7.7 Smoke-Sensing Fire Detectors.

ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The definition of the term smoke detector can be found in 3.3.77.21.

Also refer to the definitions in 3.3.285 for the mode of operation of
each type of smoke detection.

17.7.1 General.
17.7.1.1*
The smoke detection design documentation shall state the required
performance objective of the system.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The designer has two routes in the design of a fire detection system
using smoke detectors. One route is to use prescriptive requirements,
in which the designer follows the prescribed spacing and location
criteria in the Code. The second route is the use of the performance-
based design methods outlined in Annex B. Also see the commentary
following Section 17.3. In either case, the performance objective of the
system must be stated in the smoke detection design documentation.

Smoke detectors are required by the relevant building code where a life
safety objective is to be achieved. Smoke detectors are also used
where a property conservation objective justifies early warning. The
term early warning is not defined and can be interpreted in many ways.
In general, it implies that detection is achieved during the incipient
stage of a fire, which typically produces more smoke than heat when
ordinary combustibles are involved. Thus, smoke detection is
considered to provide an earlier warning than heat detection when
installed in a normal building environment.

Customarily, smoke detectors are spaced using a 30 ft (9.1 m)

spacing. Industry experience suggests that this spacing is adequate to
achieve the life safety objectives implied by the building codes. If the
objective for the fire detection system is other than life safety, some
other spacing could conceivably be more appropriate, meaning that it
would achieve the response objectives with the minimum number of
smoke detectors. It is imperative that the design documentation state
explicitly the objectives the system is meant to achieve.

FAQ What types of fire are assumed in the methods in Annex B for
predicting the actuation of smoke detectors?

Annex B provides two methods for predicting the actuation of smoke

detectors for fires that produce a buoyant plume. The applicability of
Annex B to buoyant plume fires for smoke detector design is limited
because both methods use conservation of momentum and energy
relationships to infer temperature at a given location relative to the fire
centerline. The methodology then uses correlations to temperature to
infer the probable optical density or mass density at the detector
locations. Because both methods assume a buoyant plume and a
ceiling jet as the mechanism of smoke transfer, the validity of these
methods is limited to a flaming fire.

Popular computer models, such as FPETOOL and FastLite, treat the

smoke detector as a very sensitive (RTI = 1) heat detector. These
models usually presume that a smoke detector will actuate when a
temperature rise of 20°F (13°C) occurs at the detector. This simplified
assumption of a correlation of temperature to smoke density was
introduced in early research [Schifiliti, 1986]. Many researchers now
consider this estimate extremely conservative. Algorithms are used in
FDS to predict the temperature, mass, and velocity of the ceiling jet to
infer the operation of a smoke detector.

Computational methods outlined in Annex B provide a more analytical

and precise method of determining detector spacing if a specific fire-
size criterion has been established for smoke detection system
response. In some applications, these methods can yield smoke
detector spacings that are considerably greater than the customary
prescriptive spacing of 30 ft (9.1 m).

The designer must understand the behaviors of the fire plume and the
ceiling jet to understand how the building structure can affect the flow
of smoke through the compartment and from one compartment to
others. The site evaluation includes an audit of all combustibles within
the compartment, as well as all ignition sources, including transient
ones. The designer models the fires to obtain an estimate of the rate
of fire growth for each combustible and ignition source scenario and
then compares the fire scenarios to the performance objectives for the
compartment. This procedure leads to a basis for design.

Without sound performance metrics and validated modeling methods

for smoke detectors, the selection of detector locations often
becomes more of an art than a science. Most manufacturers
recommend a spacing of 30 ft (9.1 m) on center. The convention of
using 30 ft (9.1 m) can only be attributed to observations over many
years that listed detectors, when used on that spacing, seem to provide
the level of performance expected of them.

17.7.1.2*
Designs not in accordance with 17.7.1.3 shall be deemed prescriptive
designs and shall be designed in accordance with the prescriptive
requirements of this chapter.
17.7.1.3*
Performance-based designs shall be executed in accordance with
Section 17.3.
17.7.1.4
The prescriptive requirements in this section shall be applied only
where detectors are installed in ordinary indoor locations.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Applying prescriptive requirements and recommendations of

Section 17.7 is limited to ordinary indoor locations. The authority
having jurisdiction must decide whether a hazard area falls into this
category. Although the term ordinary indoor locations is not defined,
outdoor locations are not considered conducive to smoke detectors
due to the variable, uncontrolled conditions of wind, humidity,
precipitation, and temperatures. Ordinary indoor locations should be
thought of as typical building spaces with relatively constant
environmental conditions, or without conditions that would subject the
smoke detectors to nuisance alarms. An inside truck dock might
qualify as an indoor location but not as an ordinary location due to the
vehicle exhaust fumes (e.g., diesel) that would adversely affect smoke
detectors.

Where the application falls outside the conditions assumed for the
prescriptive requirements of Section 17.7, the designer must consider
the impact of those conditions on the operability and reliability of the
detector. In evaluating the reasons why the conditions are not
appropriate, the designer might identify an alternative design approach
that solves the problem. Some authorities having jurisdiction establish
additional requirements for specific types of occupancies that go
above and beyond the requirements of Section 17.7. To protect
extremely valuable assets, the designer might also reduce the smoke
detector spacing in certain areas, such as in a data center or where the
owner’s fire protection goals demand a faster response. In some
cases, the situation might warrant the use of a more fully developed
performance-based approach or the use of a different type of fire
detection than smoke-sensing fire detection.

Finally, special compartments, such as switchgear enclosures,

laboratories, or wafer fabrication facilities, might not be ordinary indoor
locations. Although a particular design might use detectors in these
and similar locations, the designer should carefully consider the
impact of the environment on both detector response and stability.

17.7.1.5
Where smoke detectors are being installed to control the spread of
smoke, they shall be installed in accordance with the requirements
of 17.7.6.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Smoke inhalation is the principal cause of death associated with fires.

To protect occupants in place, smoke detectors are used to activate
the HVAC system or an engineered smoke control system, which
automatically controls the flow of smoke. The use of smoke detectors
for this purpose is covered in 17.7.6.

17.7.1.6
Smoke detectors shall be installed in all areas where required by other
governing laws, codes, or standards or by other parts of this Code.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

FAQ Where does NFPA 72 require the installation of smoke detectors?

NFPA 72 does not stipulate where or in which occupancies detection

must be installed. Rather, the Code establishes how detection must be
designed and installed once an applicable law, code, or standard has
established the requirement for detection in the occupancy in
question.

17.7.1.7
The selection and placement of smoke detectors shall take into
account both the performance characteristics of the detector and the
areas into which the detectors are to be installed to prevent nuisance
and unintentional alarms or improper operation after installation.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The process of detector selection and how the design addresses the
criteria outlined in A.17.7.1.8 and A.17.7.1.10 should be documented
as part of the project file. See 17.7.1.1.

17.7.1.8*
Unless specifically designed and listed for the expected conditions,
smoke detectors shall not be installed if any of the following ambient
conditions exist:

• (1)

Temperature below 32°F (0°C)

• (2)

Temperature above 100°F (38°C)

 • (3)

Relative humidity above 93 percent

• (4)

Air velocity greater than 300 ft/min (1.5 m/sec)

ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The cited temperature, humidity, and airflow criteria reflect the test
criteria in the test standards used by the listing agency in the process
of the listing evaluation. Different detection technologies are affected
differently by these environmental extremes. Although the
identification of these effects is beyond the scope of this handbook,
the designer must recognize that some detector designs are inherently
more forgiving than others.

Tests performed in the process of obtaining a listing ascertain whether

a detector meets minimum performance criteria. Specific detectors
can be designed to be used effectively in extreme environmental
conditions outside these limits. The manufacturer should be consulted
if such an application is contemplated.

Environmental limits could force the designer to consider alternative

detection methods. For example, where a hazard area undergoes a
broad range of environmental conditions, heat- or radiant energy–
sensing detection might be a better choice than smoke detection.

17.7.1.9*
Smoke detectors installed in ducts and other locations with air
velocities greater than 300 ft/min (1.5 m/sec) shall be listed for the
velocity conditions anticipated and installed in accordance with the
manufacturer’s published instructions.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The typical air velocity testing conditions for ceiling–mounted smoke

detectors is 300 ft/min (1.5 m/sec). However, the air velocities in
ducts can be far greater than this. Depending on the design and
technology used, duct smoke detectors need to be listed for the higher
velocity environments found in duct systems.

17.7.1.10*
The location of smoke detectors shall be based on an evaluation of
potential ambient sources of smoke, moisture, dust, or fumes, and
electrical or mechanical influences, to minimize nuisance alarms.
17.7.1.11*
The effect of stratification below the ceiling shall be taken into
account. The guidelines in Annex B shall be permitted to be used.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Regardless of room dimensions or temperature, the potential for

stratification must be considered whenever and wherever smoke
detectors are employed.

When gaseous combustion products (smoke) form in a fire, they

expand due to heat. These expanded gases are less dense than the
surrounding air and are buoyed upward. The rising plume gases mix
with the surrounding air, entraining the air as the plume flows upward.
The entrainment of ambient air contributes to the cooling of the plume.
As long as the plume remains hotter than the surrounding air, it
continues to rise and entrain more ambient air. This process results in
a V-shaped fire plume that is small at the bottom and grows larger in
diameter as it rises. Eventually, the gaseous combustion products in
the fire plume are no longer hotter than the surrounding air, and the
plume loses buoyancy and spreads out in a layer. If that happens
before the fire plume impinges on the ceiling, the smoke will stratify
below the ceiling-mounted smoke detectors and response will be
delayed until the fire grows sufficiently large to drive the smoke up to
the ceiling plane.

A ceiling jet is formed when the plume hits the ceiling with sufficient
momentum. The radial flow of the ceiling jet from the plume centerline
is the result of the residual momentum of the upward flowing plume
gases. This momentum conveys smoke to the detector location.
Without a ceiling jet, the smoke and heat from the fire will not move
horizontally beneath the ceiling. Most of the spacing criteria for smoke
and heat detectors are based on the assumption that a ceiling jet
exists and that it is moving the smoke and heat horizontally in a layer
immediately beneath the ceiling. Stratification affects the performance
of the detection system because the smoke forms a layer too far
below the ceiling-mounted smoke detectors.

The objective of detecting the fire before it has achieved a high-energy

output requires additional insight into the placement of detectors. A
high energy–output flaming fire produces a fire plume that propels
smoke and hot air upward. The larger the fire, the higher the plume
extends and the greater the air velocity within the plume.

A low energy–output smoldering fire, such as those often encountered

in residential, institutional, and commercial occupancies, produces
significant quantities of smoke that might lack the energy to reach
ceiling-mounted smoke detectors. In these instances, the smoke might
be transported to the detectors via diffusion processes, rather than
buoyancy-driven processes, resulting in longer smoke detector
activation times. It is difficult to address a smoldering situation where
high ceilings are involved. If the situation warrants smoke detection for
high-challenge smoldering scenarios, then technologies other than
spot detection, such as air sampling, video image detection, and beam
detection, should be considered.

FAQ What considerations can affect the height at which stratification

occurs?

The height at which stratification occurs depends on both the size of

the fire and the ambient temperature and temperature gradient of the
space. Stratification is most likely to occur when the fire is very small
and the floor-to-ceiling temperature difference is relatively high. The
calculation guidelines in Annex B show that very small flaming fires
(<10 kW, which is less than a small wastebasket fire) have the ability to
drive smoke to relatively high ceilings unless the temperature gradient
between the floor and the ceiling becomes quite large. For example, a
very small fire of 10 kW can reach a ceiling of 47 ft (14.3 m), assuming
an ambient temperature gradient of 80°F (26.7°C) at the ceiling and
72°F (22.2°C) at the floor. However, smoke from a larger fire of around
100 kW would stratify at 25 ft (7.6 m) above the floor, if the ambient air
temperature increases by 100°F (37.8°C) over that same height. HVAC
systems often form a layer of cool air near the floor, while upper zones
near the ceiling are not tempered by HVAC equipment. This can create
conditions with a similar or greater effect than naturally occurring
stratification.

Where stratification can be expected, the location and spacing of

smoke detectors must be adjusted. The design of a smoke detection
system must address both the spectrum of ambient conditions and the
relevant fire scenarios for the space. In areas of high ceilings, layering
of detectors or combining detectors to address credible fire scenarios
is often necessary. If a second “layer” of detectors is contemplated,
remember that the spacing requirements assume the existence of a
ceiling jet to move smoke horizontally to the detector. Smoke
detectors suspended below the ceiling do not have the benefit of a
ceiling jet, and the conventional spacing rules might not be adequate.
In the case of suspended spot-type smoke detectors, a spacing of not
more than 0.4 times the installed detector height above the floor could
be used on the basis of plume divergence. However, this second layer
of detectors generally does not eliminate the requirement for ceiling-
mounted detectors, and the total number of detectors could be
impractical. Consequently, beam detectors, air-sampling detectors, or
video image detectors might be better choices for stratified detection
scenarios.

