, or human error.
Guidelines for release prevention and control planning are provided in the General EHS Guidelines,
including the requirement to develop a spill prevention and control plan. Additional spill prevention and
control measures specific to offshore oil and gas facilities include:

• Conduct a spill risk assessment for offshore facilities and support vessels.
• Design process, utility, and drilling systems to reduce the risk of major uncontained spills.
• Install valves—including subsea shutdown valves, if required—for the reduction of risk, to
allow early shutdown or isolation in an emergency.
• Ensure adequate corrosion allowance for the lifetime of the facilities and/or installation of
corrosion control and prevention systems in all pipelines, process equipment, and tanks.
• Develop maintenance and monitoring programs to ensure the integrity of well field equipment.
For export pipelines, maintenance programs should include regular pigging to clean the
pipeline, and intelligent pigging should also be considered as required.
• Install leak detection systems. Use subsea pipeline measures, such as telemetry systems,
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SCADA systems, pressure sensors, shut-in valves, and pump-off systems, as well as
normally unattended installations and unmanned facilities to ensure rapid detection of loss of
containment.
• For facilities with potentially significant releases, install an Emergency Shutdown System that
initiates automatic shutdown actions to bring the offshore facility to a safe condition.
• Implement adequate personnel training in oil spill prevention, containment, and response.
• Ensure that spill response and containment equipment is deployed or available as necessary
for response.
• Document and report all spills. Following a spill, carry out a root cause investigation and
undertake corrective actions to prevent recurrence.

Spill Response Planning

77. A Spill Response Plan (SRP) is required, along with the capability to implement the plan. Prepare a
preliminary SRP, commencing at the project development phase and based on the initial project design,
including community consultation and feedback.

14
SCADA refers to supervisory control and data acquisition systems, which may be used in oil and gas and other industrial facilities
to assist in the monitoring and control of plants and equipment.

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78. The SRP should address potential oil, chemical, and fuel spills from offshore facilities, and support
vessels—including tankers—and pipeline ruptures. The plan should include:

• A description of operations, site conditions, product(s) characteristics, current and wind data,
sea conditions and water depth, and logistical support.
• Spill risk assessment, defining expected frequency and size of spills from potential release
sources, including assessment of foreseeable scenarios.
• Ranking of foreseeable spill scenarios in terms of potential severity, with tiered response
approaches for each.
• Identification of persons responsible for managing and participating in spill response efforts,
their specific responsibilities, authority, roles, and contact details.
• Sensitivity mapping of marine and coastal environmental components that could be affected
15
by spills generated by offshore oil and gas development and production activities.
• Cooperative measures with government agencies, if appropriate.

79. The SRP should also include:

• Clear demarcation of spill severity, according to the size of the spill, using a clearly defined
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Tier I, Tier II, and Tier III approach.
• Oil spill trajectory modeling approach, supported by internationally recognized models, for the
prediction of oil fate and relevant environmental impacts for a number of spill simulations
(including worst case scenario, such as blowout from an oil well), with the ability to input local
current and wind data.
• Strategies for managing Tier I spills from the offshore installation and support vessels (Tiers II
and III spill strategies may also be included).
• For Tier I spills, description of the minimum response equipment that must be available on
board (minimum equipment for Tiers II and III spills may also be included).
• Arrangements and procedures to mobilize external resources in responding to larger spills and
strategies for their deployment.

15
See for reference: International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA)/OGP/International Maritime
Organization (IMO). 2012.“Sensitivity Mapping for Oil Spill Response.” OGP Report Number 477.
16
See IPIECA Report Series Volume 14: “Guide to Tiered Preparedness and Response.” Tier 1 spills are operational in nature
occurring at or near an operator’s own facilities, as a consequence of its own activities. The individual operator is expected to
respond with its own resources. Tier 2 spills are most likely to extend outside the remit of the Tier 1 response area and possibly be
larger in size, where additional resources are needed from a variety of potential sources and a broader range of stakeholders may
be involved in the response. Tier 3 spills are those that, due to their scale and likelihood to cause major
impacts, call for substantial further resources from a range of national and international sources.

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• Full list, description, location, and use of on-site and off-site response equipment, and the
response times for deployment.
• Strategies for containment and recovery of floating oil, including use (and limitations) of
mechanical recovery equipment and chemical dispersants.
• Priorities for response (with input from potentially affected or concerned parties).
• Shoreline cleanup strategies.
• Handling instructions for spilled oil, chemicals, fuels, or other recovered contaminated
materials, including their transportation, temporary storage, and disposal.

80. The SRP should clearly define storage and maintenance instructions for Tier I spill response
equipment. In addition, each offshore facility/group of facilities should install and maintain a meteo-marine
data monitoring station, for planning simulation and response activities.

Loading, Storage, Processing, and Offloading Operations

81. Procedures for loading, storage, processing, and offloading operations, either for consumables (i.e.,
fuel, drilling fluids, and additives) or for liquid products, should be utilized to minimize spill risks. Pumps,
hoses, and valves should be inspected and maintained/replaced as necessary.

82. Floating (Production) Storage and Offloading (FSO/FPSO) vessels and Floating (Liquefaction)
Storage Unit (FSU/FLSU) vessels should be subject to inspection and approval by the
national/international body, in accordance with International Maritime Organization (IMO) requirements.
Double hull vessels are preferred, where available.

83. All offloading activities should be supervised by the designated Mooring Master, who has the
authority to prescribe whether “in tandem” or “side-by-side” array should be adopted, according to the
conditions of the sea.

84. The conditions and characteristics of the export tankers should be assessed by the Offshore Field
Manager prior to commencing offloading operations; only properly registered and well-maintained double-
hull vessels should be utilized.

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Decommissioning
85. Where more stringent local regulatory requirements do not exist, internationally recognized
17
guidelines and standards issued by IMO and OSPAR should be followed for the decommissioning of
18
offshore facilities.

86. IMO standards state that installations or structures of less than 4,000 tonnes, excluding the deck and
superstructure, in less than 75 meters of water should be removed entirely at decommissioning, unless
an alternative use for the structure has been approved. In addition, installations or structures installed
after January 1, 1998 must be designed to be entirely removed. The standards indicate that exceptions
will be considered on a case-by-case basis for installations or structures installed before 1998 that cannot
be fully removed for demonstrable reasons of technical or financial feasibility, but these facilities must be
partially removed to provide a clear water column depth of 55 meters.

87. An OSPAR decision recognizes the entire removal of the facility from offshore locations for re-use,
recycling, or final disposal on land as the preferred option for the decommissioning of offshore facilities.
Alternative disposal options may be considered if justified on the basis of an alternative options
assessment. This assessment should consider facility type, disposal methods, disposal sites, and
environmental and social impact, including interference with other sea users, impacts on safety, energy
and raw material consumption, and emissions.

88. A preliminary decommissioning plan for offshore facilities should be developed that considers well
abandonment, removal of oil from flowlines, facility removal, and subsea pipeline decommissioning, along
with disposal options for all equipment and materials. This plan can be further developed during field
operations and fully defined in advance of the end of field life. The plan should include details on the
provisions for the implementation of decommissioning activities and arrangements for post-
decommissioning monitoring and aftercare.

1.2 Occupational Health and Safety

89. The requirements that follow apply to fixed and floating offshore facilities. Additional requirements
related to hazard prevention for floating facilities are provided in Section 1.1, “Loading, Storage, and
Offloading Operations.”

