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GEOMETRY
FOR NAVAL
ARCHITECTS
ADRIAN BIRAN
GEOMETRY
FOR NAVAL
ARCHITECTS
This page intentionally left blank
GEOMETRY
FOR NAVAL
ARCHITECTS

ADRIAN BIRAN
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Technion - Israel Institute of Technology
Technion City, Israel
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and
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with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency,
can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others,
including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

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ISBN: 978-0-08-100328-2

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Publisher: Matthew Deans

Acquisition Editor: Carrie Bolger
Editorial Project Manager: Carrie Bolger
Production Project Manager: Anitha Sivaraj
Designer: Matthew Limbert
Typeset by VTeX
DEDICATION

To my beloved wife Suzi

v
This page intentionally left blank
CONTENTS

About the Author xv

Preface xvii
The Organization of the Book xix
Software xx
Notation xxi
Acknowledgements xxiii

Part 1. Traditional Methods

1. Elements of Descriptive Geometry 3

1.1. Introduction 4
1.2. Notations 6
1.3. How We See — The Central Projection 6
1.4. Central Projection 8
1.4.1. Definition 8
1.4.2. Properties 9
1.4.3. Vanishing Points 14
1.4.4. Conclusions on Central Projection 17
1.5. A Note on Stereoscopic Vision 17
1.6. The Parallel Projection 19
1.6.1. Definition 19
1.6.2. A Few Properties 19
1.6.3. The Concept of Scale 20
1.7. The Orthogonal Projection 21
1.7.1. Definition 21
1.7.2. The Projection of a Right Angle 23
1.8. The Method of Monge 25
1.9. Points 27
1.10. Straight Lines 29
1.10.1. The Projections of a Straight Line 29
1.10.2. Intersecting Lines 31
1.11. Planes 32
1.12. An Example of Plane-Faceted Solid — The Cube 35
1.13. A Space Curve — The Helix 37
1.14. The Cylinder 38
1.15. The Cone 41
1.15.1. Introduction 41
1.15.2. Points on the Cone Surface 42

vii
viii Contents

1.16. Conic Sections 44

1.16.1. Introduction 44
1.16.2. The Circle 45
1.16.3. The Ellipse 46
1.16.4. The Parabola 48
1.16.5. The Hyperbola 50
1.17. What Is Axonometry 52
1.17.1. The Law of Scales 54
1.17.2. Isometry 56
1.17.3. An Ambiguity of the Isometric Projection 60
1.18. Developed Surfaces 61
1.18.1. What Is a Developed Surface 61
1.18.2. The Development of a Cylindrical Surface 62
1.18.3. The Development of a Conic Surface 63
1.19. Summary 64
1.20. Exercises 66
Appendix 1.A The Connection to Linear Algebra and MATLAB 70
Appendix 1.B First Steps in MultiSurf 75

2. The Hull Surface — Graphic Definition 81

2.1. Introduction 81
2.2. The Lines Drawing 86
2.2.1. A Simple, Idealized Hull Surface 86
2.3. Main Dimensions and Coefficients of Form 89
2.4. Systems of Coordinates 94
2.5. The Hull Surface of a Real Ship 95
2.6. Consistency and Fairness of Ship Lines 96
2.7. Drawing Instruments 102
2.8. Table of Offsets 103
2.9. Shell Expansion and Wetted Surface 104
2.10. An Example in MultiSurf 108
2.11. Summary 116
2.12. Exercises 118

3. Geometric Properties of Areas and Volumes 121

3.1. Introduction 122
3.2. Change of Coordinate Axes 123
3.2.1. Translation of Coordinate Axes 123
3.2.2. Rotation of Coordinate Axes 124
3.3. Areas 125
3.3.1. Definitions 125
3.3.2. Examples 127
3.3.3. Examples in Naval Architecture 130
 Contents ix