17.7.2* Protection During Construction.

17.7.2.1
Where detectors are installed for signal initiation during construction,
they shall be cleaned and verified to be operating in accordance with
the listed sensitivity, or they shall be replaced prior to the final
acceptance test of the system.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse
Because renovation and construction activities include numerous fire
ignition sources, smoke detection is often required in areas under
construction. Where the authority having jurisdiction requires early
installation or detection during construction, the detectors must be
cleaned and measured for their normal operating sensitivity before the
final acceptance test of the system. Detectors that cannot be restored
to their design sensitivity range must be replaced.

17.7.2.2
Where detectors are installed but not operational during construction,
they shall be protected from construction debris, dust, dirt, and
damage in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations and
verified to be operating in accordance with the listed sensitivity, or they
shall be replaced prior to the final acceptance test of the system.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

This requirement applies to existing smoke detectors that remain in

place during a renovation, as well as new detectors that are installed
but are not operational. This might apply where smoke detection is
required only during certain hours or is temporarily disabled during
certain activities. However, if smoke detection is not required at any
time during construction, new smoke detectors should not be installed,
as specified in 17.7.2.3.

Many smoke detectors are shipped with a thin plastic cover that fits
over the sensing portion of the detector, similar to the one shown in
Exhibit 17.31. These covers are widely assumed to be suitable for
protecting the detector from construction dust, dirt, and debris.
However, most of these covers are merely for protection during
shipping and are not intended to be used in lieu of the manufacturer’s
recommended protection. Therefore, cleaning detectors after all
construction trades have finished work is often still necessary.
EXHIBIT 17.31 Smoke Detector with Protective Plastic Cover.
(Courtesy of Hochiki America Corp., Buena Park, CA)

It should be recognized that any means of keeping dust and debris out
of a smoke detector sensing chamber would also impede the entry of
smoke. To ensure operability of the system, the contractor must have
a means of verifying that all protective measures are removed from the
detectors when the construction trades have completed their work.

Before final acceptance of the system, the sensitivity of the detectors

must be measured and verified to be in the correct range. Detectors
that do not meet and cannot be restored to their design sensitivity
range must be replaced.
17.7.2.3
Where detection is not required during construction, detectors shall not
be installed until after all other construction trades have completed
cleanup.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

This requirement applies only to the installation of new detectors.

Refer to 17.7.2.1 or 17.7.2.2 for existing smoke detectors that remain
in place during a renovation.

Many unwanted alarms are caused by smoke detectors installed too

early in the construction process. Construction activities produce
airborne dust that inevitably finds its way into detectors, contaminating
them and making them prone to unwanted alarms. Unless detection is
required while the area is under construction, experience has shown
that the best practice is not to install smoke detectors until all
construction cleanup is completed.

17.7.3* Sensitivity.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Listing agencies base the listings of smoke detectors on repeatable

laboratory tests. These tests do not necessarily correlate to actual
fires in actual applications, and the listing agencies do not provide a
listed spacing for smoke detectors as they do for heat detectors.

One of the tests conducted during a listing investigation is a sensitivity

measurement. A smoke box using a cotton lamp wick under controlled
airflow is used to produce a light gray smoke with a controlled rate of
optical density increase per unit of time. The manufacturer marks the
detector with its sensitivity, based on the response obtained in the
smoke box test as outlined in the listing investigation standard used.
However, the sensitivity measurements obtained from the test are
relevant only in the context of the smoke box and smoke used. The
measurements are not intended to predict performance in any other
context — a marking of a nominal smoke obscuration of 0.6 percent to
4.0 percent obscuration per foot does not necessarily mean that an
installed detector will respond to a real fire at that level of optical
obscuration. Because the level of optical obscuration at which an
alarm signal is generated can be very different in a real compartment
fire from that obtained in a smoke box, a designer should not base a
design on the marked sensitivity.

Full-scale room fire tests are also conducted during the listing
evaluation of a smoke detector. The fire test room has a ceiling height
of 10 ft (3.0 m). In accordance with UL 268, Smoke Detectors for Fire
Alarm Systems, smoke detectors are required to render an alarm when
subjected to fires that ultimately produce smoke obscurations of 37
percent per foot for a paper fire, 17 percent per foot for a wood fire, 5
percent per foot for a flaming polyurethane foam fire, 12 percent per
foot for a smoldering polyurethane foam fire, and 10 percent per foot
for a smoldering wood fire. Additionally, smoke detectors are required
not to render an alarm before a smoke obscuration of 1.5 percent per
foot is produced in the cooking nuisance smoke test. These pass/fail
tests also do not provide a meaningful basis for predicting smoke
detector performance.

17.7.3.1*
Smoke detectors shall be marked with their nominal production
sensitivity and tolerance in percent per foot (percent per meter)
obscuration, as required by the listing.
17.7.3.2
Spot-type smoke detectors that have provision for field adjustment of
sensitivity via a mechanical means shall have an adjustment range of
not less than 0.6 percent per foot (1.95 percent per meter)
obscuration.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The adjustment of detector sensitivity over a range of less than 0.6

percent per foot has little, if any, practical benefit. Even where smoke
detectors are used for property protection, such as in data centers, the
difference in response represented by an adjustment range of less
than 0.6 percent per foot is minor.

17.7.3.3
If the means of adjustment of sensitivity is on the detector, a method
shall be provided to restore the detector to its factory calibration.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Some smoke detectors have a feature that allows the adjustment of

detector sensitivity to accommodate the immediate ambient
conditions in the area of the detector. If maintenance personnel use
the adjustment feature between cleaning intervals to maintain stability,
they should restore the detector to its original design sensitivity after it
has been cleaned. Chapter 14 covers the maintenance of smoke
detectors.

17.7.3.4
Detectors that have provision for program-controlled adjustment of
sensitivity shall be permitted to be marked with their programmable
sensitivity range only.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Most addressable/analog smoke detectors have provisions for

detector sensitivity adjustment by means of the system software.
These smoke detectors send a voltage or current value back to the
control unit that is proportional to the concentration of smoke sensed
by the detector. In such a case, the detector’s trip point is often a
voltage or current level stored in the control unit memory.
Consequently, the adjustment of the detector’s activation point is
actually the adjustment of the activation value stored in memory for
that detector. When a provision for the adjustment of the detector
sensitivity is at the control unit, there must be a means to restore the
detector to its factory sensitivity. The manufacturer must mark the
detector to show the sensitivity range. If maintenance personnel use
the adjustment feature between cleaning intervals to maintain stability,
they should restore the detector to its original design sensitivity after it
has been cleaned. Chapter 14 covers the maintenance of smoke
detectors.

17.7.4 Location and Spacing.

ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

As with heat detectors, smoke detectors rely primarily on plume and

ceiling jet flows to transport the smoke from a fire to the detector.
Note the similarity in the location criteria between smoke detectors
and heat detectors.

Criteria for a given type of smoke detector are organized in a single

section. All the spot-type detector criteria are in 17.7.4.2 through
17.7.4.5. The criteria for air sampling–type detectors are in 17.7.4.6,
and the criteria for projected beam–type detectors are in 17.7.4.7.

17.7.4.1* General.
17.7.4.1.1
The location and spacing of smoke detectors shall be based upon the
anticipated smoke flows due to the plume and ceiling jet produced by
the anticipated fire, as well as any pre-existing ambient airflows that
could exist in the protected compartment.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

When determining the location and spacing of smoke detectors, the

designer must consider how smoke is likely to flow. The likely flow of
smoke depends on the ambient conditions as well as the fire. In some
cases, the ambient airflow can be deduced by inspection. In other
cases, the use of a velometer or an anemometer can be helpful in
determining the direction and the speed of ambient air currents that
constitute the dominant ambient air movement in the compartment or
space. The flow of the plume and the ceiling jet depends on the fuel
load, the ambient conditions, and the location of the fire within the
space. Usually, the behavior of the fire plume cannot be determined by
direct measurements. Computational fluid dynamics programs can be
used to model airflows if necessary.
The designer must analyze the space as part of the design process,
even when using a prescriptive design. A prudent designer will
document this analysis for future reference. If the air movement
patterns are changed in the protected space after the system has been
installed, the relocation of smoke detectors might be advisable.

17.7.4.1.2
The design shall account for the contribution of the following factors in
predicting detector response to the anticipated fires to which the
system is intended to respond:

• (1)

Ceiling shape and surface

• (2)

Ceiling height

• (3)

Configuration of contents in the protected area

• (4)

Combustion characteristics and probable equivalence ratio of

the anticipated fires involving the fuel loads within the protected
area

• (5)

Compartment ventilation

• (6)

Ambient temperature, pressure, altitude, humidity, and

atmosphere
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

These general criteria are far less specific than those established for
heat detectors. The reasoning can be understood by a review of the
importance of fire plume dynamics in the location and spacing of heat
detectors versus smoke detectors.

Heat detectors depend on the fire plume and ceiling jet to carry hot
gaseous combustion products and entrained air to the detector where
heat can flow from the ceiling jet into the detector, resulting in an
alarm. Although not explicitly stated in the Code, heat detectors are
generally used where response is needed once the fire has achieved an
energy output of at least 1.2 MW, which is the size of fire used in
determining the listed spacing for a heat detector. This size of fire
discharges a significant quantity of energy, which serves as the engine
that creates its own air currents. The energy from the fire propels the
hot air and smoke mixture across the ceiling. As a result, the fire is the
dominant air mover in the compartment.

FAQ What is the dominant factor in predicting smoke flow under

smoldering, low-energy-output fire conditions?

Under smoldering, low-energy-output fire conditions, the fire does not

yet represent an energy output (heat release rate) sufficient to serve as
the primary source of propulsion for the smoke. Existing air currents
through the area dominate the flow of smoke with little, if any,
contribution from the fire. The flow of smoke is far more dependent on
site-specific airflow variables.

Modeling the flow of the fire plume and ceiling jet is possible with
computer programs such as FDS that apply the rules of fluid flow
physics and thermodynamics to the plume from a fire. If explicit
modeling is not used, the designer must determine the location and
spacing of smoke detectors based on how the site-specific
environmental features will affect the flow of smoke from early-stage,
low-energy-output fires.

17.7.4.1.3
If the intent is to protect against a specific hazard, the detector(s) shall
be permitted to be installed closer to the hazard in a position where the
detector can intercept the smoke.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Usually, the design process begins by locating detectors so that they

will provide general area protection. Additional detectors are added or
positions adjusted to consider known or anticipated ignition sources
and known air currents. Detectors may be placed closer to hazards like
switchgear enclosures, power supplies, and similar assets with known
histories of ignition.

17.7.4.2* Spot-Type Smoke Detectors.

ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The importance of accessibility and the maintenance of a smoke

detection system cannot be overemphasized. The designer must
exercise judgment and discretion to provide a system that can be
maintained pursuant to the criteria established in Chapter 14.
Paragraph A.17.7.4.2 clarifies 17.4.3, which requires that all initiating
devices, including smoke detectors, be installed in a way that they can
be maintained effectively.

Atria and other areas with exceptionally high ceilings — auditoriums,

gymnasiums, exhibit halls, storage facilities, and some manufacturing
facilities — represent very difficult situations for the use of spot-type
smoke detection. Stratification of smoke, accessibility for
maintenance and testing, and dissipation of smoke could warrant the
use of other types of detection. Paragraph A.17.7.4.2 advises the
designer to consider either air sampling or projected beam–type
smoke detection as alternatives that might resolve these concerns.
However, note that the air-sampling ports of an air sampling–type
detector are treated as individual spot-type detectors. Since air
sampling–type detectors rely on the plume and ceiling jet to carry
smoke to the sampling ports, air sampling–type detectors might not
represent an advantage over traditional spot-type detectors where
stratification is a concern. The beams of projected beam–type smoke
detection must be carefully located where stratification is a concern
for the design fire to be detected. Video image smoke detection might
also be a potential solution. Annex B provides additional information
on how to predict the elevation of a stratification plane under known
conditions.

17.7.4.2.1*
Spot-type smoke detectors shall be located on the ceiling or, if on a
sidewall, between the ceiling and 12 in. (300 mm) down from the
ceiling to the top of the detector.
17.7.4.2.2*
To minimize dust contamination, smoke detectors, where installed
under raised floors, shall be mounted only in an orientation for which
they have been listed.
17.7.4.2.3
On smooth ceilings, spacing for spot-type smoke detectors shall be in
accordance with 17.7.4.2.3.1 through 17.7.4.2.3.4.
17.7.4.2.3.1*
In the absence of specific performance-based design criteria, one of
the following requirements shall apply:

• (1)

The distance between smoke detectors shall not exceed a

nominal spacing of 30 ft (9.1 m) and there shall be detectors
within a distance of one-half the nominal spacing, measured at
right angles from all walls or partitions extending upward to
within the top 15 percent of the ceiling height.