17
OSPAR Convention, http://www.ospar.org/
18
Guidelines and Standards for the Removal of Offshore Installations and Structures on the Continental Shelf and in the Exclusive
Economic Zone, 1989 (Resolution A.672 (16)), International Maritime Organization (IMO); and the OSPAR Commission Decision
98/3 on the “Disposal of Disused Offshore Installations, and OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the
North-East Atlantic. Ministerial meeting of the OSPAR Commission, Sintra 22-23 July 1998.

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90. Occupational health and safety and major hazard issues should be considered as part of a
comprehensive risk assessment of the facility through, for example, a combination including a hazard
identification study (HAZID), a hazard and operability study (HAZOP), or other risk assessment studies,
addressing occupational hazards as well as major accident hazards (including blowout risk). The results
should be used for health and safety management planning, in the design of the facility and safe working
systems, and in the preparation of safe working procedures. Health and safety management planning
should demonstrate that a systematic and structured approach to managing offshore health and safety
will be adopted and that controls are in place to reduce risks to as low as reasonably practical.
Occupational hazards should be identified and assessed through an Occupational Hazards Assessment
report, detailing prevention and mitigation measures (including operational procedures) to be considered.
All workers should be made aware of the contents of this document through dedicated induction training.

91. Offshore facilities should be designed to eliminate or reduce the potential for injury or risk of
accident. General facility design measures and requirements are provided in the General EHS
Guidelines. In addition, the following issues should be considered in the design of offshore facilities:

• Environmental conditions at the offshore location (e.g., seismicity, extreme wind and wave
events, currents, ice formations).
• Proper selection of materials and development of a monitoring plan to ensure the protection of
equipment and structures from corrosion.
• Adequate living accommodations appropriate to outside environmental conditions, plus related
policies that consider the physical and mental strain on personnel living on production
facilities; space for recreation and social activities and/or a limit to the number of consecutive
days permitted on the offshore facility should be considered.
• Limited accommodations in production facilities for staff related to asset operation only.
• Temporary refuges or safe havens located in a protected area at the facility for use by
personnel in the event of an emergency.
• A sufficient number of escape routes leading to designated personnel muster points and
escape from the facility.
• Handrails, toeboards, and non-slip surfaces on elevated platforms and walkways, stairways,
and ramps to prevent person overboard incidents.
• Crane and equipment laydown area positioning to avoid moving loads over critical areas and
reducing the impacts from dropped objects. Alternatively, structural protection measures
should be provided.

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92. In addition to HAZID, occupational health and safety risk management should include
communicating to personnel the importance of conducting work activities in a safe and skillful manner,
OHS training for staff, and maintaining equipment in a safe condition.

93. A formal Permit to Work (PTW) system should be developed for offshore facilities. The PTW will
ensure that all potentially hazardous work is carried out safely and ensures effective authorization of
designated work; effective communication of the work to be carried out, including hazards involved; and
safe isolation procedures to be followed before commencing work. A lockout/tagout procedure for
equipment should be implemented to ensure that all equipment is isolated from energy sources before
servicing or removal.

94. Offshore facilities should be equipped, at a minimum, with specialized first-aid providers (industrial
pre-hospital care personnel) and the means to provide short-term remote patient care. Depending on the
number of personnel present and the complexity of the facility, provision of an on-site medical unit and
doctor should be considered. In specific cases, telemedicine facilities may be an alternative option.

95. An alarm system should be installed that can to be heard throughout the offshore facility. Alarms for
fire, gas leak, and person overboard should be provided.

96. Clear responsibilities for EHS matters should be defined, including identification of a functional role
for managing the facility’s EHS issues. An EHS responsible officer should be continuously present in the
facility, and health and safety inductions should be provided to the entire workforce prior to mobilizing
offshore and documented.

97. Guidance for the management of physical hazards common to all industries and specifically relating
to hazards from rotating and moving equipment, exposure to noise and vibration, electrical hazards, hot
work, working with heavy equipment, working at heights, and the general working environment is
provided in the General EHS Guidelines. These guidelines also provide guidance on Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) required for the workforce.

98. Additional occupational health and safety issues in offshore oil and gas operations include:

• Fire and explosion prevention and control

• Air quality
• Hazardous materials
• Personnel transfer and vessels
• Well blowouts

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• Ship collision
• Dropped objects and material handling issues
• Emergency preparedness and response

Fire and Explosion Prevention and Control

99. Guidance on fire precautions and the prevention and control of fire and explosions is provided in the
General EHS Guidelines.

100. The most effective ways to prevent fires and explosions in offshore facilities is to prevent the release
of flammable material and gas, to implement early detection procedures, and to ensure the interruption of
leaks. Potential ignition sources should be kept to a minimum and adequate separation distance between
potential ignition sources and flammable materials should be in place. Offshore facilities should be
19
classified into various hazard areas, based on international standards, and in accordance with the
likelihood of release of flammable gases and liquids.

101. Appropriate fire and explosion prevention and control measures for offshore facilities should include:

• Provision of passive fire protection throughout the facility to prevent the spread of fire in the
event of an incident. Fire protection measures should be designed on the basis of a fire and
explosion risk assessment and should include:

o Provide passive fire protection on load-bearing structures and fire-rated walls, and
build fire-rated partitions between rooms.

o Take into account explosion load in the design of load-bearing structures, or

install blast-rated walls.

o Design items and structures against explosion and evaluate the need for blast
walls based on an assessment of likely explosion characteristics.

o Consider blast panel or explosion venting, and fire and explosion protection
should specifically consider wellheads, safe areas, and living areas.

• Ensure the protection of accommodation areas by distance or by fire walls. The ventilation air
intakes should prevent smoke and flammable or hazardous gases from entering
accommodation areas.

19
Such as American Petroleum Institute (API) Recommended Practice 500 and 505, International Electrotechnical Commission, or
British Standards (BS).

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• Locate all fire systems (for example, firewater pumps or control room) in a safe area of the
facility, protected from fire by distance or by fire walls. If the system or item is located within a
fire area, it should be passive fire-protected or fail-safe.
• Avoid explosive atmospheres in confined spaces by making spaces inert.
• In unmanned facilities, signal the occurrence of gas leaks, fire, or explosion to the remote
control center to ensure that appropriate action is taken.
• Conduct a fire impact assessment to determine the type and extent of fire detection and
protection required for an offshore facility. A combination of automatic and manual fire alarm
systems are typically provided on offshore facilities. Active fire protection systems should be
installed on offshore facilities and should be strategically located to enable rapid and effective
response. A combination of active fire suppression mechanisms can be used, depending on
the type of fire and the fire impact assessment (for example, fixed foam system, fixed fire
water system, CO2 extinguishing system, water mist system, gaseous extinguishing system,
fixed dry chemical system, fixed wet chemical system, fire water monitors, live hose reels, and
portable fire extinguishing equipment). Halon-based fire systems should be avoided. Firewater
pumps should be available and designed to deliver water at an appropriate rate. Regular
checks and maintenance of firefighting equipment are essential.
• Provide fire safety training and response as part of workforce health and safety
induction/training, with advanced fire safety training provided to a designated firefighting team.

Air Quality
102. Guidance for the maintenance of air quality in the workplace, along with required air quality levels, is
provided in the General EHS Guidelines.

103. Due to the risk of gas releases caused by leaks or emergency events, adequate ventilation in closed
or partially closed spaces is required at offshore oil and gas facilities. Air intakes should be installed to
ventilate facility safe areas and areas that should be operable during emergency situations. If necessary,
the means to detect dangerous gas concentrations in the intakes, as well as automatic shut-down in the
event of dangerous gas levels should be installed. A dangerous concentration of flammable gas can be
considered to be a fraction (approximately 20 percent) of the Lower Explosive Limit of the substance.

