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 Mitchell

Braun Principles of
Heating, Ventilation,

Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning in Buildings

Principles of
and Air Conditioning
in Buildings

ISBN 978-0-470-62457-9

www.wiley.com/college/mitchell John W. Mitchell James E. Braun

Brief Contents
Fundamentals
1. Introduction to HVAC Systems 1

2. System Analysis Techniques and the Use of EES 15

3. Thermodynamics and Fluid Flow in HVAC Applications 39

4. Heat Transfer in HVAC Applications 61

5. Psychrometrics for HVAC Applications 95

6. Overview of HVAC Systems 137

7. Thermal Comfort and Air Quality 171

Building Heating and Cooling Loads

8. Weather Data, Statistics, and Processing 185

9. Components of Building Heat Loss and Gain 221

10. Heating and Cooling Loads 265

Equipment

11. Air Distribution Systems 289

12. Liquid Distribution Systems 329

13. Heat Exchangers for Heating and Cooling Applications 345

14. Cooling Towers and Desiccant Dehumidification Systems 379

15 Vapor Compression Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Systems 401

16. Heat Pump Systems 433

17. Thermal Storage Systems 447

Design and Control of HVAC Systems

18. Building and HVAC Energy Use 475

19. HVAC Control Principles 497

20. Supervisory Control 523

21. Designing HVAC Systems 555

vii
Table of Contents
Fundamentals
1 Introduction to HVAC Systems 1

1.1 Systems and Definitions 1

1.2 History of Air Conditioning 3
1.3 Trends in Energy Use and Impact 5
1.4 HVAC System Design and Operation 7
1.5 Energy Costs 11
1.6 Book Philosophy and Organization 11
1.7 Units 13
1.8 Summary 14
Problems 14

2 System Analysis Techniques and the Use of EES 15

2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Introduction to EES 19
2.3 Common Problems Encountered when Using EES 22
2.4 Curve Fitting Using EES 26
2.5 Optimization Using EES 29
2.6 Successful Problem Solving Using EES 31
2.7 Summary 34
Problems 35

3 Thermodynamics and Fluid Flow in HVAC Applications 39

3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Conservation of Mass 39
3.3 Conservation of Energy 41
3.4 Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Substances 43
3.5 Thermodynamic Limits on Performance 45
3.6 Thermodynamic Work Relations for Pure Substances 47
3.7 Thermodynamic Relations for Fluid Flow 48
3.8 Energy Loss Mechanisms in Fluid Flow 54
3.9 Summary 59
Problems 59

4 Heat Transfer in HVAC Applications 61

4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 Conduction Heat Transfer 61
4.3 Convection Heat Transfer 67
4.4 Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer 76
4.5 Transient Heat Transfer 83
4.6 Combined-Mode Heat Transfer 87
4.7 Summary 92
Problems 92

ix
x Table of Contents

5 Psychrometrics for HVAC Applications 95

5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 Moist Air Properties 95
5.3 The Psychrometric Chart 102
5.4 The Standard Atmosphere 103
5.5 Determining Psychrometric Properties Using EES 105
5.6 Psychrometric Applications 109
5.7 Heat and Mass Transfer for Air–Water Vapor Mixtures 126
5.8 Summary 132
Problems 133

6 Overview of HVAC Systems 137

6.1 Introduction 137

6.2 Overview of HVAC Systems and Components 137
6.3 Energy Comparison Between CAV and VAV Systems 144
6.4 HVAC System Performance Calculations 145
6.5 ASHRAE Load Calculation Equations 153
6.6 HVAC System Improvements and Alternatives 156
6.7 Summary 167
Problems 167

7 Thermal Comfort and Air Quality 171

7.1 Introduction 171

7.2 Criteria for Occupant Comfort Inside Buildings 171
7.3 Criteria for Indoor Air Quality 179
7.4 Summary 182
Problems 183