• (2)*

All points on the ceiling shall have a detector within a distance

equal to or less than 0.7 times the nominal 30 ft (9.1 m) spacing
(0.7S).
17.7.4.2.3.2
In all cases, the manufacturer’s published instructions shall be
followed.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse
When a manufacturer, through its own testing and research program,
publishes a specific spacing recommendation that is different from the
30 ft (9.1 m) spacing, that spacing recommendation becomes an
enforceable part of this Code.

17.7.4.2.3.3
Other spacing shall be permitted to be used depending on ceiling
height, different conditions, or response requirements.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

In the prescriptive design environment, a spacing other than 30 ft (9.1

m) can be used if the justification for doing so is based on the fire
dynamics, environment, compartment dimensions, and response
objectives. The criteria imply, but do not explicitly require, a formal
design process such as that required by 17.7.1.3. The designer should
document the basis for selecting a spacing other than 30 ft (9.1 m),
and that document should become a permanent part of the project file.
The selected spacing will be subject to review and approval by the
authority having jurisdiction.

17.7.4.2.3.4
For the detection of flaming fires, the guidelines in Annex B shall be
permitted to be used.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Currently, no computational models are designed to develop

predictions of smoke flow for nonflaming fires. Where the design
objective is the detection of a smoldering fire, the designer should
model ambient compartment air currents and the power commitment
to them to determine to what extent they will dominate the flow of
smoke.

Two analytical methods are provided in Annex B. Because these

methods rely on plume and ceiling jet dynamics, their use must be
limited to scenarios involving flaming fires that produce a buoyant
plume. For smoldering fire scenarios, other methods must be used
until open flaming commences. Then Annex B methods can be used.

Several available computer models (e.g., FPETOOL, FastLite, Hazard 1)

predict smoke detector activation to the flaming fire scenario.
However, it must be noted that these applications use a temperature
rise model, not optical density or mass density of smoke, to predict the
activation of smoke detectors. Their credibility is limited by the validity
of the temperature correlation plugged into the model for smoke
detector response.

In this regard, a research paper, Fire Detection Modeling, State of the

Art, analyzes the ways fire applications predict smoke detector
operation and points out the advantages and disadvantages of each
method.

FDS, a computational fluid dynamics model, has become popular for

modeling the flow of smoke and fire plumes in rooms and buildings.
However, this application is not simple to operate and requires
considerable skill to generate reliable simulations. FDS tracks mass,
velocity, and temperature. Users of the FDS model must again set
numerical values for these parameters, which are then used to infer
smoke detector activation.

17.7.4.2.4*
For solid joist and beam construction, spacing for spot-type smoke
detectors shall be in accordance
with 17.7.4.2.4.1 through 17.7.4.2.4.6.
17.7.4.2.4.1
Solid joists shall be considered equivalent to beams for smoke
detector spacing guidelines.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

When the requirements for spacing spot-type smoke detectors

in 17.7.4.2.4 are applied, solid joists and solid beams are treated the
same. At the fire sizes normally associated with the response of a
smoke detection system, the ceiling jet velocities are relatively low and
produce less turbulence at the beam and joist bottoms. Consequently,
the effects of beams and joists on the ceiling jet flow are expected to
be essentially the same.

17.7.4.2.4.2
For level ceilings, the following shall apply:

• (1)

For ceilings with beam depths of less than 10 percent of the

ceiling height (0.1 H), the following shall apply:

o (a)

Smooth ceiling spacing shall be permitted.

o (b)

Spot-type smoke detectors shall be permitted to be

located on ceilings or on the bottom of beams.

• (2)

For ceilings with beam depths equal to or greater than

10 percent of the ceiling height (0.1 H), the following shall apply:

o (a)

Where beam spacing is equal to or greater than 40 percent

of the ceiling height (0.4 H), spot-type detectors shall be
located on the ceiling in each beam pocket.

o (b)

Where beam spacing is less than 40 percent of the ceiling

height (0.4 H), the following shall be permitted for spot
detectors:

 i.
 Smooth ceiling spacing in the direction parallel to
the beams and at one-half smooth ceiling spacing in
the direction perpendicular to the beams

 ii.

Location of detectors either on the ceiling or on the

bottom of the beams

• (3)*

For beam pockets formed by intersecting beams, including

waffle or pan-type ceilings, the following shall apply:

o (a)

For beam depths less than 10 percent of the ceiling height

(0.1 H), spacing shall be in accordance
with 17.7.4.2.4.2(1).

o (b)

For beam depths greater than or equal to 10 percent of the

ceiling height (0.1 H), spacing shall be in accordance
with 17.7.4.2.4.2(2).

• (4)*

For corridors 15 ft (4.6 m) in width or less having ceiling beams

or solid joists perpendicular to the corridor length, the following
shall apply:

o (a)

Smooth ceiling spacing shall be permitted.

o (b)

Location of spot-type smoke detectors shall be permitted

on ceilings, sidewalls, or the bottom of beams or solid
joists.

• (5)
 For rooms of 900 ft2 (84 m2) or less, the following shall apply:

o (a)

Use of smooth ceiling spacing shall be permitted.

o (b)

Location of spot-type smoke detectors shall be permitted

on ceilings or on the bottom of beams.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

(1) The designer is permitted to use smooth ceiling spacing under level
ceilings where beams and joists extend down from the ceiling surface
less than 10 percent of the floor-to-ceiling height, regardless of the
beam or joist spacing. Since the thickness of the ceiling jet is generally
taken to be equal to the upper 10 percent of the floor-to-ceiling height,
beams and joists extending down a depth of less than this thickness
are not expected to have a significant effect on the response time of
the smoke detector. The farthest a detector should be from the fire is
0.7 times the 30 ft (9.1 m) spacing. Therefore, detectors can be
located on either the ceiling or the bottom of the beam. See Exhibit
17.32.

EXHIBIT 17.32 Smoke Detector Locations with Beams Less than 0.1H.

(2) (b) The speed with which smoke enters the sensing chamber of a
detector is controlled by the velocity of the ceiling jet as it flows past
the detector. Where beams or joists extend down from a level ceiling
more than 10 percent of the floor-to-ceiling height, they obstruct the
ceiling jet flow and cause it to flow more slowly. This could increase
the time needed for smoke to enter the detection chamber after the
ceiling jet arrives at the detector location.

FAQ What spacing should be used when beam spacing is greater than
40 percent of the floor-to-ceiling height (0.4H)?

Since it is generally accepted that the smoke plume from a fire will
diverge at a nominal 22 degrees (see Exhibit 17.29), the width of the
plume is assumed to be about 40 percent of the floor-to-ceiling height
(0.4H). Where the beam spacing exceeds 40 percent of the floor-to-
ceiling height, the entire plume can fit within a single beam pocket. If a
smoke detector is not in that pocket, the entire bay must fill with
smoke before there is fill-and-spill propagation to an adjacent bay
where a smoke detector might be. This phenomenon can result in a
delayed response. In the case where the beams are both equal to or
more than 10 percent of the floor-to-ceiling height in depth and spaced
equal to or more than 40 percent of the floor-to-ceiling height, a
detector must be installed in each beam pocket, as shown in Exhibit
17.33.

EXHIBIT 17.33 Smoke Detector Location with Beam Depths Greater

than 0.1H and Spaced More than 0.4H.
Where the beams are greater than 10 percent of the floor-to-ceiling
height and are spaced less than 40 percent of the floor-to-ceiling
height, the plume will fill more than one bay regardless of where the
plume is relative to the beams. The presence of the beams will retard
the flow of the ceiling jet in the direction perpendicular to the beams
and channel the flow in the direction parallel to the beams. See Exhibit
17.34.

EXHIBIT 17.34 Smoke Detector Location with Beam Depths Greater

than 0.1H and Spaced Less than 0.4H.

(5) Where smoke detectors are installed in a room of only 900 ft2 (84
m2), the small ceiling area constrains the ceiling jet such that even
when beams are present, the fire can be detected sufficiently early to
achieve the objective. Where other objectives demand more rapid
response, performance-based design methods should be employed.

It is not the intent of 17.7.4.2.4.2(5) that the 900 ft2 (84 m2) be applied
to 5 ft (1.5 m) wide passage-ways 180 ft (54.9 m) in length, 10 ft (3.1
m) wide corridors 90 ft (27.4 m) in length, or other compartments
where the fire hazard and risk are nominally equivalent to the rest of
the normally occupied portion of the building. List item
17.7.4.2.4.2(5)(a) requires the use of smooth spacing;
see 17.7.4.2.3.1.

17.7.4.2.4.3*
For sloping ceilings with beams running parallel up slope, the following
shall apply:

• (1)

Spot-type detector(s) shall be located on the ceiling within beam

pocket(s).

• (2)

The ceiling height shall be taken as the average height over

slope.

• (3)

Spacing shall be measured along a horizontal projection of the

ceiling.

• (4)

Smooth ceiling spacing shall be permitted within beam pocket(s)

parallel to the beams.

• (5)

For beam depths less than or equal to 10 percent of the ceiling

height (0.1 H), spot-type detectors shall be located with smooth
ceiling spacing perpendicular to the beams.

• (6)

For beam depths greater than 10 percent of the ceiling height

(0.1 H), the following shall apply for spacing perpendicular to the
beams:

o (a)
 For beam spacing greater than or equal to 40 percent of
the ceiling height (0.4 H), spot-type detectors shall be
located in each beam pocket.

o (b)

For beam spacing less than 40 percent of the ceiling

height (0.4 H), spot-type detectors shall not be required in
every beam pocket but shall be spaced not greater than
50 percent of smooth ceiling spacing.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Sloping ceilings are defined in 3.3.40.2 as a ceiling that has a slope of

more than 1 in 8 (i.e., rise-over-run ratio of 0.125 or an angle of about
7.2 degrees). Any slope less than or equal to 1 in 8 is equivalent to a
level ceiling. Beams that are parallel to the slope are perpendicular to
the ridge beam of the roof; beams that are perpendicular to the slope
are parallel to the ridge beam.

The concept behind these design requirements is analogous to the one

regarding heat detectors. When a buoyant plume from a flaming fire
impinges on a sloped ceiling, it will progress rapidly upward toward the
ridge beam. The buoyancy of the ceiling jet gases accelerates the
ceiling jet up the slope. This acceleration provides faster response by
detectors that are up-slope from the fire. Computational fluid
dynamics modeling demonstrated that the beams are very effective in
channeling the smoke in the beam channel up the slope to the peak of
the roof. This rapid upward flow reduces the lateral flow parallel to the
ridge beam.

17.7.4.2.4.4*
For sloping ceilings with beams running perpendicular across slope,
the following shall apply:

• (1)

Spot-type detector(s) shall be located at the bottom of the

beams.
 • (2)

The ceiling height shall be taken as the average height over

slope.

• (3)

Spacing shall be measured along a horizontal projection of the

ceiling.

• (4)

Smooth ceiling spacing shall be permitted within beam

pocket(s).

• (5)

For beam depths less than or equal to 10 percent of the ceiling

height (0.1 H), spot-type detectors shall be located with smooth
ceiling spacing.

• (6)

For beam depths greater than 10 percent of the ceiling height

(0.1 H), spot-type detectors shall not be required to be located
closer than (0.4 H) and shall not exceed 50 percent of smooth
ceiling spacing.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Beams that are perpendicular to the slope are parallel to the ridge
beam. These beams form dams that prevent the smoke from flowing
up the ceiling slope toward the ridge beam. When the smoke
encounters a beam running across the slope, the ceiling jet will begin
forming a smoke layer. Smoke will flow laterally as the depth of the
smoke layer increases. Eventually the smoke layer will become deep
enough to spill over the beam and begin filling the next bay. This
process is a much slower propagation than when the beams run up the
slope. However, the damming effect of the beams will tend to channel
smoke across the roof, parallel to the beams. The spacing adjustments
in this section are the result of a detailed analysis of the computational
fluid dynamics modeling research that was conducted to investigate
this issue.

17.7.4.2.4.5*
For sloped ceilings with beam pockets formed by intersecting beams,
the following shall apply:

• (1)

Spot-type detector(s) shall be located at the bottom of the

beams.

• (2)

The ceiling height shall be taken as the average height over

slope.

• (3)

Spacing shall be measured along a horizontal projection of the

ceiling.

• (4)

For beam depths less than or equal to 10 percent of the ceiling

height (0.1 H), spot-type detectors shall be spaced with not more
than three beams between detectors and shall not exceed
smooth ceiling spacing.