3.4. First Moments and Centroids of Areas 131

3.4.1. Definitions 131
3.4.2. Examples 132
3.4.3. Examples in Naval Architecture 133
3.5. Second Moments of Areas 134
3.5.1. Definitions 134
3.5.2. Parallel Translation of Axes 136
3.5.3. Rotation of Axes 137
3.5.4. The Tensor of Inertia 140
3.5.5. Radius of Gyration 141
3.5.6. The Ellipse of Inertia 142
3.5.7. A Problem of Eigenvalues 143
3.5.8. Examples 146
3.5.9. Examples in Naval Architecture 155
3.6. Volume Properties 156
3.6.1. Definitions 156
3.6.2. Examples 156
3.6.3. Moments and Centroids of Volumes 159
3.7. Mass Properties 161
3.8. Green’s Theorem 163
3.9. Hull Transformations 169
3.9.1. Numerical Calculations 170
3.9.2. The ‘One Minus Prismatic’ Method 172
3.9.3. Swinging the Curve 174
3.9.4. Lackenby’s General Method 176
3.10. Applications 177
3.10.1. The planimeter 177
3.10.2. A MATLAB Digitizer 182
3.11. Summary 183
3.12. Exercises 188

Part 2. Differential Geometry

4. Parametric Curves 197

4.1. Introduction 197
4.2. Parametric Representation 198
4.3. Parametric Equation of Straight Line 201
4.4. Curves in 3D Space 204
4.4.1. The Straight Line 204
4.4.2. Working With Parametric Equations 205
4.4.3. The Helix 207
4.5. Derivatives of Parametric Functions 207
4.6. Notation of Derivatives 209
x Contents

4.7. Tangents 210

4.8. Arc Length 210
4.9. Arc-Length Parametrization 211
4.10. The Curve of Centres of Buoyancy 213
4.10.1. Parametric Equations 213
4.10.2. A Theorem on the Axis of Inclination 216
4.10.3. The Tangent and the Normal to the B-Curve 217
4.10.4. Parametric Equations for Small Angles of Inclination 217
4.11. Summary 219
4.12. Exercises 220

5. Curvature 223
5.1. Introduction 223
5.2. The Definition of Curvature 224
5.2.1. Curvature in Explicit Representation 225
5.2.2. Curvature in Parametric Representation 226
5.3. Osculating Circle 227
5.3.1. Definition 227
5.3.2. Definition 1 detailed 227
5.3.3. Definition 2 Detailed 228
5.3.4. Definition 3 Detailed 230
5.3.5. Centre of Curvature in Parametric Representation 231
5.4. An Application in Kinematics — The Centrifugal Acceleration 233
5.4.1. Position 233
5.4.2. Velocity 234
5.4.3. Acceleration 235
5.5. Another Application in Mechanics — The Elastic Line 236
5.6. An Application in Naval Architecture — The Metacentric Radius 238
5.7. Differential Metacentric Radius 239
5.8. Curves in Space 239
5.9. Evolutes 241
5.10. A Lemma on the Normal to a Curve in Implicit Form 242
5.11. Envelopes 244
5.12. The Metacentric Evolute 246
5.13. Curvature and Fair Lines 249
5.14. Examples 249
5.15. Summary 252
5.16. Exercises 254
Appendix 5.A Curvature in MultiSurf 255

6. Surfaces 259
6.1. Introduction 259
6.2. Parametric Representation 260
 Contents xi

6.3. Curves on Surfaces 266

6.4. First Fundamental Form 267
6.5. Second Fundamental Form 270
6.6. Principal, Gaussian, and Mean Curvatures 275
6.7. Ruled Surfaces 278
6.7.1. Cylindrical Surfaces 279
6.7.2. Conic Surfaces 280
6.7.3. Surfaces of Tangents 281
6.7.4. A Doubly-Ruled Surface, the Hyperboloid of One Sheet 282
6.8. Geodesic Curvature 283
6.9. Developable Surfaces 285
6.10. Geodesics and Plate Development 288
6.11. On the Nature of Surface Curvature 290
6.12. Summary 293
6.13. Exercises 296
Appendix 6.A A Few MultiSurf Tools for Working With Surfaces 298

Part 3. Computer Methods

7. Cubic Splines 305

7.1. Introduction 305
7.2. Cubic Splines 307
7.3. The MATLAB Spline 308
7.4. Working With Parametric Splines 310
7.5. Space Curves 312
7.6. Chord-Length Parametrization 314
7.7. Centripetal Parametrization 316
7.8. Summary 317
7.9. Exercises 318
Appendix 7.A MultiSurf — Cubic Spline, Polycurve 321