Building Heating and Cooling Loads

8 Weather Data, Statistics, and Processing 185

8.1 Introduction 185

8.2 Design Temperature Parameters for HVAC Systems 186
8.3 Ambient Temperature and Humidity Correlations 190
8.4 Degree-Day Data and Correlations 195
8.5 Bin Method Data 200
8.6 Ground Temperature Correlations 202
8.7 Solar Radiation Fundamentals 205
8.8 Clear-Sky Solar Radiation 213
8.9 Weather Records 216
8.10 Summary 219
Problems 219

9 Components of Building Heat Loss and Gain 221

9.1 Introduction 221

9.2 Thermal Resistance and Conductance of Building Elements 222
9.3 Heat Flow Through Opaque Exterior Surfaces 225
 Table of Contents xi

9.4 Transient Heat Flow Through Building Elements 228

9.5 Heat Flow Through Building Elements—Transfer Function Approach 234
9.6 Heat Flow Through Building Elements—Thermal Network Approach 240
9.7 Heat Flow Through Glazing 244
9.8 Energy Flows Due to Ventilation and Infiltration 247
9.9 Internal Thermal Gains 256
9.10 Summary 258
Problems 259

10 Heating and Cooling Loads 265

10.1 Introduction 265

10.2 Design Heating Load 266
10.3 Design Sensible Cooling Load Using the Heat Balance Method 268
10.4 The Heat Balance Method Using the Thermal Network Approach 273
10.5 Design Latent Cooling Load 276
10.6 Design Loads Using the Thermal Network Method 277
10.7 Summary 286
Problems 287

Equipment

11 Air Distribution Systems 289

11.1 Introduction 289

11.2 Pressure Drops in Duct Systems 290
11.3 Design Methods for Air Distribution Systems 298
11.4 Fan Characteristics 311
11.5 Interaction Between Fan and Distribution System 315
11.6 Air Distribution in Zones 318
11.7 Heat Losses and Gains for Ducts 320
11.8 Air Leakage from Ducts 322
11.9 Summary 323
Problems 324

12 Liquid Distribution Systems 329

12.1 Introduction 329

12.2 Head Loss and Pressure Drop in Liquid Distribution Systems 329
12.3 Water Distribution Systems 332
12.4 Steam Distribution Systems 335
12.5 Pump Characteristics 338
12.6 Heat Loss and Gain for Pipes 340
12.7 Summary 342
Problems 342

13 Heat Exchangers for Heating and Cooling Applications 345

13.1 Introduction 345

13.2 Overall Heat Transfer Conductance 347
13.3 Heat Exchanger Thermal Performance 349
xii Table of Contents

13.4 Heating Coil Selection Process 355

13.5 Cooling Coil Processes 361
13.6 Cooling Coil Performance Using a Heat Transfer Analogy 362
13.7 Cooling Coil Selection Procedure 368
13.8 Summary 376
Problems 376

14 Cooling Towers and Desiccant Dehumidification Systems 379

14.1 Introduction 379

14.2 Cooling Towers 379
14.3 Cooling Tower Performance using an Analogy to Heat Transfer 381
14.4 Cooling Tower Selection Procedure 385
14.5 Desiccant Dehumidifiers 388
14.6 Desiccant Dehumidification Systems 393
14.7 Summary 397
Problems 398

15 Vapor Compression Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Systems 401

15.1 Introduction 401

15.2 Vapor Compression System 401
15.3 Refrigerants 407
15.4 Vapor Compression System Compressors 412
15.5 Vapor Compression System Performance 416
15.6 Alternative Vapor Compression System Concepts 421
15.7 Summary 429
Problems 429

16 Heat Pump Systems 433

16.1 Introduction 433

16.2 Air Source Heat Pumps 435
16.3 Ground Source Heat Pumps 441
16.4 Water Loop Heat Pump Systems 443
16.5 Summary 444
Problems 444