• (5)

For beam depths greater than 10 percent of the ceiling height

(0.1 H), spot-type detectors shall be spaced with not more than
two beams between detectors, but shall not be required to be
spaced closer than (0.4 H), and shall not exceed 50 percent of
smooth ceiling spacing.
17.7.4.2.4.6
For sloped ceilings with solid joists, the detectors shall be located on
the bottom of the joist.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The relatively small channel of space between joists results in smoke

filling this space quickly. Once filled, the smoke flows across the
bottom of the joists. Locating smoke detectors at the bottom of the
joist places them where the dominant flow of smoke is expected to
occur. Paragraph 17.7.4.2.4.1 specifies that solid joists be treated as
beams for smoke detector spacing guidelines. However, where the
beams are actually joists — greater than 4 in. (100 mm) in depth and
on centers 3.0 ft (0.9 m) or less — the detectors must be placed on the
bottoms of the joists. Note that bar joists or open web beams do not
affect smoke flow unless the solid part of the top cord exceeds 4 in.
(100 mm) in depth.

17.7.4.3* Peaked.
17.7.4.3.1
Detectors shall first be spaced and located within 36 in. (910 mm) of
the peak, measured horizontally.
17.7.4.3.2
The number and spacing of additional detectors, if any, shall be based
on the horizontal projection of the ceiling.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

These criteria apply to all types of smoke detection, including spot-

type, air sampling–type, and projected beam–type. Where the ceiling is
not level, the plume and the resulting ceiling jet will concentrate smoke
in the highest portion of the interior volume. Locating detectors near
the peak of the sloped ceiling and at appropriate intervals below that
level is an optimally responsive design.

17.7.4.4* Shed.
17.7.4.4.1
Detectors shall first be spaced and located within 36 in. (910 mm) of
the high side of the ceiling, measured horizontally.
17.7.4.4.2
The number and spacing of additional detectors, if any, shall be based
on the horizontal projection of the ceiling.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

See the commentary following 17.7.4.3.2.

17.7.4.5 Raised Floors and Suspended Ceilings.

ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

When total coverage is required by the authority having jurisdiction or

other codes, 17.5.3.1 requires detection in all accessible spaces
(combustible or noncombustible) and in inaccessible combustible
spaces. When these requirements are applied, the spaces beneath
raised floors and above suspended ceilings typically require detection
using the same location and spacing concepts as required for the
occupied portion of a building.

17.7.4.5.1
Spaces beneath raised floors and above suspended ceilings shall be
treated as separate rooms for smoke detector spacing purposes.
17.7.4.5.2
Detectors installed beneath raised floors or above suspended ceilings,
or both, including raised floors and suspended ceilings used for
environmental air, shall not be used in lieu of providing detection within
the room.
17.7.4.5.3
For raised floors, the following shall apply:

• (1)

Detectors installed beneath raised floors shall be spaced in

accordance with 17.7.4.1, 17.7.4.1.3, and 17.7.4.2.2.

• (2)

Where the area beneath the raised floor is also used for
environmental air, detector spacing shall also conform
to 17.7.5.1 and 17.7.5.2.
17.7.4.5.4
For suspended ceilings, the following shall apply:

• (1)
 Detector spacing above suspended ceilings shall conform to the
requirements of 17.7.4 for the ceiling configuration.

• (2)

Where detectors are installed in ceilings used for environmental

air, detector spacing shall also conform to 17.7.5.1, 17.7.5.2,
and 17.7.5.4.
17.7.4.6 Air Sampling–Type Smoke Detector.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Air sampling–type detectors are defined in 3.3.77.1. These detectors

use an aspirating fan to draw air from the hazard area through a
sampling pipe network to a highly sensitive centralized detector that
determines the presence of visible smoke or invisible combustion
products. The detector can be a cloud chamber–type smoke detector or
any of several varieties of high sensitivity, photoelectric-type smoke
detectors. See 3.3.285.

Air sampling–type detectors are used in applications where the

designer is concerned with very early smoke detection and enhanced
sensitivity is needed, such as areas that house valuable equipment.
They are used also in conventional settings that do not require high
sensitivity, such as areas with high ceilings or environmental
conditions that are unsuitable for spot-type detectors. See Exhibit
17.35 to 17.38 for examples of air sampling–type smoke detectors.

EXHIBIT 17.35 Use of Sampling Pipes to Convey Smoke-Laden Air to

Central Detection Unit of Air Sampling– Type Detector. (Courtesy of
Xtralis, Northford, CT)
EXHIBIT 17.36 How an Optical Air Sampling System Works. (Courtesy
of Xtralis, Northford, CT)
EXHIBIT 17.37 Air Sampling–Type Smoke Detectors. (Courtesy of
Xtralis, Northford, CT)

EXHIBIT 17.38 Air Sampling–Type Smoke Detector. (Courtesy of

Carrier Corporation, Palm Beach Gardens, FL)
17.7.4.6.1 General.
17.7.4.6.1.1*
In the absence of specific performance-based design criteria, each
sampling port of an air sampling–type smoke detector shall be treated
as a spot-type smoke detector for the purpose of location and spacing
in accordance with 17.7.4.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The International Fire Detection Research Project showed that the

sampling port does not produce the effect of drawing the smoke up to
the sampling port from lower down in the compartment. When air
sampling–type detectors are used to protect rooms and other large
compartments, they rely on either ambient air currents or the fire
plume and ceiling jet as much as spot-type smoke detectors.

17.7.4.6.1.2
Air sampling–type smoke detectors shall produce trouble signals if the
airflow is outside the manufacturer’s specified range.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The effectiveness of air sampling–type detectors depends on the

sampling pipe network to transport smoke-laden air reliably from the
protected hazard to the remote detector. Therefore, the piping network
must be supervised to ensure that it remains intact and that the pipe
and sampling ports remain clear and unobstructed. Dust from the
protected space can cause clogging of the sampling pipes, as well as
any filters in the sampling path. Both clogging and filter loading can
lead to reduced airflow from the affected portions of the sampling
network. Supervision is typically accomplished with a calibrated
airflow meter in the detector. A trouble condition is annunciated if the
airflow through the detector is outside an acceptable range that is
calculated for the specific sampling pipe network in accordance
with 17.7.4.6.2.2 and 17.7.4.6.2.3. A high airflow signals an open
sampling pipe, and a low airflow signals an obstruction.

17.7.4.6.1.3
If provided, atmospheric contaminant filtration shall be listed for use
with the detector and installed and maintained in accordance with the
air sampling–type smoke detector manufacturer’s published
instructions.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

In many industrial and manufacturing settings, the atmosphere

contains dust, such as coal, wood, or other by-products of the
manufacturing process. Conventional spot-type smoke detectors are
counterproductive in these environments for two reasons. First,
traditional spot detectors cannot distinguish between these
particulates and products of combustion, resulting in a significant
increase in nuisance alarms. Second, dust and dirt particulates can
accumulate inside the spot-type smoke detector, resulting in “dirty”
detector warnings or damage to the electronic components of the
detectors.
Air sampling–type detectors can be more suitable for dirty
environments because the detector can be outside the protected
space, and the sampled air can be passed through a listed filter to
remove the particulates that could damage the internal components.
See Exhibit 17.36.

17.7.4.6.2 Pipe Network.

17.7.4.6.2.1
Maximum air sample transport time from the farthest sampling port to
the detector shall not exceed 120 seconds.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

FAQ What effect does limiting the transport time have on the system
design?

The air transport time criterion places an effective limit on the design
of the fan and the maximum distance from the detector to the farthest
sampling port, as well as the size and layout of the sampling pipes.
The manufacturer’s listing and instructions provide the details on how
to comply with this limitation when using a specific product. As part of
the system design process, the air transport time must be calculated in
accordance with 17.7.4.6.2.2 and 17.7.4.6.2.3.

17.7.4.6.2.2
Sampling pipe networks shall be designed on the basis of, and shall be
supported by, computer-based fluid dynamics design calculations to
ensure required performance.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The manufacturers of air sampling–type smoke detectors supply

engineering guidelines in their installation documentation that ensure
that the system is designed using fluid dynamic principles. These
guidelines are evaluated by the testing laboratories as part of the
listing evaluation procedure.

17.7.4.6.2.3
The sampling pipe network design calculations shall include pressure,
volumetric flow, and alarm sensitivity at each sampling port.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The transport time is determined by flow calculations. Flow

calculations determine that sufficient pressure and flow volume are
available at all the sampling ports and that the air sampling–type
detector will provide detection over the entire area it is to cover.

17.7.4.6.2.4
Software applications for the design of pipe networks shall be listed
for use with the manufacturer’s equipment.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Software used to design the air sampling pipe network must be

evaluated by a listing agency to verify that the calculation routine
predicts the system performance accurately, including air flow rate,
sample transport time, and sampling port sensitivity.

17.7.4.6.2.5
Sampling system piping shall be conspicuously identified as “SMOKE
DETECTOR SAMPLING TUBE — DO NOT DISTURB,” as follows:

• (1)

At changes in direction or branches of piping

• (2)

At each side of penetrations of walls, floors, or other barriers

• (3)

At intervals on piping that provide visibility within the space, but

no greater than 20 ft (6.1 m)
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse
Many building systems are often installed in the above-ceiling space. If
the sampling pipe network is subsequently damaged by another trade,
a break in the pipe could cause the detector to sample the above-
ceiling air rather than the air beneath the ceiling plane. Piping must be
marked clearly, in a manner that will endure for the lifetime of the unit,
to ensure that any damage is corrected as quickly as possible.

17.7.4.6.2.6*
Sampling ports shall be identified as such.
17.7.4.6.2.7*
If provided, test ports at the end (most remote location) of a pipe run
installed in the pipe network solely for the purpose of validating
consistency in performance (also referred to as benchmark test
points) shall be included in the design calculations and allowed, but
not required, to comply with the requirements of 17.7.4.6.2.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Sampling ports should be tested during the commissioning process to

establish a baseline to be used during subsequent testing. For the
annual or routine maintenance testing, only a few sampling ports may
be tested and the results compared to the original transport times.
Typically, the sampling ports farthest from the detector unit are tested.
If the transport times remain close to the initial results, the system is
operating as designed and no further testing is required. If there is a
difference between the transport times predicted by the design
software, then the piping network, hole sizes, or the detector settings
should be checked to determine the causes of the difference.
Deviations should be addressed and corrected immediately.

17.7.4.6.2.8
If the piping and fittings are painted, the painting shall be performed in
accordance with the air sampling–type smoke detector manufacturer’s
published instructions.
17.7.4.6.2.9*
Pipe network materials, sizing, and installation shall be in accordance
with the manufacturer’s published requirements and suitable for use in
the environment in which they are installed.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Although Article 760 of NFPA 70 has detailed criteria for detection

system wiring, no national consensus standards are published for
sampling pipe installation. Each manufacturer makes its own
recommendations that establish the minimum compliance criteria for
that product. The integrity of the sampling pipe network is just as
important to the air sampling–type detector as the integrity of the
system wiring. The installation methods used for air-sampling piping
should provide equivalent security and mechanical protection.

17.7.4.6.2.10
Where used, capillary tubing shall be sized and affixed in accordance
with the manufacturer’s published instructions and computer-based
design calculations.
17.7.4.6.3 Installation and Spacing.
17.7.4.6.3.1*
Air sampling pipe network fittings shall be installed air-tight and
permanently affixed.
17.7.4.6.3.2
Sampled air shall be exhausted to a lessor or equal pressure zone. The
pressure differential between the sampled air and detector exhaust
shall not exceed the manufacturer’s published instructions.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The design calculation software for an air sampling detection system

assumes that the air pressure in the protected space is the same as
the air pressure in the area where the sampled air is exhausted. The
sampling hole size, pipe size, transport time, and fan aspirator speed
are all functions of the air volume that passes through the sensing
chamber, which is designed to detect smoke particles moving at a
specific rate. If the pressure at the sampling ports is greater than at
the exhaust port, the velocity of the sampled air entering the chamber
is likely to be higher than the design rate, which could negatively
impact the detector’s ability to sense smoke particles. Conversely, if
the pressure at the sampling ports is less than at the exhaust port, the
reverse pressure bias might cause the fan to rotate slower than
designed, resulting in increased transport times and decreased air flow
into the sensing chamber.

Because pressure gradients are not often a concern, most air sampling
detection systems are designed to exhaust directly from the detector.
However, if a pressure gradient exists between the sampling location
and the detector location, an exhaust pipe can be used to return the
exhausted air to the room of origin.