104. The facilities should be equipped with a reliable system for gas detection that allows the source of
release to be isolated and the inventory of gas that can be released to be reduced. Blowdown of pressure
equipment should be initiated to reduce system pressure and consequently reduce the release flow rate.
Gas detection devices should also be used to authorize entry and operations into enclosed spaces.

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105. Wherever hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas may accumulate, monitors should be installed and set to
activate warning signals whenever detected concentrations of H2S exceed 7 milligrams per cubic meter
3)
(mg/m . Personnel should also be provided with personal H2S detectors and response training in the
event of a leak. A self-contained breathing apparatus should be provided and the apparatus designed and
conveniently located to enable personnel to safely interrupt tasks and reach a temporary refuge or safe
haven.

Hazardous Materials
106. The design of the offshore facilities should reduce exposure of personnel to chemical substances,
fuels, and products containing hazardous substances. Use of substances and products classified as
highly toxic, carcinogenic, allergenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, or strongly corrosive should be identified
and the products replaced by less hazardous alternatives, wherever possible. For each chemical used, a
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) should be readily available on the facility. A general hierarchical
approach to the prevention of impacts from chemical hazards is provided in the General EHS
Guidelines.

107. A procedure for the control and management of radioactive sources used offshore should be
prepared, along with a designated shielded container for storage when the source is not in use. The
container should be locked in a secure store that is exclusively used for this purpose.

108. In locations where NORM may precipitate as scale or sludge in process piping and production
vessels, facilities and process equipment should be monitored for the presence of NORM at least every
five years, or whenever equipment is to be taken out of service for maintenance. NORM can have
adverse health effects through external irradiation or internal exposure (if NORM is taken into the body
via inhalation, ingestion, or absorption). Where NORM is detected, the expected annual doses and the
probability and magnitude of potential exposures should be assessed and a workforce monitoring and
management program, appropriate to the magnitude and nature of the risks, should be developed and
implemented (e.g., source control, exposure monitoring, worker education and safe operating practices,
including appropriate PPE). Procedures should determine the classification of the area where NORM is
present and the level of supervision and control required.

109. The operator should determine whether to leave the NORM in-situ, or to remove it for disposal, as
described in Section 1.1 of these Guidelines.

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Personnel Transfer and Vessels

110. Personnel transfer to and from offshore facilities typically occurs by helicopter or boat. Safety
procedures for helicopter and vessel transport of personnel are required. Passengers should
systematically receive a safety briefing and safety equipment as part of helicopter or vessel transport.

111. Equipment used for personnel transportation should be certified and the transportation crew qualified
according to applicable national and international regulations. In the event of helicopter transport, the
helicopter should be certified according to International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) rules. In the
event of marine transport, the vessel should be class approved.

112. Helicopter decks (helideck) onboard offshore facilities should follow the requirements of the ICAO.
Facilities for mooring boats during the transfer of personnel should consider adverse sea conditions to
protect the boat and the facility structure from heavy impacts.

113. If personnel are transferred from the boat to the facility by crane, only cranes, cables, and baskets
certified for personnel transfer should be used.

114. Support vessels should have the relevant permits and certifications to comply with IMO
requirements. A Vessel Safety Management System should be implemented.

Well Blowouts
115. A blowout (i.e., loss of well control) can be caused by the uncontrolled flow of reservoir fluids into the
wellbore and may result in an uncontrolled release of formation fluids into the environment.

116. Blowout prevention measures should focus on maintaining wellbore hydrostatic pressure by
effectively estimating formation fluid pressures and the strength of subsurface formations. This can be
achieved with techniques such as proper pre-well planning; drilling fluid logging; or using sufficient
hydrostatic head of weighted drilling fluid or completion fluid to balance the pressures in the wellbore.
Well integrity testing (e.g., negative pressure test, cement bond log) should be performed, with the type of
test and frequency defined by the operator, based on the actual operation characteristics and through a
risk-based process to confirm that the proposed testing is adequate to ensure well integrity.

117. A Blow Out Preventer (BOP) system should be installed that can be closed rapidly in the event of an
uncontrolled influx of formation fluids and that allows the well to be circulated to safety by venting the gas
at surface and routing oil so that it may be contained. The BOP should be tested at installation and at
regular intervals (at least every 14 days), via partial or complete shutdown, based on availability
considerations related to the specific application. BOP testing should be conducted by an independent

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specialist, particularly for critical wells (e.g., deepwater, high pressure, or high temperature wells). Facility
personnel should conduct well control drills at regular intervals and key personnel should attend well
control courses periodically.

118. The BOP design should be in general compliance with international standards. It is recommended
that, at a minimum, subsea BOP systems consist of one annular preventer, two blind-shear ram
preventers, and two pipe ram preventers, and that they be equipped with choke and kill lines and failsafe
choke and kill close valves. The BOP preventers should be able to close the BOP for the maximum drill
pipe string foreseen for the drilling operations. BOP shall operate (failsafe) in the event of a loss of control
signal from the surface. Subsea BOP should allow closure of pipe rams and blind shear rams by
20
Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) intervention.

119. Contingency planning should be prepared for well operations and should include identification of
provisions for well capping in the event of uncontrolled blowout (providing indication of the tools,
21
equipment, and intervention time required), and identification of spill recovery measures.

120. A dedicated blowout risk analysis and emergency plan should be prepared, detailing the measures
in place to prevent blowout, the provisions for well control in a blowout scenario (including capping tools
and oil spill recovery means), and indicating the time necessary for the intervention. The risk analysis
should include failure mode and effect analysis of the technical systems in place to control a blowout, as
well as reliability analysis of the systems. Blowout risk analysis is mandatory in the case of deepwater
wells, where emergency intervention is more difficult and intervention times higher than is typical, and for
high-pressure or high-temperature wells.

Ship Collision
121. To avoid collisions with third-party and support vessels, offshore facilities should be equipped with
navigational aids that meet national and international requirements. Navigational aids include radar and
lights on facility structures and, where appropriate, on support vessels. A 500-meter radius facility
exclusion zone, at a minimum, should be implemented around permanent offshore facilities. The facility
should monitor and communicate with vessels approaching the facility to reduce the risk of vessel
collision.

20
Blow Out Preventer (BOP) requirements and safety considerations on well safety are provided in American Bureau of Shipping
(ABS) 2012; API RP53 1997; OGP 2011a; NORSOK 2004; US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) CFR 30, Part 250, Subpart
D, 2013.
21
See OGP 2011b and OGP 2011c.

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122. The relevant maritime, port, or shipping authority should be notified of all permanent offshore
facilities, as well as exclusion zones and routine shipping routes to be used by project-related vessels.
Permanent facility locations should be marked on nautical charts. The maritime authorities should be
notified of the schedule and location of activities when there will be a significant increase in vessel
movement, such as during facility installation, rig movements, and seismic surveys.

123. A subsea pipeline corridor safety zone (typically, 1,000 meters wide) should be established to define
anchoring exclusion zones and provide protection for fishing gear. In shallower waters with high shipping
activity, consideration should be given to burying the pipeline below the seabed.

Emergency Preparedness and Response

124. Guidance relating to emergency preparedness and response, including emergency resources, is
provided in the General EHS Guidelines. Offshore facilities should establish and maintain a high level of
emergency preparedness to ensure that the response to incidents is effective and without delay. Potential
worst-case accidents should be identified by risk assessment and appropriate preparedness
requirements designed. An emergency response team should be established for the offshore facility.
Such a team should be trained to respond to potential emergencies, rescue injured persons, and perform
emergency actions. The team should coordinate actions with other agencies and organizations that may
be involved in emergency response.