17 Thermal Storage Systems 447

17.1 Introduction 447

17.2 Ice Storage Systems 451
17.3 Chilled Water Storage Systems 452
17.4 Cold Air Distribution Systems 453
17.5 Building Thermal Storage 454
17.6 Thermal Storage Control Strategies 456
17.7 Performance Characteristics of Ice Storage Tanks 460
17.8 Selection of Ice Storage Capacity 466
17.9 Summary 471
Problems 471
 Table of Contents xiii

Design and Control of HVAC Systems

18 Building and HVAC Energy Use 475

18.1 Introduction 475

18.2 Weather Data for Energy Use Calculations 475
18.3 Degree-day Method for Estimation of Heating Energy Use 476
18.4 Bin Method for Estimating Energy Use 479
18.5 Simulation Methods for Estimating Energy Use 486
18.6 Thermal Network Method for Estimating Building Energy Use 487
18.7 Summary 491
Problems 492

19 HVAC Control Principles 497

19.1 Introduction 497

19.2 Feedback Control Techniques 500
19.3 Implementation of Local Loop Control 517
19.4 Advanced Control Techniques 518
19.5 Summary 521
Problems 521

20 Supervisory Control 523

20.1 Introduction 523

20.2 Introduction to Optimal Operation of HVAC Systems 525
20.3 Optimization Statement for All-Electric Cooling Plants Without Storage 531
20.4 Model-based Optimization Procedure 531
20.5 Quadratic Optimization Procedure 533
20.6 Simplified Control Strategies for System Components 536
20.7 Optimization Statement for All-Electric Cooling Plants with Storage 544
20.8 Simplified Control Strategies for Systems with Storage 545
20.9 Methods for Forecasting Building Loads 548
20.10 Summary 550
Problems 551

21 Designing HVAC Systems 555

21.1 Introduction 555

21.2 Design Methodology 555
21.3 Life-Cycle Cost 562
21.4 Rules of Thumb 564
21.5 Design Problems for the Students 565
Problems 566

Appendix A: Thermal Property Values 573

Appendix B: Psychrometric Charts for Sea-Level Conditions 575
Appendix C: Wall and Roof Property Data 577
References 583
Nomenclature 589
Index 595
Online Material
Topics

SM 1 Heat Exchangers for Heating Applications

SM 2 Heat Exchangers for Cooling Applications

SM 3 Cooling Towers

SM 4 Heat and Mass Exchangers

SM 5 Thermal Storage Systems

SM 6 Compressors and Expansion Devices

SM 7 Evaporators and Condensers

SM 8 Absorption Air-conditioning Systems

SM 9 Combustion Heating Equipment

SM 10 Economic Evaluation of HVAC Systems

Supplementary Material
EES Code for Text Chapter Examples

Text Problem Solutions

PowerPoint Slides for Text Chapter Material

EES Code for Online Chapter Examples

Online Problem Solutions

PowerPoint Slides for Online Chapter Material

Online Chapters

SM 1 Heat Exchangers for Heating Applications

SM 1.1 Heat Exchanger Thermal Performance

SM 1.2 Extended Surfaces
SM 1.3 Single Phase Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drop
SM 1.4 Extended Surface Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drop
SM 1.5 Summary
SM 1.6 Nomenclature
SM 1.7 References
SM 1.8 Problems

xv
xvi Online Material

SM 2 Heat Exchangers for Cooling Applications

SM 2.1 Heat and Mass Transfer Processes in a Cooling Coil

SM 2.2 Cooling Coil Performance Using an Analogy to Heat Transfer
SM 2.3 Heat and Mass Transfer Fin and Surface Efficiencies
SM 2.4 Extension of Catalog Data
SM 2.5 Summary
SM 2.6 Nomenclature
SM 2.7 References
SM 2.8 Problems

SM 3 Cooling Towers

SM 3.1 Heat and Mass Transfer Processes in a Cooling Tower

SM 3.2 Cooling Tower Performance Using an Analogy to Heat Transfer
SM 3.3 Extension of Catalog Information
SM 3.4 Summary
SM 3.5 Nomenclature
SM 3.6 References
SM 3.7 Problems