8. Geometrical Transformations 325

8.1. Introduction 325
8.2. Transformations in the Plane 328
8.2.1. Translation 328
8.2.2. Rotation Around the Origin 329
8.2.3. Rotation About an Arbitrary Point 330
8.2.4. Reflection 332
8.2.5. Isometries 332
8.2.6. Shearing 334
8.2.7. Scaling About the Origin 334
8.2.8. Affine Transformations 335
8.2.9. Homogeneous Coordinates 337
xii Contents

8.3. Transformations in 3D Space 340

8.4. Perspective Projections 342
8.4.1. The Projection Matrix 342
8.4.2. Ideal and Vanishing Points 345
8.4.3. The Vanishing Line 347
8.4.4. The Orthographic Projection as Limit of Perspective Projection 347
8.5. Affine Combinations of Points 348
8.5.1. Affine Combination of Two Points — Collinearity 348
8.5.2. Alternative Proof of Collinearity 350
8.5.3. Affine Combination of Three Points — Coplanarity 351
8.6. Barycentres 353
8.7. Summary 354
8.8. Exercises 356

9. Bézier Curves 361

9.1. Introduction 361
9.2. The First-Degree Bézier Curves 363
9.3. The Second-Degree Bézier Curves 363
9.4. The Third-Degree Bézier Curves 364
9.5. The General Definition of Bézier Curves 365
9.6. Interactive Manipulation of Bézier Curves 367
9.7. De Casteljau’s Algorithm 368
9.8. Some Properties of Bézier Curves 371
9.8.1. The First and the Last Point of the Curve 371
9.8.2. End Tangents 372
9.8.3. Convex Hull 372
9.8.4. Variance Diminishing Property 373
9.8.5. Invariance Under Affine Transformations 373
9.9. Joining Two Bézier Curves 375
9.10. Moving a Control Point 376
9.11. Rational Bézier Curves 376
9.12. Summary 380
9.13. Exercises 381

10. B-Splines and NURBS 387

10.1. Introduction 387
10.2. B-Splines 388
10.3. Quadratic B-Splines 389
10.4. Moving a Control Point 392
10.5. A Cubic B-Spline 392
10.6. Phantom Points 394
10.7. Some Properties of the B-Splines 395
10.8. NURBS 397
 Contents xiii

10.9. Summary 403

10.10. Exercises 405
Appendix 10.A A Note on B-Splines and NURBS in MultiSurf 408

11. Computer Representation of Surfaces 411

11.1. Introduction 411
11.2. Bézier Patches 412
11.2.1. A Bilinear Patch 413
11.2.2. Curve on Surface 419
11.3. Bicubic Bézier Patch 420
11.4. Joining Two Bézier Patches 425
11.5. Swept Surfaces 428
11.6. Lofted Surfaces 430
11.7. Computer-Aided Design of Hull Surfaces 433
11.8. Summary 435
11.9. Exercises 436
Appendix 11.A A Note on Surfaces in MultiSurf 438

Part 4. Applications in Naval Architecture

12. Hull Transformations by Computer Software 441

12.1. Introduction 441
12.2. Affine Hulls 442
12.3. A Note on Lackenby’s Transformation 446
12.4. Affine Combinations of Offsets 446
12.5. Morphing 447
12.6. Non-Linear Transformations 450
12.7. Summary 450
12.8. Exercises 451

13. Conformal Mapping 453

13.1. Introduction 453
13.2. Working With Complex Variables 454
13.3. Conformal Mapping 457
13.4. Lewis Forms 459
13.5. Summary 468
13.6. Exercises 469