125. Personnel should be provided with adequate and sufficient emergency response equipment that is
appropriately located for the evacuation of the facility. Lifeboats should be available in sufficient numbers
for the entire workforce. These lifeboats should be enclosed, fire-resistant crafts with trained lifeboat
operators. Ice vehicles are required for the evacuation from facilities in frozen waters. Sufficient
lifejackets, lifebuoys, and survival suits should also be provided.

126. Evacuation by helicopter should not be considered as the primary means of escape.

127. Exercises in emergency preparedness should be practiced at a frequency commensurate with the
project risk. At a minimum, the following practice schedule should be implemented:

• Quarterly drills without equipment deployment.

• Evacuation drills and training for egress from the platform under different weather conditions
and at varying times of day.
• Annual mock drills with equipment deployment.
• Regular training, updated as needed and based on continuous evaluation.

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128. An emergency response plan should be prepared, based on the identification of potential emergency
scenarios, which contains the following measures, at a minimum:

• A description of the response organization (structure, roles, responsibilities, and decision

makers).
• Description of response procedures (details of response equipment and location, procedures,
training requirements, duties, etc.).
• Descriptions and procedures for alarm and communications systems.
• Precautionary measures for securing the well(s).
• Relief well arrangements, including description of equipment, consumables, and support
systems to be utilized.
• Description of on-site first-aid supplies and available backup medical support.
• Description of other emergency facilities, such as emergency fueling sites.
• Description of survival equipment and gear, alternate accommodation facilities, and
emergency power sources.
• Procedures for person overboard.
• Evacuation procedures.
• Emergency Medical Evacuation (MEDEVAC) procedures for injured or ill personnel.
• Policies defining measures for limiting or stopping events, and conditions for the termination of
action.

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1.3 Community Health and Safety

129. Impacts to community health and safety from typical offshore oil and gas facility operations relate to
potential interaction with other sea users, primarily shipping companies and fishermen. Impacts may
include accidents, loss of containment, and blowouts. A comprehensive assessment addressing potential
hazards to local communities and to the environment is required. Based on the findings of the
assessment, adequate measures to avoid or control the hazards should be taken and should be factored
into emergency planning.

130. Activities such as offshore drilling and construction, pipeline installation, seismic operations, and
decommissioning may result in temporary impacts to other users of the sea. Permanent installations and
structures, including production and drilling facilities and subsea pipelines, have a potential long-term
impact, at least until the end of the life of the field. Notification of the location of offshore facilities
(including subsea hazards) and timing of offshore activities should be provided to local and regional
maritime authorities, including fishery groups. The position of fixed facilities and safety exclusion zones
should be marked on nautical charts. Clear instructions regarding access limitations to exclusion zones
should be communicated to other sea users. Subsea pipeline routes should be regularly monitored for the
presence of pipeline spans and identified spans should be repaired in a timely manner.

131. In areas where significant impacts to fishermen are anticipated, a fisheries liaison officer should be
appointed to provide a direct link with the fishing community. Arrangements for the management of
potential community or amenity impacts resulting from shoreline impacts caused by oil, chemical, or fuel
spills are to be included in the spill response plans.

Security
132. Unauthorized access to offshore facilities should be avoided by means of gates located in the stairs
from the boat landings to the deck level. Means for detecting intrusion (for example, closed-circuit
television) may be considered, allowing the control room to verify the conditions of the facility. Additional
active and passive security measures should be defined on the basis of a site-specific risk assessment.

133. A facility standby vessel should be considered for all offshore facilities (in case of multi-platform
developments, platforms do not have to have their own dedicated standby vessels). These vessels
should support security operations, monitoring third-party vessels entering the exclusion zone, manage
supply vessel approach to the facility, and support operations during emergency situations.

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2.0 Performance Indicators and Monitoring

2.1 Environment
Emissions and Effluent Guidelines
134. Table 1 presents effluent guidelines for offshore oil and gas development. Guideline values for
process effluents in this sector are indicative of good international industry practice, as reflected in the
relevant standards of countries with recognized regulatory frameworks. The guidelines are assumed to be
achievable under normal operating conditions in appropriately designed and operated facilities through
the application of pollution prevention and control techniques discussed in the preceding sections of this
document.

135. The effluent guidelines are primarily applicable to discharges in off-shore locations (e.g., greater
than 12 nautical miles from shore). Discharge water quality to near-shore waters should be established
on a case-specific basis, taking into account the environmental sensitivities and assimilative capacity of
receiving waters.

136. Combustion source emissions guidelines associated with steam- and power-generation activities
from sources with a capacity equal to or lower than 50 MWth are addressed in the General EHS
Guidelines, with larger power source emissions addressed in the EHS Guidelines for Thermal Power.
Guidance on ambient considerations based on the total load of emissions is provided in the General EHS
Guidelines.

Environmental Monitoring
137. Environmental monitoring programs for this sector should be implemented as required to address all
activities that have been identified to have potentially significant impacts on the environment, during
normal operations and upset conditions. Environmental monitoring activities should be based on direct or
indirect indicators of emissions, effluents, and resource use applicable to the particular project.

138. Monitoring frequency should be sufficient to provide representative data for the parameter being
monitored. Monitoring should be conducted by trained individuals following monitoring and record-
keeping procedures and using properly calibrated and maintained equipment. Monitoring data should be
analyzed and reviewed at regular intervals and compared with the operating standards, so that any
necessary corrective actions can be taken. Additional guidance on applicable sampling and analytical
methods for emissions and effluents is provided in the General EHS Guidelines.

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Table 1. Effluent levels from Offshore Oil and Gas Development

Parameter Guideline

1) NADF: re-inject or ship-to-shore, no discharge to sea

2) Drilled cuttings: re-inject or ship-to-shore, no discharge to sea except:
• For new facilities: Organic Phase Drilling Fluid (OPFa) concentration lower than 1% by weight
on dry cuttings
Drilling Fluids and • For existing facilities: Residual Non Aqueous Phase Drilling Fluidb (NAF) 6.9% (C16 -C18 internal
Cuttings – NADF olefins, and C8 -C16)) or 9.4% (fatty acid/2-ethylhexyl esters) on wet cuttings
• Hg: max 1 mg/kg dry weight in stock barite
• Cd: max 3 mg/kg dry weight in stock barite
• Discharge via a caisson (at least 15 m below surface is recommended whenever applicable; in
any case, a good dispersion of the solids on the seabed should be demonstrated)

1) WBDF: re-inject or ship-to-shore, no discharge to sea except:

• In compliance with 96 hr. LC-50 of SPP-3% vol. toxicity test first for drilling fluids or alternatively
testing based on standard toxicity assessment speciesc (preferably site-specific species)
2) WBDF, fluids and cuttings: re-inject or ship-to-shore, no discharge to sea except:
Drilling Fluids and
• Hg: 1 mg/kg dry weight in stock barite
Cuttings – WBDF
• Cd: 3 mg/kg dry weight in stock barite
• Maximum chloride concentration must be less than four times the ambient concentration of
fresh or brackish receiving water
• Discharge via a caisson at least 15 m below sea surface