SM 4 Heat and Mass Exchangers

SM 4.1 Introduction
SM 4.2 Evaporative Coolers
SM 4.3 Spray Dehumifiers
SM 4.4 Evaporative Condensers
SM 4.5 Enthalpy Exchangers
SM 4.6 Summary
SM 4.7 Nomenclature
SM 4.8 References
SM 4.9 Problems

SM 5 Thermal Storage Systems

SM 5.1 Mechanisms for Freezing and Melting of Ice

SM 5.2 Summary
SM 5.3 Nomenclature
SM 5.4 References
SM 5.5 Problems

SM 6 Compressors and Expansion Devices

SM 6.1 Performance Trends for Positive Displacement Compressors

SM 6.2 Performance Correlations for Positive Displacement Compressors
SM 6.3 Performance Trends for Centrifugal Compressors
SM 6.4 Expansion Devices
SM 6.5 System Component Integration
SM 6.6 Summary
SM 6.7 Nomenclature
SM 6.8 References
SM 6.9 Problems
 Online Material xvii

SM 7 Evaporators and Condensers

SM 7.1 Introduction
SM 7.2 Thermal Performance of Shell-and-Tube Evaporators
SM 7.3 Thermal Performance of Direct Expansion Cooling Coils
SM 7.4 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Evaporators
SM 7.5 Thermal Performance of Condensers
SM 7.6 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Condensers
SM 7.7 Pressure Drops in Two-Phase Flows
SM 7.8 Summary
SM 7.9 Nomenclature
SM 7.10 References
SM 7.11 Problems
SM 8 Absorption Air-conditioning Systems

SM 8.1 Introduction
SM 8.2 Fundamentals of Absorption
SM 8.3 Performance of a Single Effect Absorption Cycle
SM 8.4 Absorption Machine Configurations
SM 8.5 Summary
SM 8.6 Nomenclature
SM 8.7 References
SM 8.8 Problems
SM 9 Combustion Heating Equipment

SM 9.1 Introduction
SM 9.2 Combustion Processes
SM 9.3 Combustion Reactions
SM 9.4 Use of EES in Combustion Reactions
SM 9.5 Combustion Reactions with Air
SM 9.6 Simplified Model for Overall Furnace Performance
SM 9.7 Seasonal Performance
SM 9.8 Furnace Emissions
SM 9.9 Summary
SM 9.10 Nomenclature
SM 9.11 References
SM 9.12 Problems
SM 10 Economic Evaluation of HVAC Systems

SM 10.1 Introduction
SM 10.2 Costs and Interest Rates
SM 10.3 Life-Cycle Cost Concepts
SM 10.4 Present Worth Factors
SM 10.5 Life-Cycle Cost Formulation
SM 10.6 Costs and Savings Measures
SM 10.7 Importance of Economic Factors
SM 10.8 Summary
SM 10.9 Nomenclature
SM 10.10 References
SM 10.11 Problems
Preface