Bibliography 471
Answers to Selected Exercises 479
Index 495
This page intentionally left blank
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adrian Biran, born Birbănescu, received a Cum laude Diploma of Engi-

neering, in the field of ship engineering, from the Bucharest Polytechnic
Institute, and Master of Science and Doctor of Science degrees from the
TECHNION — Israel Institute of Technology, the latter two with the-
ses related to software for Marine Engineering and Naval Architecture.
After graduating he worked as Design Engineer, Chief of Department and
Project Leader at IPRONAV — the Institute for Ship Design, Bucharest.
In continuation he managed the design office of the Bucharest Studios
and worked as Project Leader at IPA — the Institute for Automation
Design, Bucharest. In Israel Adrian Biran worked as Senior Engineer at
the Israel Shipyards, Haifa, and as Research Fellow and Research Engi-
neer at the Technion R&D Foundation. In parallel with the above activities
Adrian Biran served as project instructor at the Military Technical Academy,
Bucharest, and at the Beersheba University. He has been for many years
an adjunct teacher at the TECHNION — Israel Institute of Technology,
since 1995 as Adjunct Associate Professor. Adrian Biran is the author of
several technical papers on various subjects including also Naval Architec-
ture. He wrote in Romanian a book of popular science about ships. With
Moshe Breiner as coauthor Adrian wrote a book on MATLAB for Engi-
neers that was published in three English, three German, two French, and
two Greek editions. Based on the course he has been delivering at the
Technion, Adrian Biran published in 2003, with Butterworth-Heinemann,
the book Ship Hydrostatics and Stability that was immediately translated into
Turkish. In 2005 the book was reprinted with contributions by Rúben
López-Pulido. A chapter on stability regulations was reproduced in the
Maritime Engineering Reference Book edited by Anthony Molland. In
2011 Adrian Biran published with Taylor and Francis the book What every
Engineer should know about MATLAB and Simulink. In 2014 a second edition
of Ship Hydrostatics and Stability was issued with Rúben López-Pulido as
coauthor. The book Geometry for Naval Architects also started from lectures
delivered at the Technion.

xv
This page intentionally left blank
PREFACE

Naval Architecture is based on geometry, for theory as well as for practice.

Naval Architecture is also the field of technology in which some of the
basic ideas of geometric modelling first appeared. Archimedes was the first
to study theoretically the properties of floating bodies. He analyzed the
stability of floating paraboloids and introduced geometrical notions such as
centre of buoyancy. In the Handbook of computer aided geometric design (Kim et
al., 2002), Gerald Farin writes

‘The earliest recorded use of curves in a manufacturing environment seems to

go back to early AD Roman times, for the purpose of shipbuilding. A ship’s ribs
... were produced based on templates that could be reused many times. Thus a
vessel’s basic geometry could be stored ... These techniques were perfected by
the Venetians from the 13th to the 16th century. The form of ribs was defined in
terms of tangent continuous circular arcs — NURBS in modern parlance...’

These matters are discussed in Section 2.1 and it is mentioned there

that the idea of defining a ship section by ‘pieces’ with common tangents
in the joining points is basic for the mathematical procedures called today
‘splines’. Farin mentions the appearance in 1752 of the name spline for the
wooden instrument used to draw smooth curves, and concludes the first
part of his historical introduction with the comment

‘This “shipbuilding connection,” described by H. Nowacki ... was the earliest use
of constructive geometry to define free-form shapes...’

As Nowacki and Ferreiro (2003) point out, the modern study of the sta-
bility of ships began with the publication of the Traité du Navire by Bouguer,
in 1746, and the Scientia Navalis by Euler, in 1749. From the beginning this
study involved geometric properties of plane figures, such as areas, cen-
troids, first and second moments of areas. Bouguer introduced the basic
notions of metacentric radius and the metacentric evolute, two notions be-
longing to differential geometry. In 1814 and 1822 Charles Dupin studied the
surface of centres of buoyancy by means of differential geometry. During
the last centuries two-dimensional drawings were the main tools for ship
design and construction. In 1765 Gaspard Monge introduced his descriptive
xvii
xviii Preface

geometry, a fully fledged system for representing in two dimensions a three-

dimensional object seen from any desired direction. The method was first
considered a military secret and was published only in 1799. Since then
engineering drawings are based on Monge’s method. The advent of digital
computers enabled the development of new methods for geometric mod-
elling, but traditional drawings still remain the main means for presenting
and understanding a ship design. Generally, the first drawing of any boat or
ship project is the lines drawing, a particular, but obvious application of de-
scriptive geometry. The new techniques for modelling and displaying ship
hulls and calculating their properties are based on branches of geometry that
previously presented more theoretical, rather than practical interest. These
branches include affine geometry, projective geometry, and again differential ge-
ometry. As Gallier (2011) puts it,

‘Thus, there seems to be an interesting turn of events. After being neglected for
decades, stimulated by computer science, old-fashioned geometry seems to be
making a comeback as a fundamental tool used in manufacturing, computer
graphics, computer vision, and motion planning, just to mention some key ar-
eas.’