Reinject. Discharge to sea is allowed if oil and grease content does not exceed 42 mg/l daily
Produced Water
maximum; 29 mg/L monthly averaged
Reinject or reuse. Discharge to sea is allowed if oil and grease content does not exceed 42 mg/L
Flow-Back Water daily maximum; 29 mg/L monthly average. An environmental risk assessment, to determine the
maximum site-specific allowable concentrations should be conducted for all other chemicals
Ship-to-shore or reinject. No discharge to sea except:
• Oil and grease content does not exceed 42 mg/L daily maximum; 29 mg/L monthly average
Completion and Well
• Neutralize to attain a pH of 5 or more
Work-Over Fluids
• In compliance with 96 hr. LC-50 of SPP-3% vol. toxicity test first for drilling fluids or alternatively
testing based on standard toxicity assessment speciesc (preferably site-specific species)
Ship-to-shore or reinject. No discharge to sea except when oil concentration lower than 1% by
Produced Sand
weight on dry sand
• Send to shore for treatment and disposal
Hydrotest Water • Discharge offshore following environmental risk analysis, careful selection of chemicals
• Reduce use of chemicals
The effluent should result in a temperature increase of no more than 3° C at edge of the zone
Cooling Water where initial mixing and dilution take place. Where the zone is not defined, use 100 m from point of
discharge.
Desalination Brine Mix with other discharge waste streams, if feasiblee
Sewage Compliance with MARPOL 73/78e
Food Waste Compliance with MARPOL 73/78 e
Storage
Compliance with MARPOL 73/78e
Displacement Water
Bilgewater Compliance with MARPOL 73/78e
Deck Drainage (non-
Compliance with MARPOL 73/78e
hazardous and
hazardous drains)
Notes:
a
As defined by OSPAR Decision 2000/3.
b
As defined in U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2013. “Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).”Title 40: Protection of Environment. Part 435.
Oil and Gas Extraction Point Source Category; Subpart A—Offshore Subcategory—Specialized Definitions. Washington, D.C.: EPA.
c
96-hr LC-50: Concentration in parts per million (ppm) or percent of the Suspended Particulate Phase (SPP) from sample that is lethal to 50 percent of
the test organism exposed to that concentration for a continuous period of 96 hours.
d
Consistent with U.S. EPA CFR 40 Part 435, 2013; OSPAR “Recommendation for the Management of Produced Water from Offshore Installations”
2011; OGP 2005.
e
In nearshore waters, carefully select discharge location based on environmental sensitivities and assimilative capacity of receiving waters.

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2.2 Occupational Health and Safety

139. Key Performance Indicators should be adopted to monitor operations and anticipate potential health
and safety issues. Both lagging indicators (measuring retrospectively the performances of the facilities)
and leading indicators (indicating situations that could result in future health and safety issues) should be
defined for the facility. These indicators should consider both technical systems and
operational/management issues.

Occupational Health and Safety Guidelines

140. Occupational health and safety performance should be evaluated against internationally published
exposure guidelines, of which examples include the Threshold Limit Value (TLV®) occupational exposure
guidelines and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs®), published by American Conference of Governmental
22
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH); the Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, published by the United States
23
National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH); Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs),
24
published by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United States (OSHA); Indicative
25
Occupational Exposure Limit Values, published by European Union member states; or other similar
sources. Particular attention should be given to the occupational exposure guidelines for hydrogen sulfide
(H2S).

141. Guidance on occupational exposure to ionizing radiation and its monitoring when NORM is present
26
is provided in the General EHS Guidelines and other internationally recognized sources.

Accident and Fatality Rates

142. Projects should try to reduce the number of accidents among project workers (whether directly
employed or subcontracted) to a rate of zero, especially accidents that could result in lost work time,
different levels of disability, or fatalities. Facility rates may be benchmarked against the performance of
facilities in this sector in developed countries through consultation with published sources (e.g., U.S.
27
Bureau of Labor Statistics and U.K. Health and Safety Executive).

22
http://www.acgih.org/TLV/ and http://www.acgih.org/store/.
23
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/.
24
http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=9992.
25
http://europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/risks/ds/oel/.
26
ICRP 2007.
27
http://www.bls.gov/iif/ and http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm.

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Occupational Health and Safety Monitoring

143. The working environment should be monitored for occupational hazards relevant to the specific
28
project. Monitoring should be designed and implemented by accredited professionals as part of an
occupational health and safety monitoring program. Facilities should also maintain a record of
occupational accidents and diseases, as well as dangerous occurrences and accidents. Additional
guidance on occupational health and safety monitoring programs is provided in the General EHS
Guidelines.

28
Accredited professionals may include Certified Industrial Hygienists, Registered Occupational Hygienists, or Certified Safety
Professionals or their equivalent.

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3.0 References and Additional Sources

Alberta Energy Resources Conservation Board (ERCB). 2011. “Upstream Petroleum Industry Flaring,
Venting and Incineration.” Directive 060. Calgary, Alberta: November 2011.

American Bureau of Shipping (ABS). “2012 Guide for the Classification of Drilling Systems.” September
2012.

American Petroleum Institute (API). 1997a. “Environmental Guidance Document: Waste Management in
Exploration and Production Operations.” API E5, 2nd ed. API.

———. 1997b. “Management and Disposal Alternatives for Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material
(NORM) Wastes in Oil Production and Gas Plant Equipment.” Publ. 7103. API.

———. 1997c. “Recommended Practices for Blowout Prevention Equipment Systems for Drilling Wells.”
rd
API RP53, 3 ed. API.

———. 1997d. “Recommended Practice for Classification of Locations for Electrical Installations at
Petroleum Facilities Classified as Class I, Division I and Division 2”. API RP 500 (R2002).

———. 1997e. “Recommended Practice for Classification of Locations for Electrical Installations at
Petroleum Facilities Classified as Class I, Zone 0, and Zone 2”. API RP 505 (R2013).

Asociation Regional De Empresas de Petroleo Y Gas Natual En LatinoAmerica Y El Caribe (Regional

Association of Oil, Gas and Biofuels Sector Companies in Latin America and the Caribbean, ARPEL).
1999a. “Control of Contamination from Offshore Exploration and Production Operations.”
Environmental Guideline No. 26. ARPEL. http://www.arpel.org

———. 1999b. “International Review of Health Risks for Oil and Gas Industry Workers: Current Status
and Future Prospects.” Occupational Health and Safety Report No. 5. ARPEL. http://www.arpel.org

———. 2005. “Gas Flaring, Venting, Leaks and Losses at Exploration & Production Facilities.”
Environmental Guideline #12-2005. ARPEL. http://www.arpel.org

———. 2005. “Statistics on Incidents in the Oil and Gas Industry in Latin America and the Caribbean.”
2004 Statistics for ARPEL Member Companies. http://www.arpel.org

Australian Petroleum Production & Exploration Association Limited (APPEA). 2002. “Guidelines for
Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials.” Camberra, Australia: APPEA.

Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP). 2000. “Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material
(NORM). Guide.” Report 2000-0036. Calgary: CAPP. June 2000.

———. 2001. “Offshore Produced Water Waste Management.” Report 2001-030. Calgary: CAPP.

Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC). 2013. “Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material
(NORM).” Fact Sheet. May 2013.

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Canadian NORM Waste Management Technical Committee. 2005. Final Draft. “Technical Report on the
Management of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) in Waste.” NORM Waste
Management Technical Committee.

Canada Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Board (CNSOPB). 2010. “Offshore Waste Treatment
Guidelines.” Nova Scotia: CNSOPB.

Committee on Potential Impacts of Ambient Noise in the Ocean on Marine Mammals, National Research
Council. 2003. “Ocean Noise and Marine Mammals.” National Research Council of the National
Academies. The National Academies Press. Washington, DC.

Decreto Legislativo (Legislative Decree). 2006. No. 152. “Norme in Materia Ambientale.” Rome, Italy.

Del Villano, Kommendal, et al. 2009. “A Study on Kinetic Hydrate Inhibitor Performance and Seawater
Biodegradability.” Energy and Fuels 23.