The career opportunities for engineering students and professionals in the HVAC field lie in many
different areas: architectural and engineering (A&E) firms, equipment manufacturers, control
companies, utilities, and government research institutions. The specific engineering applications
and tools may be very different for each career path, but the fundamental principles associated with
the heating, ventilating; and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment and systems are a common thread.
It is the intent of this book to provide a fundamental basis for launching or enhancing careers in the
HVAC field.
Our goal is to provide the foundational knowledge for the behavior and analysis of HVAC-
related devices and processes. We believe that it is important for engineers to have a basic and
quantitative understanding of the physical phenomena underlying the performance of the compo-
nent or system with which they are concerned. The approach we have taken is to present the
development of performance relations from fundamental thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, and heat
transfer principles. Engineers will then be able to better understand why a device or system responds
as it does and what its limits of performance are. This information will aid them in their design and
equipment operation activities. The HVAC field is broad, and we have attempted, first, to cover most
of the processes that an engineer might come in contact with, and second, to provide tools that allow
the engineer to design or evaluate a new device, system, or process.
We believe that it is also important to state what this text is not intended to do. It does not prepare
the student for immediate design practice. We do not cover the many “canned” programs and
methodologies that are available and used in the profession for specialized design and evaluation
tasks. Rather, we intend that our basic approach will prepare the student to understand what a
software program or a hand calculation method is intended to do and be able to interpret results in a
physically meaningful manner.
There are several features of this book not found in existing texts. The first is the tight
integration of physical descriptions with a software program that allows performance to be directly
calculated. The physical description of each device or system is developed from the basic
engineering equations and carried through to performance. The examples in the text and the
problems at the end of each chapter represent the type of situation that an engineer might face in
practice. The problems are more than exercises and, while each problem is designed to emphasize
the material in that chapter, it often includes basic material from other chapters. We believe these
problems illustrate the complex and integrated nature of an HVAC system or piece of equipment.
Although many software programs are used throughout the industry, and some are available for
class use, our approach is to have students formulate their own solutions rather than use existing
design programs. In this manner they will learn the underlying physics. We have built the problems
and examples around the program EES (Engineering Equation Solver), which is a general-purpose
nonlinear equation solver. An important feature of EES is that thermodynamic and transport
properties are directly integrated into EES, which facilitates the calculation of energy transfers that
involve fluids such as moist air, water, and refrigerants. EES is an interpretive programming
language and the program statements are essentially conventional mathematical statements, which
reduces the problems of learning a new language. Powerful solution techniques are built into EES;
this allows the engineer to focus on the physical description of the problem and not on how to obtain
a numerical solution. By employing EES, much more realistic and complex problems can be
formulated and solved than with hand calculations.
We have presented the examples in the text in terms of EES equations. This is a compact format
that replicates the mathematical development in the text. The same nomenclature and symbols are
used for both mathematical and EES formats. The descriptions of the examples are intended both to

xix
xx Preface

describe the situation in physical variables and to serve as a model for the student in developing the
solution to an end-of-chapter problem.
We have found that the discipline required to formulate a program in EES, debug it, obtain a
solution, and interpret the results carries over into the use of other programs. Although in practice an
engineer may use a program designed for a specific design purpose, the same steps are present. The
engineer still needs to understand the basic ideas and limits of the program being employed.
We have divided the book into four sections that cover the application of engineering principles
to HVAC equipment and systems. The first section, entitled Fundamentals, comprises seven
chapters that present the use of EES, review the relevant thermodynamics, fluid flow, and heat
transfer principles, provide an in-depth study of psychrometrics, cover different types of HVAC
systems and components, and present the criteria for comfort and air quality. The three chapters in
the Building Heating and Cooling Loads section cover weather data processing and the procedures
used to determine the design heating and cooling loads for a building. The section on Equipment
covers systems that transfer energy: air and water distribution systems, heating and cooling coils,
cooling towers, and equipment that supply heating or cooling. The last section on Design and
Control of HVAC Systems covers the seasonal energy use of buildings and equipment, control
techniques, and supervisory control of building operation. The last chapter in the book describes the
HVAC design process and presents the rules of thumb often used in design. Several design problems
typical of those that an engineer might face are included. Our experience is that this broad coverage
coupled with detailed analysis provides a foundation for students entering the HVAC profession.
In addition to the text material, we have developed online chapters (termed Supplemental Material,
SM) on a number of topics that relate to HVAC buildings and equipment but that are not central to the
design of a typical HVAC system. This additional material includes the development of the basic heat
and mass exchange relations as applicable to cooling coils, cooling towers, and similar equipment in
which moisture is removed or added, mechanisms of ice formation in thermal stores, heat transfer
relations for condenser and evaporators, models that yield insight into the performance of compressors
and refrigeration systems, absorption systems, and combustion heating equipment. This material is
included to allow an instructor or a student to explore in depth topics that are not covered in the text.
The book is intended first as the text for students in an HVAC or thermal systems course, and
second as a reference book for practicing engineers who wish to extend or update their knowledge.
To aid the instructor, we have developed a sample syllabus for a one-semester (14-week) course that
provides the broad coverage of HVAC.