17.7.4.6.3.3*
Supports for sampling pipe shall be in accordance with the air
sampling–type smoke detector manufacturer’s published instructions.
17.7.4.6.4 Special Applications.
17.7.4.6.4.1 Air Duct Applications.
(A)
The air sampling system shall be listed for air duct applications and
shall be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s published
instructions.
(B)
The inlet and exhaust sections of pipe that are installed inside the air
duct shall be air-tight and shall exhaust the sampled air in accordance
with the manufacturer’s published instructions.
17.7.4.6.4.2* Electrical Cabinet Applications.
For protection of cabinets containing electrical equipment, the air
sampling ports shall be located in the main airflow at the exhaust
vents, downstream of the airflow distribution path, or in accordance
with the manufacturer’s published instructions.
17.7.4.7* Projected Beam–Type Smoke Detectors.
17.7.4.7.1
Projected beam–type smoke detectors shall be located in accordance
with the manufacturer’s published instructions.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Each make and model of a linear projected beam–type smoke detector

has specific installation limitations and performance capabilities. Most
notable of these limitations are the minimum and maximum beam
lengths. The designer should make certain that the contemplated
installation is consistent with the criteria established in the published
installation instructions of the product selected. The spacing criteria
provided in Figure A.17.7.4.7 is only a general example — the actual
spacing requirements will be dependent on the technology of the beam
detector and the performance standards applied by the listing
authority.

17.7.4.7.2*
The effects of stratification shall be evaluated when locating the
detectors.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

As with other types of smoke detection, the location selected for

detectors must account for the effects of stratification. In high-ceiling
areas where stratification is a concern, detectors can be positioned at
several levels. Alternatively, the methods in Annex B can be used to
calculate the plume divergence at the detector mounting height. The
plume width at the detector mounting height can then be used as the
“spacing” between adjacent beams in a performance-based design.

17.7.4.7.3
The beam length shall not exceed the maximum permitted by the
equipment listing.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

FAQ Why is the observance of the manufacturer’s beam length

limitations important?

Linear projected beam–type smoke detectors have limitations on both

the minimum and the maximum beam lengths over which they will
operate properly. The minimum beam length limitation is established
by the lowest smoke concentration that can be detected at that
minimum beam length. The maximum beam length is determined by
the maximum distance at which the detector can maintain its design
stability even when some normal light obscuration is present. The
projected beam–type smoke detector must be able to identify a low
concentration of smoke distributed along a substantial portion of the
beam and a high concentration of smoke localized in a short segment
of the beam. Each manufacturer obtains a listing from a qualified
testing laboratory that sets the upper and lower limits on the beam
length. Failure to observe these limits could result in an unstable
detector or the failure to detect a fire consistent with the performance
objectives.

17.7.4.7.4
If reflectors are used with projected beams, the reflectors shall be
installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s published instructions.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Reflectors used with linear projected beam–type smoke detectors

must also be listed for use with the detector. Note that the term mirror,
formerly used in the Code, was replaced by the term reflector for the
2022 edition. A mirror is a type of reflector.

17.7.4.7.5
A projected beam-type smoke detector shall be considered equivalent
to a row of spot-type smoke detectors for level and sloping ceiling
applications.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Given the similarities between the installation and spacing concepts

developed for line-type heat detectors and projected beam–type
smoke detectors, the logic behind the design requirements remains
consistent. When spacing strategies are developed, a linear projected
beam–type detector can be considered equivalent to a row of spot-
type smoke detectors, similar to how a line-type heat detector can be
considered a row of spot-type heat detectors. The distance between
the linear projected beams is analogous to the distance between rows
of spot-type smoke detectors.

17.7.4.7.6
Projected beam-type detectors and reflectors shall be mounted on
stable surfaces to prevent false or erratic operation due to movement.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Note that the term mirror, formerly used in the Code, was replaced by
the term reflector for the 2022 edition. A mirror is a type of reflector.

17.7.4.7.7
The beam shall be designed so that small angular movements of the
light source or receiver do not prevent operation due to smoke and do
not cause nuisance or unintentional alarms.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Buildings move under normal, everyday conditions. Wind or uneven

thermal expansion can cause buildings to sway, the ebb and flow of
the tides can cause oceanfront buildings to flex, and nearby street
traffic can cause portions of buildings to vibrate. Modern curtain
wall/steel frame buildings are designed to flex. This movement,
however, places a demand on fire alarm systems, especially fire alarm
systems using projected beam–type smoke detectors. The detectors
must be able to accommodate the natural or designed movement of
the building. The manufacturers of projected beam–type detectors
provide installation instructions that address the potential for this type
of difficulty. Because of the physical instability of mounting surfaces
and building movement, some manufacturers do not allow the use of
reflectors. The diameter of the projected beam and the receiver in
relation to the expected flexure of the building can be a limiting factor
on beam length.

17.7.4.7.8*
Unless otherwise permitted by 17.4.2.2, the design and installation of
projected beam-type detectors shall address the potential for the
obstruction of the light path.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse
Projected beam–type detectors use obscuration algorithms in their
software that can distinguish the progressive obscuration that occurs
during a fire with the step-wise obscuration that usually indicates
interference in the path of the beam by an opaque object. However,
despite the most sophisticated software, seasonal decorations, party
balloons, and hanging plants have been known to cause problems.
Obstructions that can gradually grow and block a beam detector, such
as trees in an atrium, should also be considered a potential problem.

17.7.5 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC).

17.7.5.1*
In spaces served by air-handling systems, detectors shall not be
located where airflow prevents operation of the detectors.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

This paragraph applies to both air supply and air return. In research
conducted under the International Fire Detection Research Project,
computer modeling identified situations where areas of nonactuation
extended almost 11 ft (3.4 m) from some supply diffusers. In addition,
the research showed that a smoke dilution effect occurred near air
returns. An air return pulls air up from levels in the room that are
beneath the ceiling jet, which has the effect of diluting smoke
concentration near the air return grille. The designer should arrange
detectors such that they are not adjacent to either air supplies or air
returns.

Situations could exist where even a 36 in. (910 mm) separation is not
adequate. This situation could depend on the air velocity (i.e., supply
air and return air), the throw characteristics of the supply diffuser, and
the diffuser size. Because the research did not address wide variations
in HVAC flow rates, the minimum distance between a detector and the
HVAC system supply or return recommended in A.17.7.5.1 might not
be valid in all cases. Where in doubt, airflow in the vicinity of the
detector should be mapped with a velometer or anemometer. Certainly,
the ambient airflow at the detector location should be only a fraction of
that used in the UL 268 smoke box of 30 ft/min (0.152 m/sec).
17.7.5.2
In under-floor spaces and above-ceiling spaces that are used as HVAC
plenums, detectors shall be listed for the anticipated environment as
required by 17.7.1.8.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

HVAC systems distribute frigid or hot air to maintain a specific

temperature in a conditioned space. Consequently, HVAC plenums can
have ambient conditions far more extreme than the spaces they
support.

Smoke detectors are electronic sensors. Ambient temperature, relative

humidity, and, especially in the case of spot-type ionization detectors,
the velocity of the air around the detector all affect detector operation.
Not all smoke detectors are listed for the range of conditions in HVAC
plenums or in underfloor or above-ceiling spaces. The designer’s
responsibility is to verify that the detector is listed for use in the range
of environmental conditions that will be encountered where it is to be
installed. See also 17.7.1.8 and A.17.7.1.8.

17.7.5.3
Detector spacings and locations shall be selected on the basis of
anticipated airflow patterns and fire type.
17.7.5.4*
Detectors placed in environmental air ducts or plenums shall not be
used as a substitute for open area detectors.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

In most buildings, there are periods when the HVAC system is not
moving significant quantities of air from the compartments it serves.
As a result, the fire detection system cannot be designed to rely on the
HVAC system operation for the transport of smoke to detectors in the
duct or plenum.

17.7.5.4.1
Where detectors are used for the control of smoke spread, the
requirements of 17.7.6 shall apply.
17.7.5.4.2
Where open area protection is required, 17.7.4 shall apply.
17.7.5.5
Detectors placed in environmental air ducts or plenums shall be
permitted to be either supervisory or alarm initiating devices.
17.7.6* Smoke Detectors for Control of Smoke Spread.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Between 1960 and 1971, fires in several high-rise buildings

demonstrated the difficulty of trying to evacuate an entire building. Not
only did occupants incur injuries during the evacuation, but the means
of egress often became untenable due to heavy smoke concentrations.
Improved building codes resulted in structures that could maintain
their integrity in spite of the complete combustion of the interior fire
load through passive fire-resistive construction and compartmentation,
and defending occupants in place became a viable option. Strategies
were developed for establishing smoke compartments and areas of
refuge and for managing the flow of smoke by directing it away from
the occupants. Experiences with high-rise fires indicate that proactive
control of smoke with either automatic smoke detectors and HVAC
systems or engineered smoke control systems is a viable strategy for
occupant protection in high-rise buildings.

FAQ Does 17.7.6 require the installation of smoke detectors for smoke
control?

Subsection 17.7.6 does not require the installation of smoke detectors

for smoke control. The purpose of 17.7.6 is to describe the
performance and installation requirements for smoke detectors being
used for smoke control if they are required by some other code or
standard.

17.7.6.1* Classifications.
Smoke detectors installed and used to prevent smoke spread by
initiating control of fans, dampers, doors, and other equipment shall be
classified in the following manner:
 • (1)

Area detectors that are installed in the related smoke

compartments

• (2)

Detectors that are installed in the air duct systems

• (3)

Video image smoke detection that is installed in related smoke

compartments
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Either dedicated detectors installed in the HVAC system or area

detectors can be used to control smoke spread. With
addressable/analog detection technology, individual ceiling-mounted
spot-type detectors produce discrete alarm signal codes that are
logged by the FACU. Both projected beam smoke detectors and video
image smoke detectors are also used for area detection and can be
used as an input signal for the control of the HVAC system serving the
related smoke compartments.

17.7.6.2* Limitations.
17.7.6.2.1
Detectors that are installed in the air duct system in accordance
with 17.7.6.1(2) shall not be used as a substitute for open area
protection.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The use of duct-type smoke detectors to provide open area protection

does not address the potential for a fire during instances when the
HVAC system is not running, nor does it address the delay in detection
due to smoke dilution. The use of duct smoke detection in lieu of open
area protection is prohibited.

17.7.6.2.2
Where open area protection is required, 17.7.4 shall apply.
17.7.6.3* Purposes.
17.7.6.3.1
To minimize the recirculation of smoke, a detector approved for air
duct use shall be installed as required by NFPA 90A and 17.7.6.4.2.
17.7.6.3.2
If smoke detectors are used to initiate selectively the operation of
equipment to control smoke spread, the requirements
of 17.7.6.4.2.2 shall apply.
17.7.6.3.3
If detectors are used to initiate the operation of smoke doors, the
requirements of 17.7.6.6 shall apply.
17.7.6.3.4
If duct detectors are used to initiate the operation of smoke dampers
within ducts, the requirements of 17.7.6.5 shall apply.
17.7.6.4 Application.
17.7.6.4.1 Area Smoke Detectors Within Smoke Compartments.
Area smoke detectors within smoke compartments shall be permitted
to be used to control the spread of smoke by initiating operation of
doors, dampers, and other equipment.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Area detectors are permitted to provide signals to initiate the control of

the spread of smoke. Addressable/analog detectors, whose principal
function is area protection, can be used effectively to provide these
signals. Existing detectors can perform double duty through the
programming of the FACU. Where area smoke detectors are used, they
should be located where they can identify the presence of smoke or
the movement of smoke past a particular area. The locations for area
smoke detectors are a function of building geometry, anticipated fire
locations, and intended goals of smoke control functions.

FAQ Is complete area smoke protection always required?

Except where used as permitted in 17.7.6.4.2.2(B), complete area

smoke protection is not necessary to provide for such control features.
Specific locations are often identified for specific fire scenarios. For
example, smoke detectors are often placed at the perimeter of an
atrium to detect smoke movement into the atrium space from a
corridor that opens into the atrium. Another example is the use of
smoke detectors to release smoke doors only as their associated
smoke detector is actuated, thus avoiding premature release of all
other doors. Selective door release is sometimes chosen to prevent
the premature release of doors needed to facilitate rapid evacuation.

Complete area coverage may be used for the control of smoke spread.
In this case, when a compartment detector actuates in the smoke
compartment, it signals the FACU, which in turn signals the HVAC
control system or smoke door release system. The HVAC controller
operates or controls fans and dampers to prevent the introduction of
smoke into other smoke compartments and to vent the smoke from
the fire compartment, facilitating occupant egress. The smoke door
release system closes either all doors in the building or all doors in the
smoke zone.

17.7.6.4.2* Smoke Detection for Air Duct System.

ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

It is generally accepted that particle size distribution varies from sub-

micron diameter particles predominant in the proximity of the flame of
a flaming fire to particles one or more orders of magnitude larger,
which are characteristic of smoke from a smoldering fire. The actual
particle size distribution depends on a host of other variables,
including the fuel and its physical make-up; the availability of oxygen,
including air supply and fire–gas discharge; and other ambient
conditions, especially humidity. Moreover, the particle size distribution
is not constant, but as the fire gases cool, the sub-micron particles
agglomerate and the very large ones precipitate. In other words, as
smoke travels away from the fire source, the particle size distribution
shows a relative decrease in smaller particles. Water vapor, which is
abundantly present in most fires, when cooled sufficiently will
condense to form fog particles — an effect frequently seen above tall
chimneys. Because water condensation is basically clear in color,
when it is mixed with other smoke particles, it can be expected to
lighten the color of the mixture.

In almost every fire scenario in an air-handling system, the point of

detection will be some distance from the fire source; therefore, the
smoke will be cooler and more visible because of the growth of sub-
micron particles into larger particles due to agglomeration and
recombination. For these reasons, photoelectric detection technology
has advantages over ionization detection technology in air duct system
applications.

17.7.6.4.2.1 Supply Air System.

ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The relevant NFPA standards are NFPA 90A, NFPA 92, and NFPA 101.
The purpose of supply-side smoke detection is the sensing of smoke
that might be contaminating the area served by the duct but not as a
result of a fire in that area. The smoke might be coming from another
area via return air ducts, from outside via fresh air mixing ducts, or
from a fire in the duct (e.g., in a filter or fan belt). If the source of the
smoke is from outside or from in the duct, a fire alarm response for
area detection in the space would not normally be expected to produce
the most appropriate set of responses.

Different airflow management programs are required for supply-side

smoke inflow as opposed to smoke generated in the compartment.
Furthermore, compartment area detection for response to a supply
duct smoke inflow is unreliable because of the expected dilution of
smoke-laden air with fresh air as it enters the smoke compartment
where the area detection is installed. This expected condition
necessitates the use of detectors downstream of the fan and filters in
the supply air duct.

The exception is based on the fire resistance of HVAC ducts and the
unlikelihood of smoke escaping from the HVAC duct into a
compartment not served by the duct. Refer to the following excerpt
from NFPA 90A for supply and return air smoke detection
requirements:

NFPA 90A (2021)

6.4.2* Location.

6.4.2.1 Smoke detectors listed for use in air distribution systems shall
be located as follows:

6.4.2.2 Return system smoke detectors shall not be required where the
entire space served by the air distribution system is protected by a
system of area smoke detectors.

6.4.2.3 Smoke detectors shall not be required for fan units whose sole
function is to remove air from the inside of the building to the outside
of the building.

(A)
Where the detection of smoke in the supply air system is required by
other NFPA standards, a detector(s) listed for the air velocity present
shall be installed in the supply air duct downstream of both the fan and
the filters.
(B)
Where the air duct system passes through other smoke compartments
not served by the duct, additional smoke detectors shall not be
required to be installed.
17.7.6.4.2.2* Return Air System.
Unless otherwise modified by 17.7.6.4.2.2(A) or 17.7.6.4.2.2(B), if the
detection of smoke in the return air system is required by other NFPA
standards, a detector(s) listed for the air velocity present shall be
located where the air leaves each smoke compartment, or in the duct
system before the air enters the return air system common to more
than one smoke compartment.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The objective of HVAC system return detection is to prevent the

recirculation of smoke-laden air to other, smoke-free portions of the
building via the HVAC system. While use of complete area detection is
preferable because it provides the earliest possible response, the use
of return duct detection is permitted and most often used.

(A)
Additional smoke detectors shall not be required to be installed in
ducts where the air duct system passes through other smoke
compartments not served by the duct.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

This is based on the fire resistance of HVAC ducts and the unlikelihood
of smoke escaping from the HVAC duct into a compartment not
served by the duct. As shown in Figure A.17.7.6.4.2.2(c), the top duct
does not need additional detectors and/or dampers where it passes
through either the center compartment or the right compartment.

(B)
Where total coverage smoke detection is installed in accordance
with 17.5.3.1 in all areas of the smoke compartment served by the
return air system, installation of additional detector(s) listed for the air
velocity present where the air leaves each smoke compartment, or in
the duct system before the air enters in the return air system shall not
be required, provided that their function is accomplished by the design
of the total coverage smoke detection system.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The context for the requirements in 17.7.6.4.2.2 are spaces physically

defined as smoke compartments with supply and return air systems
and associated smoke detectors that are used to operate doors,
dampers, or other equipment to control the spread of smoke. It is
permitted to omit the return air duct smoke detector when total
coverage is installed. Exhibits 17.39 and 17.40 illustrate the scenarios
of how this applies.

EXHIBIT 17.39 Total Coverage — Scenario 5. (Courtesy of JENSEN

HUGHES, Lincolnshire, IL)
EXHIBIT 17.40 Total Coverage — Scenario 6. (Courtesy of JENSEN
HUGHES, Lincolnshire, IL)

First, in Exhibit 17.39, a total coverage scenario (Scenario 5) that

includes a ducted return air system is shown without any smoke
detection in the duct. The second example, Exhibit 17.40, is a total
coverage scenario (Scenario 6) that includes a return air plenum
system — again, without any smoke detection in the air return duct. In
both scenarios, the space below the ceiling is provided with smoke
detection and the concealed space must be evaluated according to
the requirements of 17.5.3.1 to determine the extent smoke detectors
are needed to qualify either scenario as having total coverage. There is
no requirement for a smoke detector in the return air duct system with
the proper complement of smoke detectors installed to satisfy the
definition of total coverage if the total coverage smoke detectors serve
to close doors, dampers, and so on, as required by 17.7.6.4.2.2(B).

Scenarios 1 through 4 are discussed earlier in this chapter, in the

commentary following 17.5.3.1.5.

17.7.6.5 Location and Installation of Detectors in Air Duct Systems.

ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Sampling tubes provide a flow of air through the detector enclosure

due to a pressure differential that results from the flow of air across
the tubes. Orientation and installation of the sampling tubes can
reduce the pressure differential, rendering them ineffective in drawing
air into the detector enclosure, especially at low air velocities in
variable air volume (VAV) HVAC systems.

For sampling tubes to take a representative sample of the air passing

through the duct, they must be fabricated and installed in a manner
consistent with their listing. The pressure differential between the
inflow and outflow tubes is usually measured with either a manometer
or pressure gauges. If the flow of air through the sampling tube and
the detector enclosure assembly cannot be verified, as required
by 17.7.6.5.2, there is no basis to presume that the air in the duct is
being sampled by the detector. The pressure differential should be
measured at the lowest air velocity anticipated for the duct where the
detector is in a VAV HVAC system.

Duct-type smoke detectors usually consist of a standard production

smoke detector and a specially designed enclosure equipped with a
smoke detector mounting base and sampling tube fittings already
installed. However, not all detectors are listed for use in a duct smoke
detector enclosure that uses sampling tubes. It is important that the
detector be listed for use in the duct smoke detector housing as an
assembly.

17.7.6.5.1
Detectors shall be listed for the purpose for which they are being used.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Not all smoke detectors are suitable for use as duct detectors. The
manufacturer’s listing should identify whether a detector can be used
in a duct. See also 17.7.6.5.7.

17.7.6.5.2*
Air duct detectors shall be installed in such a way as to obtain a
representative sample of the airstream.
17.7.6.5.3
This installation shall be permitted to be achieved by any of the
following methods:

• (1)

Rigid mounting within the duct

• (2)

Rigid mounting to the wall of the duct with the sensing element
protruding into the duct

• (3)

Installation outside the duct with rigidly mounted sampling tubes

protruding into the duct

• (4)

Installation through the duct with projected light beam

ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The methods described in 17.7.6.5.3(1) and 17.7.6.5.2(2) are often

most appropriate for smaller ducts or where an engineering analysis
shows that smoke concentrations will be even across the duct cross
section and that laminar flow is not going to produce a nonuniform
smoke concentration. The method described in 17.7.6.5.2(3) is more
suited to larger ducts. The use of sampling tubes enables the duct
detector to sample the air across the entire duct cross section rather
than a small portion of it. The designer should consult the
manufacturer’s technical instructions for installation limitations.
Exhibit 17.42 shows an example of a duct-type smoke detector. Exhibit
17.43 illustrates the internal view of a duct-type smoke detector.

EXHIBIT 17.42 Duct-Type Smoke Detector. (Courtesy of Hochiki

America Corp., Buena Park, CA)

EXHIBIT 17.43 Internal View of Duct-Type Smoke Detector. (Courtesy

of System Sensor Corp., St. Charles, IL)
17.7.6.5.4
Detectors shall be mounted in accordance with the manufacturer’s
published instructions and shall be accessible for cleaning by
providing access doors or panels in accordance with NFPA 90A.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Chapter 14 provides inspection and testing schedules for each type of

detector. The accessibility of detectors is critical to facilitate cleaning.
Poor or neglected maintenance is a dominant cause of nuisance
alarms in smoke detec

17.7.6.5.5
The location of all detectors in air duct systems shall be permanently
and clearly identified and recorded.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

A permanent placard placed outside the first point of access is

advisable to indicate that a detector is accessible from that point. The
placard can be mounted on the wall beneath the ceiling tile that must
be removed to access the duct. HVAC and fire alarm drawings should
clearly show the actual as-built locations of the detectors. In most
cases, one drawing that shows only the smoke detector locations is
useful. The locations can also be included in the display descriptor of
addressable systems.

17.7.6.5.6
Detectors mounted outside of a duct that employs sampling tubes for
transporting smoke from inside the duct to the detector shall be
designed and installed to allow verification of airflow from the duct to
the detector.
17.7.6.5.7
Detectors shall be listed for operation over the complete range of air
velocities, temperature, and humidity expected at the detector when
the air-handling system is operating.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse
The listing of the detector stipulates the range of air velocities over
which it can operate, as well as the temperature and the relative
humidity range. These last two criteria are particularly important where
a general purpose detector is being installed in a duct detector
housing. Given that HVAC system fans and ducts are often located in
areas where comfort heating and cooling are not provided, the
environment of the detector might exceed the limits observed in the
listing investigation. In addition, when warm moist air is circulated
through a cold duct smoke detector housing, condensation can occur
in that housing. These conditions can seriously degrade detector
performance and stability. Where these extremes are likely, the
operating environment of the detector must be maintained within its
operating range.

17.7.6.5.8
All penetrations of a return air duct in the vicinity of detectors installed
on or in an air duct shall be sealed to prevent entrance of outside air
and possible dilution or redirection of smoke within the duct.
17.7.6.6 Smoke Detectors for Door Release Service.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Building and fire codes including NFPA 101 provide requirements for
means of egress. The means of egress is the way of travel from any
point in a building or structure to a public way; it consists of the exit
access, the exit, and the exit discharge. At times, exits might be
required to be separated from other parts of the building. Corridors
used as exit access may need to be separated from other parts of the
building by walls having a prescriptive fire resistance rating. Doors in
corridors might also be required to create smoke barriers to separate
smoke compartments.

Openings (doors) in separations may be required to be protected by

rated fire door assemblies that must be self-closing or equipped with
automatic closing devices, which typically means magnetic door hold-
open release appliances that operate by releasing the doors upon
alarm. See the requirements in 17.7.6.6 for the selection, design, and
operation of these devices.

Two general methods for controlling doors with smoke detectors are
available. The first involves using area smoke detectors to control the
doors for that area. Either smoke detectors served by a selected circuit
of an FACU or specific addressable detectors are programmed to
operate magnetic door release devices via the FACU. When one of the
area smoke detectors renders an alarm, the control unit transfers to
the alarm state and energizes the output circuit that controls the door
holders (see Exhibit 17.44). These detectors are located and spaced as
required by 17.7.4 and do not need to be installed within 5 ft (1.52 m)
of the door. The requirements for such a system are addressed in
Section 21.9.

EXHIBIT 17.44 Method for Controlling Door Holders with Area Smoke
Detector(s).

The second method involves controlling the door holder mechanism

directly with a dedicated smoke detector or smoke detectors (see
Exhibit 17.45). Smoke door release accomplished by the second
method requires specific listing as required by 17.7.6.6.3. This method
also requires a smoke detector to be installed within 5 ft (1.52 m) of
the door.

EXHIBIT 17.45 Method for Controlling Door Holders with Dedicated

Smoke Detector(s).

The requirements in 17.7.6.6 apply equally to both design concepts.

When open area protection is used, 17.7.6.6.1 permits the spacing in
the corridors as normally required for open area protection in
conformance with 17.7.4 to be considered acceptable for smoke door
release service. In that case, the explicit spacing requirements
of 17.7.6.6.2 do not apply. When dedicated smoke detectors are used
for door release service, the requirements
of 17.7.6.6.3 through 17.7.6.6.5 apply.