Devlin (2001) too reminds that the teaching of geometry has been ne-
glected for many years, and he points out to its role in the development of
reasoning abilities. Let us insert a short quotation.

‘Younger people may not have taken a geometry class. The subject was reclas-
sified as optional some years ago in the mistaken belief that it was no longer
sufficiently relevant to today’s world, a view that demonstrates the ignorance
of many of the people who make such decisions. Although it is true that hardly
anyone ever makes direct use of geometrical knowledge, it was the only class in
the high school curriculum that exposed children to the important concept of
formal reasoning and mathematical proof.
Exposure to formal mathematical thinking is important for at least two rea-
sons. First, a citizen in today’s mathematically based world should have at least
a general sense of one of the major contributors to society. Second, a survey
carried out by the United States Department of Education in 1997 (The Riley Re-
port) showed that students who completed high school geometry performed
markedly better in gaining entry to college and did better when at college than
those students who had not taken such a course, regardless of the subjects
studied at college.’
 Preface xix

My experience fully corroborates Devlin’s comments and I appreciate

that the above quotations are particularly valid in modern ship design. In
this book proofs for many theorems and procedures are provided. By study-
ing the proof the reader is not only convinced that the proven statement is
correct, but also understands its limits of validity. Moreover, this opens the
way for extending or modifying the results to other cases. As some authors
say, this is the discovery propriety of proofs.
Present-day CAD software for naval architectural uses is inconceivable
without the use of the branches of geometry mentioned here; anyone who
wants to get a good insight in this field and be able to participate in the
development of software should acquire the basics of these mathematics.
Many books dedicated to the branches of mathematics mentioned above
have been available for a long time. Books dedicated to computer-aided
applications appeared in the last decades. Their titles include such terms as
splines, computer graphics, or geometric modelling. By writing this book,
we had no intention to replace any of the books dedicated to one subject.
Our goals are:
• to fill gaps in certain scholar programs that ignore one or more of the
fields required by Naval Architecture;
• to bring together the basics of these fields and explain them at the level
required in practical engineering;
• to show specific applications in Naval Architecture and related fields.
These are starting points and any reader interested in deepening the
knowledge in a particular field should refer to more specialized books, some
of them referred to in our book. Finally, let us remark that not only some
roots of computer-aided geometric design stem from Naval Architecture
and ship construction, but also some of its most beautiful fruits rise from
these fields. No wonder that some authors chose them to illustrate books
on computer-aided geometric modelling. The internal cover of Rogers and
Adams (1990) shows the lines of the America’s Cup yacht Stars & Stripes,
and the cover of Mortenson (1997) contains the keel and bulb lines of the
yacht Black Magic.

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

The book is divided into four parts, as detailed below.
Traditional methods — In this part we present an introduction to de-
scriptive geometry as the basis of engineering drawing, the definition
xx Preface

of the hull surface by means of the lines drawing, and the calculation
of geometric properties of plane figures.
Differential geometry — Here we introduce the parametric represen-
tation of curves and surfaces, the fundamental notion of curvature
and other related concepts, the curvatures of surfaces. We also deal
with ruled and developable surfaces, two subjects of paramount im-
portance in ship design and production.
Computer methods — We start with a chapter on cubic splines.
A chapter on geometrical transformations deals with translation, scal-
ing, rotation and reflections in usual coordinates, and continues with
their treatment in homogeneous coordinates. As an introduction to
the following two chapters, we define affine combinations and show
how they preserve collinearity, coplanarity, and invariance under
affine transformations. A whole chapter is devoted to Bézier curves
and ends with a short treatment of rational Bézier curves. B-splines
and NURBS are treated shortly in the last chapter of this part.
Applications in Naval Architecture — The first chapter in this part
describes computer methods for transforming ship hulls to achieve
desired properties. The second chapter is a short introduction to con-
formal mapping. This application of functions of complex variables has
been used for calculating hydrodynamic properties that intervene in
seakeeping calculations.