Exploration & Production Forum (E&P Forum). 1993. “Exploration and Production (E&P) Waste
Management Guidelines.” Report No. 2.58/196. E&P Forum.

Exploration & Production Forum/United Nations Environment Programme (E&P Forum/UNEP). 1997.
“Environmental Management in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production. An Overview of Issues and
Management Approaches.” UNEP IE/PAC Technical Report 37. E&P Forum Report 2.72/254. E&P
Forum. E&P Forum/UNEP.

Ekins, Paul, Robin Vanner, and James Firebrace. 2005. “Management of Produced Water on Offshore Oil
Installations. A Comparative Analysis using Flow Analysis.” Policy Studies Institute. U.K. Department
of Trade and Industry.

Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 2004. “Review of Scientific Information on Impacts of Seismic Sound on
Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Turtles and Marine Mammals.” Habitat Status Report 2004/002.

Grant, Alistair. 2003. “Environmental Impacts of Decommissioning of Oil and Gas Installations in the
North Sea.” http://www.uea.ac.uk/~e130/cuttings.htm

Health Canada, Canadian NORM Working Group of the Federal Provincial Territorial Radiation Protection
Committee (FPTRPC). 2000. “Canadian Guidelines for the Management of Naturally Occurring
Radioactive Materials (NORM),” 1st ed, October 2000. Canadian Ministry of Health. Minister of Public
Works and Government Services Canada.

Helsinki Commission (HELCOM). 1997. Recommendation 18/2. “Offshore Activities.” Helsinki, Finland:
Helcom.

Hildebrand, J. A. 2004. “Impacts of Anthropogenic Sound on Cetaceans.” IWC SC/E/13.

———. 2005. “Impacts of Anthropogenic Sound" edited by J.E. Reynolds et al., 101–124. Marine
Mammal Research: Conservation beyond Crisis. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore,
Maryland.

International Association of Geophysical Contractors (IAGC). 2001. Environmental Manual for Worldwide
Geophysical Operations. Houston, Texas: IAGC.

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———. 2011. “Recommended Mitigation Measures for Cetaceans during Geophysical Operations.”

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). 2012. “Safety Standards Series No. SSR-6. Regulation for
the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material.” 2012 ed, Specific Safety Requirements. IAEA

———. 2013. “Management of NORM Residues.” IAEA–TECDOC series. ISSN 1011-4289. No. 1712.
IAEA.

International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). 2007. “The 2007 Recommendations of the
International Commission on Radiological Protection.” ICRP Publication 103. Ann. ICRP 37 (2-4).
http://www.icrp.org/publication.asp?id=ICRP+Publication+103

International Maritime Organization (IMO). 1990. “International Convention on Oil Pollution,

Preparedness, Response and Cooperation.” London, U.K.: IMO.

———. 2003. “Guidelines for Application of MARPOL Annex I Requirements to FPSOs and FSUs.”
MEPC/Circ.406. November 2003. London, U.K.: IMO.

———. 2012. “MARPOL 73/78, Consolidated Edition 2012.” London, U.K.: IMO.

International Oil & Gas Producers Association (OGP). 2002a. “Aromatics in Produced Water: Occurrence,
Fate & Effects, and Treatment.” Report No. 324. January 2002. OGP.

———. 2002b. “Oil and Gas Exploration and Production in Arctic Offshore Regions – Guidelines for
Environmental Protection.” Report No. 2.84/329. OGP.

———. 2005. “Fate and Effects of Naturally Occurring Substances in Produced Waters on the Marine
Environment.” Report No. 364. February 2005. OGP.

———. 2006. “Guidelines for Managing Marine Risks Associated with FPSOs.” Report No. 377. April
2006. OGP.

———. 2008a. “Guidelines for the Management of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) in
the Oil and Gas Industry.” Report No. 412. September 2008. OGP.

———. 2008b. “Guidelines for Waste Management with Special Focus on Areas with Limited
Infrastructure.” Report No. 413. Rev I.I. September 2008 (updated March 2009). OGP.

———. 2011. “Environmental Performance Indicators – 2011 Data.” Report No. 2011e. October 2012.
OGP.

———. 2011a. “Deepwater Wells. Global Industry Response Group Recommendations.” Report No. 463.
May 2011. OGP.

———. 2011b. “Capping & Containment. Global Industry Response Group Recommendations.” Report
No. 464. May 2011. OGP.

———. 2011c. “Oil Spill Response. Global Industry Response Group Recommendations.” Report No.
465. May 2011. OGP.

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———. 2012a. “List of Standards and Guidelines for Drilling, Well Construction & Well Operations.”
Report No. 485. Version 1.1, December 2012. OGP.

———. 2012b. “Offshore Environmental Monitoring for the Oil & Gas Industry.” Report No. 457. Version
1, May 2012. OGP.

———. 2013a. “Guidelines for the Conduct of Offshore Drilling Hazard Site Surveys.” Report No. 373-18-
1. Version 1.1, April 2013. OGP.

———. 2013b. “OGP Safety Performance Indicators – 2012 Data.” Report No. 2012s. June 2013. OGP
Data Series.

International Oil & Gas Producers Association / International Association of Geophysical Contractors
(OCP / IAGC). 2004. “Seismic Surveys and Marine Mammals. A Joint OGP/IAGC Position Paper.”
Report No. 358. September 2004. OGP/IAGC.

———. 2011. “An Overview of Marine Seismic Operations.” Report No. 448. April 2011. OCP/IAGC.

International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA). 2008. “Oil Spill
Preparedness and Response. Report Series Summary.” London, U.K.: IPIECA. http://www.ipieca.org/

International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association / International Maritime

Organization / International Association of Oil & Gas Producers (IPIECA/IMO/OGP). 2012. “Sensitivity
Mapping for Oil Spill Response.” April 2012. London, U.K.: IPIECA. http://www.ipieca.org/

Joint Nature Conservation Committee. 2010. “JNCC Guidelines for Minimizing the Risk of Injury and
Disturbance to Marine Mammals from Seismic Surveys.” Joint Nature Conservation Committee.
August 2010. Aberdeen., U.K.Joint Industry Oil Spill Preparedness and Response Task Force (JIFT).
2012. “Second Progress Report On Industry Recommendations to Improve Oil Spill Preparedness
and Response.” November, 16, 2012.

McCauley, R.D., J. Fewtrell, A.J. Duncan, C. Jenner, M-N. Jenner, J.D. Penrose, R.I.T. Prince, A.
Adhitya, J. Murdoch, and K. McCabe. 2000. “Marine Seismic Surveys. A Study of Environmental
Implications.” APPEA Journal 20: 692–708.

McGinnis, Michael V., Linda Fernandez, and Caroline Pomeroy. 2001. “The Politics, Economics, and
Ecology of Decommissioning Offshore Oil and Gas Structures.” OCS Study MMS 2001-006. Coastal
Research Center, Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, California.
Cooperative Agreement Number 14-35-0001-30761.

Mosbech, A. R. Dietz, and J. Nymand. 2000. “Preliminary Environmental Impact Assessment of Regional
Offshore Seismic Surveys in Greenland: Arktisk Miljø - Arctic Environment.” Research Notes from
nd
NERI No. 132. 2 Edition. National Environmental Research Institute. Denmark.