John W. Mitchell, Professor Emeritus, University of Wisconsin

James E. Braun, Professor, Purdue University
 Preface xxi

SAMPLE SYLLABUS

Chapter Topic No. of Weeks

1 Introduction to Air Conditioning Systems
2 System Analysis Techniques and the Use of EES
2
3 Thermodynamics and Fluid Flow in HVAC Applications
4 Heat Transfer in HVAC Applications
5 Psychrometrics for HVAC Applications 1
6 Overview of HVAC Systems
2
7 Thermal Comfort and Air Quality
8 Weather Data, Statistics, and Processing
9 Components of Building Heat Loss and Gain 3
10 Heating and Cooling Loads
11 Air Distribution Systems
1
12 Liquid Distribution Systems
13 Heat Exchangers for Heating and Cooling Applications
1
14 Cooling Towers and Desiccant Dehumidification Systems
15 Vapor-Compression Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems
2
16 Heat Pump Systems
17 Thermal Storage
18 Building and HVAC Energy Use
2
19 HVAC Control Principles
20 Supervisory Control
Acknowledgments

We are greatly indebted to our colleagues at the University of Wisconsin with whom we have
discussed simulation and modeling both in general and as it relates to HVAC. The late Professor
John (Jack) A. Duffie, Director of the Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin, was a role
model in how to approach problems and generate solutions. Professor William A. Beckman and
Sanford A. Klein provided immeasurably valuable advice on modeling systems, and their develop-
ment of EES has let students easily solve complicated problems. John Seem, Johnson Controls Inc.,
reviewed and provided valuable insight on HVAC controls.
ASHRAE has had a large influence on our careers, both through support of projects and
providing us with a forum to present ideas and discuss them with colleagues. Our experience gained
through ASHRAE has hopefully made this text a useful resource for others in the field.
Several colleagues have reviewed the manuscript and given valuable advice on orientation,
style, and content. Agami Reddy, Arizona State University, and Leon Glicksman, MIT, have made
many useful suggestions. Gregor Henze and Michael Brandmuehl, University of Colorado, William
Bahnfleth, Pennsylvania State University, Gren Yuill, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, and Leslie
Norford, MIT, have all provided encouragement for writing this text. Lastly, students in our classes
over the years have provided constructive criticism of much of the material, which has helped us in
the presentation of this important subject.
We would like to thank Linda Ratts, Executive Editor, for her support and encouragement, and
Christopher Teja, Editorial Assistant, and Song Yee Lyn, Assistant Production Editor, for their
diligent attention to production. Their contributions have been essential to bringing this project to
completion.