Figure 17.7.6.6.4.1(A) illustrates detector location requirements for

wall sections and provides a variety of installation methods depending
on the hardware selected. The figure has three columns. The first
column specifies the depth of the wall section above the door. This
distance is measured from the ceiling above the door to the clear
opening of the door, not the door frame or head casing of the door and
not the door face (defined as the exposed surface of the door visible
when the door is closed). This column lists 0–24 in. (0–610 mm) from
the ceiling to the clear opening on both sides of the doorway, over 24
in. (610 mm) on one side only, over 24 in. (610 mm) on both sides of
the door, and over 60 in. (1.52 m).

The second column graphically depicts the ceiling and the depth of
the wall section above the door for each scenario. The detector is
illustrated by an X in a rectangle and is a smoke detector specifically
listed for door frame mounting or as part of a listed combination or
integral detector–door closer assembly. A single integral detector–
door closer assembly is provided for a single door, or a matched set is
provided for a double door [one door is provided with a detector and
closer and the second door is provided with an identical (reversed
matching) housing but with a closer only]. The single detector controls
the door set (see Exhibit 17.46). When applicable, the integral
detector–door closer assembly is installed on the higher side (i.e., the
side with the greater dimension from the ceiling to the door opening) in
accordance with Part C of Figure 17.7.6.6.4.1(A).

EXHIBIT 17.46 Single Detector Controlling Both Door Closures

Installed above Double Doors.

The third column depicts detectors installed on both sides of the door,
on the wall section above the door, and on the ceiling. Again, the
detector is illustrated by an X in a rectangle. In Part B of Figure
17.7.6.6.4.1(A), one detector is depicted above the door on the left
side of the door and two detectors are depicted on the right side, one
above the door and one on the ceiling; note the word or between these
two detectors. One ceiling-mounted detector must be installed on
either side of the door or two wall-mounted detectors must be installed
with one above the door on each side of the door. The ceiling-mounted
detector is required to be installed within 5 ft (1.5 m) of the door. Part
D of Figure 17.7.6.6.4.1(A) is similar but if one chooses to install a
single ceiling-mounted detector, it must be installed on the side of the
door with the greater measurement from the ceiling to the clear
opening of the door. The ceiling-mounted detector is required to be
installed within 5 ft (1.5 m) of the door. If the installation chooses to
use wall-mounted detectors, one detector must be installed above the
door on each side of the door. In Part F of Figure 17.7.6.6.4.1(A),
because of the greater dimension from the ceiling to the clear opening
of the door, two detectors must always be used. Two wall-mounted
detectors would be installed above the door on each side of the door
or two ceiling-mounted detectors would be installed on the ceiling,
each within 5 ft (1.5 m) of the door.

17.7.6.6.1
Smoke detectors that are part of an open area protection system
covering the room, corridor, or enclosed space on each side of the
smoke door and that are located and spaced as required
by 17.7.4 shall be permitted to accomplish smoke door release
service.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

FAQ What location and spacing requirements apply when open area
smoke protection is used?

Area detection installed in accordance with 17.7.4 is permitted to be

used if area detection is provided on both sides of the doors to be
closed. Discrete and dedicated smoke detectors separate from the
area protection are not required to be used when the area detectors
are wired or programmed to actuate the door release. Furthermore, the
requirements of 17.7.6.6.4.1 through 17.7.6.6.4.4, which stipulate the
quantities of detectors used for door release service, do not apply
where both sides of the door are protected by open area smoke
protection in accordance with 17.7.4.

17.7.6.6.2
Smoke detectors that are used exclusively for smoke door release
service shall be located and spaced as required by 17.7.6.6.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Where area protection in accordance with 17.7.4 is not provided, and

where automatic closure of doors at the presence of smoke is
required, smoke detectors must be installed according to the
prescriptive requirements in 17.7.6.6.3 through 17.7.6.6.5.

17.7.6.6.3
Where smoke door release is accomplished directly from the smoke
detector(s), the detector(s) shall be listed for releasing service.
17.7.6.6.4
The number of detectors required shall be determined in accordance
with 17.7.6.6.4.1 through 17.7.6.6.4.4.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

These placement requirements have been determined from a

qualitative understanding of the expected behavior of a ceiling jet,
similar to the physical principles from which the requirements for
location and placement of area smoke protection have been derived.
The original reason for this application of smoke detectors at smoke
doors in corridors was to control smoke movement in the corridors.
Early designs often used stand-alone smoke detectors that did not
connect to a fire alarm system. Generally, this type of design is not
used because area smoke detector coverage in the corridors performs
the same function more rapidly than waiting for the smoke to travel to
the doorway.
If smoke detectors are installed only for door release, designers should
consider the added benefit of using these detectors as part of the fire
alarm system (if the building has one) and connect them to the FACU
to actuate notification appliances when smoke is detected. If the
smoke detectors from the fire alarm system corridor detection are
used to control the doors, they are covered under 17.7.6.6.1 and the
spacing requirements at the doors outlined in 17.7.6.6.4 do not apply.

17.7.6.6.4.1
If doors are to be closed in response to smoke flowing in either
direction, the requirements
of 17.7.6.6.4.1(A) through 17.7.6.6.4.1(D) shall apply.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Both ceiling- and wall-mounted detectors may be used for door

release. The prescribed locations for smoke detectors to control doors
are depicted in Figure 17.7.6.6.4.1(A).

(A)
If the depth of wall section above the door is 24 in. (610 mm) or less,
one ceiling-mounted smoke detector shall be required on one side of
the doorway only, or two wall-mounted detectors shall be required, one
on each side of the doorway. Figure 17.7.6.6.4.1(A), part A or B, shall
apply.
Figure 17.7.6.6.4.1(A) Detector Location Requirements for Wall
Sections.

ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse
The depth of the wall section 24 in. (610 mm) or less above the door is
analogous to a deep beam (see 17.7.4.2.4) impeding the flow of
smoke across a ceiling. Smoke detectors used for door release are
permitted to be near the ceiling. Previously, these detectors would
have to be installed at a distance of 4 in. to 12 in. (100 mm to 300 mm)
below the ceiling to avoid placement in a dead air space. The 4 in. to
12 in. (100 mm to 300 mm) requirement was removed in the 2016
edition of the Code to be consistent with current smoke behavior
testing and knowledge and to correlate with 17.7.4.2.1.

FAQ Why are two wall-mounted detectors required as opposed to a

single ceiling-mounted detector?

The requirements have been determined from a qualitative

assessment of anticipated smoke flows in a corridor where smoke
flow is channeled by the corridor walls but must then flow under the
door header or wall section immediately above those doors for them to
close automatically. Where the wall section above the door is 24 in.
(610 mm) or less, only one ceiling-mounted detector is required. It can
be located on either side of the smoke-control door. Under the worst-
case scenario, the door-control smoke detector is on the far side of the
smoke-control door relative to the source of smoke. As smoke begins
to flow into a corridor, it forms a layer of smoke immediately beneath
the corridor ceiling. The upper portion of the corridor fills with smoke
until it begins to spill beneath the top of the door opening. The ceiling-
mounted smoke detector on the far side of the door responds, closing
the door and preventing further ingress of smoke. Because the wall
section is less than 24 in. (610 mm), it does not produce an
inordinately long delay in response, even when the detector is on the
far side of the door.

However, under the same worst-case scenario, if only one wall-

mounted smoke detector is used, response is delayed until smoke fills
both the corridor with the source of smoke and the far side corridor to
the level of the smoke detector. Under that circumstance, the smoke-
control doors have failed in their intended mission: to prevent the
ingress of smoke into the corridor. Consequently, if the smoke
detectors for door closure are mounted on the corridor walls, a smoke
detector must be mounted on each side of the door.

(B)
If the depth of wall section above the door is greater than 24 in.
(610 mm) on one side only, one ceiling-mounted smoke detector shall
be required on the higher side of the doorway only, or one wall-
mounted detector shall be required on both sides of the
doorway. Figure 17.7.6.6.4.1(A), part D, shall apply.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

This paragraph addresses the condition illustrated in Part D of Figure

17.7.6.6.4.1(A) where the depth of the wall section is greater than 24
in. (610 mm) on one side of the door only.

(C)*
If the depth of wall section above the door is greater than 24 in.
(610 mm) on both sides, two ceiling-mounted or wall-mounted
detectors shall be required, one on each side of the doorway. Figure
17.7.6.6.4.1(A), part F, shall apply.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Since the average door height is a nominal 84 in. to 96 in. (2.1 m to 2.4
m), the addition of 60 in. (1.52 m) above the door results in a ceiling
height as high as 13 ft (3.9 m). The data in Annex B suggest that when
the ceiling height exceeds 10 ft (3 m), reduced spacing for heat
detectors is required if there is to be no reduction in performance due
to the higher ceilings. In the modeling of smoke detectors, a similar
logic is accepted. Thus, when the height above the door exceeds 60 in.
(1.52 m) on either side of the door opening, an engineering evaluation
might be warranted to determine if reduced smoke detector spacing is
appropriate for the specific application under consideration. The
engineering evaluation would be most appropriate where the door
closing is initiated only by detectors within 5 ft (1.52 m) of the door
openings. In cases where multiple devices are used for door closing
operation, as with systems with full corridor detection or closing
initiated by sprinkler waterflow in fully sprinklered buildings, the need
for such an engineering evaluation is generally not warranted.

(D)
If a detector is specifically listed for door frame mounting, or if a listed
combination or integral detector–door closer assembly is used, only
one detector shall be required if installed in the manner recommended
by the manufacturer's published instructions. Figure 17.7.6.6.4.1(A),
parts A, C, and E, shall apply.
17.7.6.6.4.2
If door release is intended to prevent smoke transmission from one
space to another in one direction only, detectors located in the space
to which smoke is to be confined, regardless of the depth of wall
section above the door, shall be in accordance with 17.7.6.6.5.
Alternatively, a smoke detector conforming with 17.7.6.6.4.1(D) shall
be permitted to be used.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Occasionally, there is a need to limit smoke spread in only one

direction. When that is the case, 17.7.6.6.4.2 permits the elimination of
some detectors that would otherwise be required.

17.7.6.6.4.3
If there are multiple doorways, additional ceiling-mounted detectors
shall be required as specified
in 17.7.6.6.4.3(A) through 17.7.6.6.4.3(C).
(A)
If the separation between doorways exceeds 24 in. (610 mm), each
doorway shall be treated separately. Figure 17.7.6.6.4.3(A), part E,
shall apply.
Figure 17.7.6.6.4.3(A) Detector Location Requirements for Single and
Double Doors.

(B)
Each group of three or more doorway openings shall be treated
separately. Figure 17.7.6.6.4.3(B) shall apply.
Figure 17.7.6.6.4.3(B) Detector(s) Location ±24 in.(610 mm)
Requirements for Group Doorways.

ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The 2016 edition of the Code was revised to permit detectors at

grouped doorway openings to be installed 24 in. (0.6 m) from either
side of the doorway’s centerline, as illustrated in Figure
17.7.6.6.4.3(B) and Figure 17.7.6.6.4.3(C).

(C)
Each group of doorway openings that exceeds 20 ft (6.1 m) in width,
measured at its overall extremes, shall be treated separately. Figure
17.7.6.6.4.3(C) shall apply.

Figure 17.7.6.6.4.3(C) Detector(s) Location ±24 in.(610 mm)

Requirements for Group Doorways over 20 ft (6.1 m) in Width.

17.7.6.6.4.4
If there are multiple doorways and listed door frame–mounted
detectors, or if listed combination or integral detector–door closer
assemblies are used, there shall be one detector for each single or
double doorway.
17.7.6.6.5
The locations of detectors shall be determined in accordance
with 17.7.6.6.5.1 and 17.7.6.6.5.2.
17.7.6.6.5.1
If ceiling-mounted smoke detectors are to be installed on a smooth
ceiling for a single or double doorway, they shall be located as
follows [Figure 17.7.6.6.4.3(A) shall apply]:

• (1)

On the centerline of the doorway

 • (2)

No more than 5 ft (1.5 m), measured along the ceiling and

perpendicular to the doorway [Figure 17.7.6.6.4.1(A) shall apply.]

• (3)

No closer than shown in Figure 17.7.6.6.4.1(A), parts B, D, and F

17.7.6.6.5.2
If ceiling-mounted detectors are to be installed in conditions other than
those outlined in 17.7.6.6.5.1, an engineering evaluation shall be
made.
17.7.7 Special Considerations.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Although the Code makes every effort to establish minimum

compliance criteria to address situations that have a documented
history of affecting smoke detection systems, the issues addressed by
the requirements of 17.7.7 cannot cover every conceivable
contingency. The designer should consider all known factors in the
protected area that have the potential to contribute to unwanted
alarms or that could prevent the successful conveyance of smoke to
the detector.