SOFTWARE
The book includes many examples in MATLAB, a versatile computing en-
vironment of Mathworks that greatly simplifies prototyping by providing
many built-in functions and direct graphic procedures accessible at various
levels of sophistication. Exercising in MATLAB the reader may understand
in detail how the various methods work. There are also examples pro-
duced in MultiSurf, a product of Aerohydro. This is a user-friendly software
remarkable by its visible relationship to theory and that is very well docu-
mented.
This book reuses procedures developed in the book referenced as Biran
(2011). These procedures are: ArcDim, arrow, pline, point; their sources can
be found on the site www.mathworks.com looking for Adrian Biran.
It may be useful to read this book in parallel with the book Biran and
López-Pulido (2014).
 Preface xxi

NOTATION
Teletype characters are used for keyboard keys, for example Ctrl, or terms
that appear in the Multisurf interface, for example Insert, Point, Curve,
Surface.
This page intentionally left blank
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Reflecting on how I began to understand and love geometry I owe much to

my teachers of mathematics at the Cultura high school in Bucharest. Artur
Holingher opened my eyes to the beauty of geometry and of geometri-
cal proof. Isidor Sagher taught us in detail how to write a proof and how
to achieve precision. Rafael Faion insisted on the importance of exercises.
I thank the editors of Butterworth-Heinemann, Hayley Gray, Charlie Kent,
Chelsea Johnston for initializing the project of this book, Carrie Bolger for
realizing it, and Anitha Sivaraj for managing the production process. Larrie
Ferreiro helped me to reach interesting historical sources. Reinhard Siegel
provided information and valuable comments on the use of the MultiSurf
software. My discussions with the late Yakov Kohanov of the University
of Haifa introduced me to nautical archeology. Our librarians, Shelly Im-
berg and Vered Sayag helped to obtain part of the literature used in this
book. Malin Joakimson of the Swedish Maritime Museum informed me that I
can insert a reproduction from Chapman’s famous book Architectura Navalis
Mercatoria (1768).
MATLAB is a registered trademark of The Mathworks, Inc. For product
information, please contact The Mathworks, Inc., 3 Apple Hill Drive, Natick,
MA 01760-2098, USA.

xxiii
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“Walum Olum” in The Lenape and their Legends 84, 158, 188,
207
Wampum belts 86-87
War party, how made up 139-140
[War] symbols 87-88
Ward, James W., on rock carvings in Ohio 21
Warning and guidance pictographs 155-157
Washington, Rock carvings in 25
Watterson’s Ranch petroglyphs 31, 32
Wellsville, Ohio, Rock carvings at 21
West, Dr. W., copied Dakota time chart 93-94
West Virginia, Rock carvings in 22, 225
[West Virginia] totem marks 17
Western Lancet cited on claim symbols 159
Wham, Maj. J. W., built adobe houses 145
Whipple, Lieutenant, on pictographs 28, 29, 33, 138
Whistle sickness 114, 138, 221
White-cow-killer Winter count chart (See Corbusier Winter
counts.) 95, 99-127, 129-130
Whitfield, J., on pictographs in Brazil 44-45
Whittlesey, Col. Charles, cited 250
Whooping-cough among Indians 108
Wild horses first caught by Dakotas 108
Williamson, Rev. Dr., cited 119
Williams River, Rock carvings on 29
Wind River Mountains, Rock carvings near 24
Winter counts 88-148, 191, 207
Wintūn tattooing 64
Wisconsin effigy mounds 61
Wood, Paintings on 59
Woodthorp, Lt. Col., on war symbols 88
Wright, Charles D., on pictographs 34
Wyoming, Rock carvings in 24, 227
Wyrick David, fraudulent Hebrew inscription 248
Y
Yampais Springs, Pictographs at 29
Yankton defined 97
[Yankton] Reservation 125
Yanktons 112, 122
Yanktonnais 122, 124
Yokuts, Color used by 52
[Yokuts] weave grass figures 78
Young, John W., on sacred stone of Oraibi 68
Yuki, Color used by 52
[Yuki] tattooing 49
Yukon River tattooing 65
[Yuma] paintings 60, 158
Yuris totem mark 167