xxiii
Other documents randomly have
different content
 On moccasined feet, and so deft of hand that Claire heard her
neither open nor close the door, the half-breed girl came to the
hearth. A brown and a white favor in woman beauty were then set in
strong contrast. Both girls were slenderly shaped, virginal and
immature lines still predominating. Claire was transparently clear of
skin, her hair was silken white like dandelion down, and the brown
color of her eyes, not deeply tinged with pigment, showed like
shadow on water; while the half-breed burned in rich pomegranate
dyes, set in black and fawn tints. They looked an instant at each
other in different mood from their first gaze across the flagstone.
“Your father is an Indian chief, the Sister tells me,” said Claire.
“My father is Étienne Annahotaha, chief of the Hurons.”
“And what is your name?”
“Massawippa.”
“Massawippa, the Virgin sent you into the chapel to answer my
prayer.”
The half-breed, standing in young dignity, threw a dark-eyed
side-glance at this perfect lily of French civilization. She was not yet
prepared to be used as an answer to the prayers of any French
woman.
“Did you know that an expedition started yesterday to the Ottawa
River?” inquired Claire.
Massawippa shook her head.
“But your father, also—he is going to fight the Iroquois?”
“I know not where they are, but I shall find out,” said
Massawippa.
“I know,” said Claire. “The Iroquois are coming down the
Ottawa.”
“From their winter trapping,” the girl assented with a nod.
“Your father, therefore, will follow Dollard’s expedition.”
“My father has but forty-three men,” Massawippa said gloomily.
“Child,” said Claire, “Dollard has only sixteen!”
 “And, madame, the Iroquois are like leaves for number. But I did
not mean our Hurons are forty-three strong. Mituvemeg,[6] the
Algonquin, meets my father here.”
“Do you know this country? Have you lived much in the woods?”
“Yes, madame.”
“Have you ever been up the Ottawa River?”
“Yes, madame. The very last summer my father took me up the
Ottawa beyond Two Mountains Lake.”
“Two Mountains Lake?”
“Yes, madame; a widening of the river, just as Lake St. Louis is a
widening of the St. Lawrence.”
“Could we go up this river in a boat, you and I?”
Massawippa looked steadily at Claire, searching her for cowardice
or treachery. The Laval-Montmorency smiled back.
“Twenty-four hours, Massawippa, I lay on the chapel pavement,
praying the Virgin to send me guide or open some way for me to
follow the French expedition up that Ottawa River. You threw
yourself beside me and answered my prayer by your own vow. We
are bound to the same destination.”
The half-breed girl looked with actual solicitude at the tender
white beauty of her fellow-plotter.
“Madame, it will be very hard for you. You and I could not, in a
boat, pass the rapids of Ste. Anne at the head of this island; they
test the skill of our best Huron paddlers.”
“Can we then go by land?”
“We shall have to cross one arm of the Ottawa to the mainland.
Montreal is on an island, madame. Two or three leagues of travel
would bring us to that shore near the mouth of the Ottawa.”
Sister Macé, unobtrusive as dawn, opened the door and stole
softly in from matins, breaking up the conference. She called
Massawippa to learn how pallets must be aired and cells made tidy.
The half-breed girl saw all this care with contempt, having for years
cast out of mind her bed of leaves and blankets as soon as she arose
from it.
Claire went with unpromising novice and easy teacher to
breakfast in the refectory, and afterwards by herself to confession—a
confession with its mental reservation as to her plans; but the rite
was one which her religion imposed upon her under the
circumstances. She had been even less candid towards the nuns in
allowing them to receive and address her as Dollard’s sister. The
prostration of grief and reaction of intense resolve benumbed her,
indeed, to externals. But in that day of pious deception, when the
churchmen themselves were full of evasive methods, a daughter of
conventual training may have been less sensitive to false
appearances than women of Claire’s high nature bred in a later age.
She saw no more of Massawippa until nightfall, but lay in the cell
assigned to her, resting with shut eyes, and allowing no thought to
wander to the men paddling towards that lonely river.
All day the season grew; shower chased sun and sun dried
shower, and in the afternoon Jouaneaux told Sister Brésoles that he
had weeded the garden of a growth which would surprise her.
At dusk, however, he brought the usual small log up to the parlor,
and with it news which exceeded his tale of weeding.