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/montreal_protocol.php 29

29
As adjusted and amended by the Second Meeting of the Parties (London, 27–29 June 1990), and by the Fourth Meeting of the
Parties (Copenhagen, 23–25 November 1992), and further adjusted by the Seventh Meeting of the Parties (Vienna, 5–7 December
1995), and further adjusted and amended by the Ninth Meeting of the Parties (Montreal, 15–17 September 1997), and by the
Eleventh Meeting of the Parties (Beijing, 29 November–3 December 1999), and further adjusted by the Nineteenth Meeting of the
Parties (Montreal, 17–21 September 2007).

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NORSOK Standard. 2004. Well Integrity in Drilling and Well Operations. D-010. Rev. 3. August 2004.
Standards Norway. Norway: NORSOK.

———. 2005. “Environmental Care.” S-003. Rev. 3. December 2005. Standards Norway. Norway:
NORSOK.

Norwegian Oil and Gas Association. 2013. “Recommended Guidelines for Waste Management in the
Offshore Industry.” No. 093. Rev. 02, 11 February 2013. Norway.

OSPAR. “Oslo-Paris Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic”,
http://www.ospar.org. Last updated in 2007.

OSPAR Commission (OSPAR). 1998. “Decision 98/3 on the Disposal of Disused Offshore Installation.”
OSPAR.

———. 2000. “Decision 2000/3 on the Use of Organic-Phase Drilling Fluids (OPF) and the Discharge of
OPF-Contaminated Cuttings.” OSPAR.

———. 2001. The Environmental Aspects of On- and Off-Site Injection of Drill Cuttings and Produced
Water.” Best Available Technique (BAT) and Best Environmental Practice (BEP) Series.OSPAR.

———. 2002. “Guidelines for the Consideration of the Best Environmental Option for the Management of
OPF-Contaminated Cuttings Residue.” Reference number: 2002-8. OSPAR.

———. 2004. “Guidelines for Monitoring the Environmental Impact of Offshore Oil and Gas Activities.”
Reference number: 2004-11. OSPAR.

———. 2010. “Recommendation 2010/4 on a Harmonised Pre-Screening Scheme for Offshore

Chemicals.” OSPAR 10/23/1, Annex 10. OSPAR.

———. 2010. “Recommendation 2010/18 on the Prevention of Significant Acute Oil Pollution from
Offshore Activities.” OSPAR

———. 2011. “Recommendation 2011/8 Amending OSPAR Recommendation 2001/1 for the
Management of Produced Water from Offshore Installations as Amended.” OSPAR.

Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME). 2009. “Arctic Offshore Oil and Gas Guidelines.”
Produced by Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment Working Group. Iceland: PAME.
www.pame.is

PARCOM. 1986. “Recommendation 86/1 of a 40mg/l Emission Standard for Platforms.” PARCOM 8/12/1,
paras 5.37-5.40. PARCOM.

Patin, Stanislav. 1999. Environmental Impact of the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry. East Northport, NY:
EcoMonitor Publishing.

Peterson, David. 2004. “Background Briefing Paper for a Workshop on Seismic Survey Operations:
Impacts on Fish, Fisheries, Fishers and Aquaculture.” Prepared for the British Columbia Seafood
Alliance. February 2004.

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Russell, R.W. 2005. “Interactions between Migrating Birds and Offshore Oil and Gas Platforms in the
Northern Gulf of Mexico.” Final Report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf
of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2005-009.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2000. “Sector Notebook Project - Profile of the Oil and Gas
Extraction Industry.” EPA/310-R-99-006. EPA Office of Compliance. Washington, D.C.: EPA.

———. 2011. “Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). Title 49: Part 173. Subpart H [Reserved] Subpart I—
Class 7 (Radioactive) Materials, 173. 427: Transport Requirements for Low Specific Activity (LSA)
Class 7 (Radioactive) Materials and Surface Contaminated Object (SCO).” 10–1–11 Edition.
Washington, D.C.: EPA.

———. 2013a. “Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). Title 30: Mineral Resources. Part 250: Oil and Gas
and Sulfur Operations in the Outer Continental Shelf. Subpart C: Pollution Prevention and Control.”
Washington, D.C.: EPA.

———. 2013b. “Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). Title 30: Mineral Resources. Part 250: Oil and Gas
and Sulfur Operations in the Outer Continental Shelf. Subpart D: Oil and Gas Drilling Operations.”
Washington, D.C.: EPA.

———. 2013c. “Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). Title 30: Mineral Resources. Part 250: Oil and Gas
and Sulfur Operations in the Outer Continental Shelf. Subpart K: Oil and Gas Production
Requirements.” Washington, D.C.: EPA.

———. 2013d. “Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).Title 40: Protection of Environment. Part 435. Oil and
Gas Extraction Point Source Category; Subpart A—Offshore Subcategory.” Washington, D.C.: EPA.

———. 2013e. “Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).Title 40: Protection of Environment Part 60.
Standards of Performance for New Stationary Sources. Subpart GG—Standards of Performance for
Stationary Gas Turbines.” Washington, D.C.: EPA.

———. 2013f. “Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). Title 40: Protection of Environment. Part 63. National
Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Categories. Subpart Y—National
Emission Standards for Marine Tank Vessel Loading Operations.” Washington, D.C.: EPA.

———. 2013g. “Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). Title 40: Protection of Environment. Part 63.
National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Categories. Subpart HH—
National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants From Oil and Natural Gas Production
Facilities.” Washington, D.C.: EPA.

———. 2013h. “Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). Title 40: Protection of Environment. Part 98.
Mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Subpart W—Petroleum and Natural Gas Systems.”
Washington, D.C.: EPA.World Bank. 2004. “A Voluntary Standard for Global Gas Flaring and Venting
Reduction. Global Gas Flaring Reduction - A Public-Private Partnership.” Report No. 4. Washington,
D.C.: The World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2004/05/4946640/voluntary-
standard-global-gas-flaring-venting-reduction.

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DRAFT FOR PUBLIC CONSULTATION—APRIL 2014 WORLD BANK GROUP

Annex A: General Description of Industry Activities

144. The primary products of the offshore oil and gas industry are crude oil, natural gas liquids, and
natural gas. Crude oil consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons having varying molecular weights and
properties. Natural gas can be produced from oil wells, or wells can be drilled with natural gas as the
primary objective. Methane is the predominant component of natural gas, but ethane, propane, and
butane are also significant components. The heavier components, including propane and butane, exist as
liquids when cooled and compressed, and these are often separated and processed as natural gas
liquids.

Exploration Activities
Seismic surveys
145. Seismic surveys are conducted to pinpoint potential hydrocarbon reserves in geological formations
deep below the seafloor. Seismic technology uses the reflection of sound waves to identify subsurface
formations. In modern marine seismic surveys, as many as 16 “streamers” (cables containing the
hydrophones used to detect the sound reflected from the subsurface) are towed behind the seismic
vessel, at a depth of 5 to 10 meters (m). Each cable can be as long as 8 to 10 kilometers (km). In addition
to the hydrophone array, the vessel tows seismic source arrays comprising a number of airguns, which
discharge sound bursts of between 200–250 decibels (dB) downward. The sound bursts, repeated on
average every 6 to 10 seconds, are reflected off deep geological formations and recorded by the
hydrophone array.

Exploration drilling
146. Exploratory drilling activities offshore follow the analysis of seismic data to verify and quantify the
amount and extent of oil and gas resources from potentially productive geological formations. If oil or gas
is encountered, then additional development drilling may be undertaken.

147. There are various types of offshore drilling rigs, including:

• Jack-up rigs: Suitable for shallower water up to around 100 m and transported to location,
either under their own propulsion or towed by tugs. Once there, electric or hydraulic jacks
lower three or four legs to the seafloor to support the drilling platform above water.
• Semi-submersible rigs: Suitable for deep waters and transported to location, either under their
own propulsion or towed by tugs. The hull is partially submerged and the rig held in place by a
series of anchors.