17.7.7.1 Spot-Type Detectors.

17.7.7.1.1
Combination and multi-sensor smoke detectors that have a fixed-
temperature element as part of the unit shall be selected in
accordance with Table 17.6.2.1 for the maximum ceiling temperature
expected in service.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The temperature rating of a fixed-temperature heat sensor

incorporated into a combination or multi-sensor detector does not
necessarily imply that the detector is listed for installation in spaces
where the ambient temperature is as high as permitted by Table
17.6.2.1. For combination and multi-sensor detectors, care must be
taken to ensure that ambient conditions fall within those listed for the
detector as a whole. Refer to the definitions of the terms combination
detector and multi-sensor detector in 3.3.77.5 and 3.3.77.14,
respectively.

In most fires, smoke detectors respond much sooner than either

automatic sprinklers or heat detectors. Even in flaming fire tests,
smoke detectors actuate long before typical fixed-temperature heat
detectors. The difference in the speed of response becomes even
more dramatic with low-energy fires. Because of this profound
difference in the speed of response, adding a fixed-temperature heat
detector to a smoke detector adds little to overall fire detection
performance, particularly when the design criteria imply a life safety
objective.

FAQ What advantage can multi-sensor detectors provide in smoke

detection applications?

A multi-sensor detector employs ionization, photoelectric, and

thermistor-type thermal sensors in a single device that uses a
microcomputer algorithm to match the sensed conditions to known
fire “signatures” stored in memory. While these detectors are tested to
the same criteria in UL 268 as conventional smoke detectors, the multi-
sensor architecture provides improved immunity to known false alarm
sources. See the definition of multi-criteria detector in 3.3.77.13.

17.7.7.1.2*
Holes in the back of a detector shall be covered by a gasket, sealant, or
equivalent means, and the detector shall be mounted so that airflow
from inside or around the housing does not prevent the entry of smoke
during a fire or test condition.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The designer should be aware of any factor in the protected area that
could contribute to unwanted alarms or prevent the successful
conveyance of smoke to the detector, and then take steps consistent
with the manufacturer’s installation instructions to address those
factors.

17.7.7.2* High-Rack Storage.

The location and spacing of smoke detectors for high-rack storage
shall address the commodity, quantity, and configuration of the rack
storage.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The term high-rack storage is a general term used to describe rack

storage that could exceed 12 ft (3.7 m) in height. Some codes use the
term rack storage; NFPA 72 uses the term high-rack storage.

Fire protection for high-rack storage warehouses is a difficult problem.

The fuel load per unit of floor area is extremely high, and the
accessibility to the fuel is relatively low. Also, the combustibility of the
materials in any given rack can vary from nominally noncombustible to
flammable.

The orientation of the fuel also creates vertical flues between the
combustibles that produce ideal conditions for the propagation of fire
and the worst possible conditions for extinguishment. Likewise, the
presence of solid shelving can create horizontal flues that materially
aid in horizontal fire spread. The shelves also tend to shield the fire
from water discharged by the automatic fire suppression sprinkler
system and hose streams intended to extinguish the fire. These
factors make early detection highly desirable so that rapid
extinguishment of the fire in the incipient stages is possible. It is
virtually impossible to extinguish the fire once it becomes well
established, as demonstrated by the catastrophic total losses that
have occurred in high-rack storage facilities.

The guidance provided for locating detectors in rack storage arrays

strives to ensure that any vertical flue spaces created by the stored
commodities and solid shelves are covered with a detector at some
level. Care must be taken when installing detectors in these
applications because they are vulnerable to damage as commodities
are moved into and out of the storage racks.

Maintaining accessibility for service and maintenance while locating

detectors for both maximum speed of response and minimum
exposure to damage from operations is possible. System designs exist
that have satisfied all three of these apparently conflicting
requirements. Air sampling–type smoke detectors, with the piping
network extended throughout each rack, and projected beam–type
detectors have been used successfully in this application.

17.7.7.3 High Air Movement Areas.

17.7.7.3.1* General.
The purpose and scope of 17.7.7.3 shall be to provide location and
spacing guidance for smoke detectors intended for early warning of
fire in high air movement areas.
17.7.7.3.2 Location.
Smoke detectors shall not be located directly in the airstream of
supply registers.
17.7.7.3.3* Spacing.
17.7.7.3.3.1
Smoke detector spacing shall be reduced where the airflow in a
defined space exceeds 8 minutes per air change (total space volume)
(equal to 7.5 air changes per hour).
17.7.7.3.3.2
Where spacing must be adjusted for airflow, spot-type smoke detector
spacing shall be adjusted in accordance with Table
17.7.7.3.3.2 or Figure 17.7.7.3.3.2 before making any other spacing
adjustments required by this Code.
Table 17.7.7.3.3.2 Smoke Detector Spacing Based on Air Movement (Not to Be Used for Under
or Above-Ceiling Spaces)

Spacing per Detector

Minutes per Air Change Air Changes per Hour ft2 m2
1 60 125 12
2 30 250 23
3 20 375 35
4 15 500 46
5 12 625 58
6 10 750 70
7 8.6 875 81
Table 17.7.7.3.3.2 Smoke Detector Spacing Based on Air Movement (Not to Be Used for Under
or Above-Ceiling Spaces)

Spacing per Detector

Minutes per Air Change Air Changes per Hour ft2 m2
8 7.5 900 84
9 6.7 900 84
10 6 900 84

Figure 17.7.7.3.3.2 High Air Movement Areas (Not to Be Used for

Under-Floor or Above-Ceiling Spaces).

ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Usually, high air movement areas are characterized by six or more air
changes per hour. The most regularly encountered example of a high
air movement area is the data center (i.e., computer room). Because of
the very high concentration of value in a data center, reducing the
spacing of spot-type smoke detectors is common. This spacing can be
derived from Table 17.7.7.3.3.2 and Figure 17.7.7.3.3.2. In some cases,
an authority having jurisdiction, such as an insurance carrier, will
establish a spacing criterion for such locations.
FAQ What are the requirements that apply to smoke detection in under-
floor or above-ceiling spaces used for environmental air?

Under-floor and above-ceiling spaces used for environmental air are

addressed in 17.7.4.5, 17.7.5.1, 17.7.5.2, and 17.7.5.4. Table
17.7.7.3.3.2 and Figure 17.7.7.3.3.2 are not intended to be used to
compute detector spacing for spaces under the floor or above the
ceiling — they provide detector spacing for high air movement ambient
conditions in areas other than under-floor and above-ceiling spaces.

As air movement in these spaces increases, air currents disrupt the

formation of a ceiling jet, and mixing can result in dilution and other
effects that can affect detection. For this reason, detector spacing is
reduced as the number of air changes increases. Spot-type detectors
might not be the best detectors for most very high air movement
areas. Air sampling–type detectors can offer increased sensitivity and
have been used for such spaces successfully.

Closer Look

How High Air Movement Areas Affect Smoke Detection

High air movement areas might not necessarily mean high air velocity
at the detector or detection location. Airflow patterns at the detector
locations should be measured and recorded in the system
documentation.

The velocity of the air stream from supply registers supplying high air
movement areas is likely to exceed 300 ft/min (1.5 m/sec), which is
the maximum for which most detectors are listed.
(See 17.7.1.8 and 17.7.1.9.) When detectors are tested for a listing
that includes high airflow environments, they are tested to ensure they
do not render a false alarm in high airflow conditions. No test verifies
that they will detect fires as quickly as they would in a non–high
airflow condition. The designer should take into consideration any
potential effects of high air velocity at the detector location on the
ability of the detector to sense smoke from the fires it is intended to
detect, as well as the effect the air velocity might have on the detector
stability and maintenance needs.

Some authorities having jurisdiction compute the rate of air change

based on the entire air volume, including the room, under-floor plenum,
and above-ceiling plenum. In other circumstances, the above-ceiling
space is not part of the working air volume of the hazard area, and only
the volumes of the room and the under-floor space are used to
compute air changes per hour. Before the design process begins, the
HVAC system must be well understood, and the designer and the
authorities having jurisdiction must agree on what air volume the
calculations are based.

The spacing adjustments in Table 17.7.7.3.3.2 and Figure 17.7.7.3.3.2

were developed from experimental data that was developed using
spot-type detectors. No research has been found that allows the
development of analogous spacing reductions, if any, for air sampling–
type or projected beam–type smoke detection. On a qualitative basis,
the principal impact of high air movement is suspected to be on the
disruption of the plume and the distortion or prevention of the
formation of a ceiling jet. The fire must compete with the normal air
movement to establish the flow effects on which smoke detection
normally relies. Because smoke detection is usually placed in high air
movement areas to achieve property protection and mission continuity
objectives, a performance-based approach should be considered.

17.7.7.3.3.3
Air sampling or projected beam smoke detectors shall be installed in
accordance with the manufacturer’s published instructions.
17.7.7.3.4 HVAC Mechanical Rooms.
Where HVAC mechanical rooms are used as an air plenum for return
air, the spacings of smoke detectors shall not be required to be
reduced based on the number of air changes.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Where smoke detection is employed in HVAC mechanical rooms, the

objective is to detect a fire involving the HVAC units. This objective
does not require a spacing reduction. Where HVAC mechanical rooms
are used as a plenum for return air, the HVAC system is the dominant
mechanism for smoke transport, and reduced spacing of detectors
would not improve detection response.

17.7.8 Video Image Smoke Detection.

ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Video cameras can be used in conjunction with frame capture and

comparison software for the purposes of detecting smoke. See Exhibit
17.47 for an example of a conceptual video detection system. For
requirements related to video image flame detection, see 17.8.5.

EXHIBIT 17.47 Conceptual Video Detection System. (Courtesy of Fike

Video Analytics Corporation, Blue Springs, MO)
17.7.8.1
Video image smoke detection systems and all of the components
thereof, including hardware and software, shall be listed for the
purpose of smoke detection.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

The organization providing the listing is responsible for evaluating the

efficacy of the equipment and software for a defined scope of
applications. Limits on the size of the monitored compartment versus
the size of the fire that can be detected reliably, as well as limitations
on the environment in the compartment necessary to allow reliable
detection, have not been established.

17.7.8.2
Video image smoke detection systems shall comply with all of the
applicable requirements of Chapters 1, 10, 14, 17, and 23 of this Code.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

A video image smoke detection system consists of one or more video

cameras, a signal router or interface, and a computer to analyze each
video image frame in real time. Chapters 1, 10, 14, 17, and 23 each
include requirements that apply to such a system. For example,
because each of these components requires power, they must comply
with the power supply criteria in Chapter 10. All the interconnections
between cameras, interfaces, and computers must be monitored for
integrity. All the components in the system must be listed for the
purpose for which they are used. The alarm signal must be conveyed
to the FACU via a circuit that is monitored for integrity. The
requirements in Chapters 1, 10, 14, 17, and 23 address these and many
other issues that are relevant to the video image smoke detection
system.

17.7.8.2.1
Systems shall be designed in accordance with the performance-based
design requirements of Section 17.3.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse
Because prescriptive design criteria have not been developed for video
image smoke detection, each video image smoke detection system
should be designed with complete documentation — including the
basis of the design, calculations demonstrating the capability of
detecting the design fire over the entire volume covered by the system,
and reliability calculations demonstrating that the system will be
adequately reliable over the maintenance interval for the system.
Section B.2 provides guidance on the performance-based design
method. Also see the commentary following Section 17.3.

17.7.8.2.2
The location and spacing of video image smoke detectors shall
comply with the requirements of 17.11.5.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Subsection 17.11.5 establishes general spacing and location rules that

apply to video image smoke detection systems.

17.7.8.3*
Video signals generated by cameras that are components of video
image smoke detection systems shall be permitted to be transmitted
to other systems for other uses only through output connections
provided specifically for that purpose by the video system
manufacturer.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

FAQ What types of applications are suitable for video image detection
systems?

Video image smoke detection systems are best suited for large open
spaces with high-value assets that warrant such protection. In many
cases, the facility security system includes cameras to monitor the
space during unoccupied periods to maintain surveillance. There is
little basis for two sets of cameras, one for smoke detection and a
second for surveillance. The video signal may be shared if the
equipment and the software that allow the sharing are listed for the
purpose and the security system does not interfere with the fire safety
use of the signal.

17.7.8.4*
All component controls and software shall be protected from
unauthorized changes.
ENHANCED CONTENT
Collapse

Video image smoke detection systems operate by comparing the view

of the hazard area to earlier views of the hazard area and initiating
alarm signals when the changes in groups of pixels are consistent with
the presence of smoke in the monitored space. Changes in camera
position, focus, contrast setting, field of view, ambient lighting, and the
criteria in the software for a smoke detection decision all can affect
the reliability of the system as a smoke detection means. The system
must be designed to provide protection against unauthorized changes
that could affect the system’s performance or reliability. Any
intentional changes must be subject to the acceptance testing criteria
in Chapter 14.