Z
Zuñi 194, 195
[Zuñi] pictographs 16, 28, 60
[Zuñi] pottery 78
 Transcriber's Note
Illustrations have been moved next to the text to which they refer. Page numbers in the
text or the list of Illustrations may not match their locations in the eBook.
The following apparent errors have been corrected:

p. 6 "Seggestions" changed to "Suggestions"

p. 11 "Cerimonial" changed to "Ceremonial
p. 19 "proposed with with" changed to "proposed with"
p. 21 "standstone" changed to "sandstone"
p. 22 "Virginia," changed to "Virginia."
p. 44 "reason" changed to "season"
p. 55 "et. seq." changed to "et seq."
p. 56 "signifes" changed to "signifies"
p. 60 "Plate IV" changed to "Plate VI"
p. 61 "PERSON" changed to "PERSON."
p. 67 "neck on" changed to "neck, on"
p. 71 "octupus" changed to "octopus"
p. 72 "sqid" changed to "squid"
p. 72 "frog in" changed to "frog on"
p. 86 "(Pleiades)" changed to "(Pleiades)"
p. 94 "interpetation" changed to "interpretation"
p. 102 "-No. 1. A Mandan" changed to "-No. I. A Mandan"
p. 106 "Ree Indians. dians." changed to "Ree Indians."
p. 110 "Lone Dog’s" changed to "Lone-Dog’s"
p. 113 "1824-’25" changed to "1824-’25."
p. 123 "extremity of of" changed to "extremity of"
p. 133 "woman-winter." changed to "woman winter."
p. 155 "Bureau of, Ethnology." changed to "Bureau of Ethnology."
p. 175 "Painted-rock" changed to "Painted-rock."
p. 186 "Mdewakantanwan" changed to "Mdewakantawan"
p. 195 "page 36" changed to "page 86"
p. 196 "Fig, 111a" changed to "Fig. 111a"
p. 200 "seq" changed to "seq."
p. 206 "Miztec" changed to "Miztec)"
p. 246 "Fig. 207" changed to "Fig. 207."
(index) "cited on Indina" changed to "cited on Indian"
(index) "Hupa" changed to "Hupâ"
(index) "Laudonniere" changed to "Laudonnière"
(index) "McGillicuddy" changed to "McGillycuddy"
(index) "MacKenzie" changed to "Mackenzie"
(index) "Maclean" changed to "MacLean"
 (index) "Mottellet" changed to "Mortillet"
(index) "Mussellshell" changed to "Musselshell"
(index) "Weid" changed to "Wied"
(index) "Schlieman" changed to "Schliemann"
(index) "Schomburgh" changed to "Schomburgk"
(index) "Everard F. im." changed to "Everard F. im"
(index) "Tomanawas" changed to "Tomanawos"
(index) "Waterson’s" changed to "Watterson’s"
(index) "Wintun" changed to "Wintūn"

Inconsistent or dubious spelling and punctuation have otherwise been left as printed.
The captions on plates have been regularised.
The following are inconsistently used in the text:

aërial and aerial

Aigaluxamut and Aígalúxamut
arrowheads and arrow-heads
Cottontail and Cotton-tail
cottonwood and cotton-wood
footprint and foot-print
Hañka and Hanka
headwaters and head-waters
horseshoes and horse-shoes
Kiatexamut and Kiatéxamut
Lenni-Lenape and Lenni-Lenapè
Oglala and Oglála
outline and out-line
rawhide and raw-hide
sandstone and sand-stone
sculpin and skulpin
subchiefs and sub-chiefs
Wa[c]a[c]e and Wa[c]ace
warpath and war-path
widespread and wide-spread
Zuni and Zuñi

On pp. 81-82, ">-shaped", "v-shaped" and ">-shape" were printed with special symbols.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PICTOGRAPHS OF
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