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• Submersible rigs: Limited to shallow waters and towed onto location. Consisting of two hulls:
an upper hull, or platform, and lower hull that is filled with water and submerged to the
seafloor.
• Drilling barges as floating platforms: Suitable for shallow waters, estuarine areas, lakes,
marshes, swamps, and rivers. Not suitable for open or deep water. Towed onto location.
• Drillships: Designed for drilling in deep water locations. Drilling takes place from a drilling
platform and derrick positioned in the middle of the deck, from which drill stems are lowered
through a hole in the hull (moonhole).

148. Once on location, a series of well sections of decreasing diameter are drilled from the rig. A drill bit,
attached to the drill string suspended from the rig’s derrick, is rotated in the well. Drill collars are attached
to add weight and drilling fluids are circulated through the drill string and pumped through the drill bit. The
fluid has a number of functions. It imparts hydraulic force that assists the drill bit cutting action, and it
cools the bit, removes rock cuttings from the wellbore, and protects the well against formation pressures.
When each well section has been drilled, steel casing is run into the hole and cemented into place to
prevent well collapse, fluid slips, and anomalous pressures in the annulus. Casing is also typically
installed after decommissioning.

149. When the reservoir is reached, the well may be completed and tested by running a production liner
and equipment to flow the hydrocarbons to the surface in an effort to establish reservoir properties in a
test separator.

Field Development
150. Field development may occur after exploration (and additional appraisal well drilling) has located and
confirmed economically recoverable reserves of hydrocarbons. In many cases, this will involve the
installation of an offshore drilling and production platform that is self-sufficient in terms of energy and
water needs for the workforce and for drilling wells and processing hydrocarbons ready for export.

151. There are many types of offshore platforms, including:

• Fixed platforms: Used in water depths of up to around 500 m and consisting of steel or
concrete legs (jacket), secured directly to the seabed by steel piles that support a steel deck.
Drilling equipment, production facilities, and accommodation are typically housed on the deck.
• Compliant towers: Used in water depths ranging from around 500 m up to 1,000 m and
consisting of a narrow, flexible tower on a piled foundation supporting a conventional deck.

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• Tension leg platforms: Used in water depths of up to about 2,000 m and consisting of a
floating facility moored to the seabed and fixed in place by anchors. Mini tension leg platforms
(Seastars) are used in water depths of between 200 m and 1,000 m.
• Jack-up platforms: Used in shallower water up to around 100m and transported to location,
where the legs are lowered by hydraulic jacks into position to support the deck.
• Spar platforms: Used in water depths of between 500 m and 1,700 m and consisting of a
cylindrical hull supporting a floating platform.
• Floating production systems: Ships equipped with processing facilities and moored on location
with a series of anchors or by global positioning system devices. Usually based on a
converted oil tanker, the main types of floating production systems are Floating, Production,
Storage, and Offloading (FPSO) systems; Floating, Storage, and Offloading (FSO) systems;
and Floating Storage Units (FSU).

152. Production platforms will provide facilities for the separation of formation fluids into oil, gas, and
water. Depending on the project, the platform may only be used for production, as drilling can be
conducted from a separate drilling rig brought alongside. Some platforms are only used to bring the
hydrocarbons to surface and directly export them for processing, while some gas platforms may be
unmanned during routine production operations. Typically, multiple wells are drilled from the platform
location using directional drilling techniques. In some cases, where field extremities not reachable by
directional drilling from the fixed location or where small reservoirs exist, subsea production units are
installed on the seabed following drilling and the produced hydrocarbons are tied into a nearby platform
facility by a system of risers.

153. Following development drilling and well completion in readiness for the flow of formation fluids, a
“christmas tree,” which allows the control of flow to the surface, is placed onto the well head. The oil
and/or gas are produced by separation of the formation fluid mixture into oil and gas and water, or gas
and condensates at the platform. Oil is exported from the platform by either pumping into a subsea
pipeline to shore, or to a floating storage unit offshore, or directly to a tanker. Typically, gas is exported
through a pipeline.

154. Most fields produce in a predictable pattern, called a decline curve, where production increases
relatively rapidly to a peak and then follows a long, slow decline. Water or gas injection is often used to
maintain reservoir pressure and enhance production. In other cases, Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
techniques—such as the injection of steam, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or surfactants—may be used to
enhance recovery.

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155. Operators may periodically perform workovers to clean out the wellbore, allowing oil or gas to move
easily to the surface. Other measures to increase production include fracturing and treating the bottom of
the wellbore with acid to create better pathways allowing oil and gas to move to the surface.

Hydraulic fracturing
156. Hydraulic fracturing of hydrocarbon-containing rocks is a technique for maximizing commercial gas
and some oil production from tight reservoirs. The technique is mainly applied onshore, with some
development in offshore fields. Typically, hydraulic fracturing involves injecting, through the wellhead, a
3
batch of some 12,000–20,000 m of water, mixed with sand and fractional amounts of chemical additives.
The injection pressure is a function of the well depth and the rock characteristics. The average
composition of the injected mixture is 90 to 95 percent water, 4.5 to 9.5 percent sand, and 0.5 percent
chemical additives. Additives are comprised of inorganic or organic acids, gelling agents, friction
reducers, and surfactants. Biocides, scales inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors, and cross-linking agents may
also present in low concentrations.

Coal Bed Methane

157. Coal Bed Methane (CBM) is more frequently utilized onshore. Limited cases present offshore may
include hydraulic fracturing (see above) to improve production performance. CBM wells are characterized
by high water production, which requires proper treatment systems (a low concentration of oil and grease,
but a possible presence of heavy metals and hydrophilic compounds).

Storage and Offloading

158. The oily phase of produced fluids from a well/group of wells can be either pumped to shore for
further stabilization using flowlines, or treated by offshore production facilities (e.g., treatment platforms,
FPSOs), to create a product suitable for transportation by tanker carriers.

159. The oil produced and treated offshore is temporarily stored in offshore storage facilities before being
transferred to the export tanker carriers. Storage can occur in underwater cylinders, anchored to the
structure of gravity platforms, or, more frequently, oil is stored in a permanently (or semi-permanently)
moored vessel of substantial capacity (150,000–250,000 tons of displacement). From there, the oil
produced is transferred to the export tanker carriers at regular intervals, according to the field production
and storage capacity of the facility.

160. Offloading operations (i.e., the transfer from the field storage system to the export vessels) may
include oil spill risks that should be assessed and minimized. Risks for floating production storage and
offloading vessels can be related to the simultaneous operations (SIMOPS) of oil treatment and product

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storage. The marine conditions present additional risks; for instance, in typhoon areas, potential collisions
between the FSO/FPSO and the export carriers. Ruptures in the offloading of large-diameter hoses are
also a consideration.

Decommissioning and Abandonment

161. The decommissioning of offshore facilities occurs when the reservoir is depleted or the production of
hydrocarbons from that reservoir becomes unprofitable. Parts of the offshore facility, such as platforms,
are treated to remove contaminants and are usually removed, while other production components are
rendered safe and left in place.

162. Wells are plugged and abandoned to prevent fluid migration within the wellbore, which could
contaminate the surface environment. The downhole equipment is removed and the perforated parts of
the wellbore are cleaned of sediment, scale, and other debris. The wellbore is then plugged to prevent the
inflow of fluids. Fluids with an appropriate density are placed between the plugs to maintain adequate
pressure. During this process, the plugs are tested to verify their correct placement and integrity. Finally,
the casing is cut off below the surface and capped.

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