Sister Brésoles was folding her tired hands in meditation there,
and Massawippa, sullen and lofty from her first day’s probation,
curled on the floor in a corner full of shadows.
“Honored Superior,” said Jouaneaux after placing his log, “who,
say’st thou, did boldly walk up to the governor to-day?”
“Perhaps yourself, Jouaneaux. You were ever bold enough.”
“I was there, honored Superior, about a little matter of garden
seeds, and I stood by and hearkened, as it behooved the garrison of
a convent to do; for there comes me in this chief of the Hurons,
Annahotaha, swelling like—”
Jouaneaux suppressed “cockerel about to crow.” His wandering
glance caught Massawippa sitting in her blanket. The Sisters of St.
Joseph were at that time too poor to furnish any distinguishing
garments to their novices; and so insecure were these recruits from
the world that any uniform would have been thrown away upon
them. With the facility of Frenchmen, Jouaneaux substituted,
—“like a mighty warrior, as he is known to be. And he asks the
governor, does Annahotaha, for a letter to Dollard; and before he
leaves the presence he gets his letter.”
Sister Brésoles raised a finger, being mindful of two pairs of
listening ears, and two souls just sinking to the peace of resignation.
“Honored Superior,” exclaimed Jouaneaux, in haste to set
bulwarks around his statement, “you may ask Father Dollier de
Casson if this be not so, for he had just landed from the river
parishes, and was with the governor. V’là,” said Jouaneaux,
spreading an explanatory hand, “if Annahotaha and his braves join
Dollard without any parchment of authority, what share will Dollard
allow them in the enterprise? Being a shrewd chief and a man of
affairs, Annahotaha knew he must bear commission.”
“Come down to the refectory and take thy supper and discharge
thy news there,” Sister Brésoles exclaimed, starting up and swiftly
leaving the room.
Jouaneaux obeyed her, keeping his punctilious foot far behind the
soft rush of her garments.
He dared not wink at the nun, even under cover of dusk and to
add zest to his further recital; but he winked at the wall separating
him from Massawippa and said slyly on the stairs:
“Afterwards, however, honored Superior, I heard the governor tell
Father de Casson that he wrote it down to Dollard to accept or
refuse Annahotaha, as he saw fit.”
As soon as the door was closed Claire came running out of her
cell and met Massawippa at the hearth, silently clapping her hands in
swift rapture as a humming-bird beats its wings.
“Now thou see’st how the Virgin answers prayer, Massawippa!”
The half-breed, sedately eager, said:
“We must cross the arm of the Ottawa and follow their course up
that river. Madame, I have troubled my mind much about a boat. For
if we got over the Ottawa arm and followed the right-hand shore,
have you thought how possible it is that they may fix their camp on
the opposite side?”
“Can we not take a boat with us from Montreal?”
“And carry it two or three leagues across the country? For I
cannot paddle up the Ste. Anne[7] current. But if we could get one
here it would draw suspicion on us and we might be followed. I see
but one way. We must depend upon that walking woman above
Carillon; and if she be dead, and they camp on the other side, we
must raft across the Ottawa. But if we must first make a raft to cross
at the mouth, how much time will be lost!”
“Massawippa, we have vowed to follow this expedition, and with
such good hap as Heaven sends us we shall follow it. May we not
start to-morrow?”
“Madame, before we start there are things to prepare. We must
eat on the way.”
“What food shall we carry?”
“Bread and smoked eels would keep us alive. I can perhaps buy
these with my wampum girdle,” suggested Massawippa, who held
the noble young dame beside her to be as dowerless as a Huron
princess, and thought it no shame so to be.
“Why need you do that?” inquired Claire. “I have two or three
gold louis left of the few I brought from France.”
“Gold, madame! Gold is so scarce in this land we might attract
too much attention by paying for our supplies with it.”
“I have nothing else, so we must hazard it. And what must we
take beside food and raiment?”
“Madame, we cannot carry any garments.”
“But, Massawippa, I cannot go to Dollard all travel-stained and
ragged!”
“If we find him, madame, he will not think of your dress. Is he
wedded to you?”
Claire’s head sunk down in replying.
 “He is wedded to glory. Men care more for glory than they care
for us, Massawippa.”
“Madame,” said the younger, her mouth settling to wistfulness,
“the more they care for glory the more we love them. My father is
great. If he was a common Indian little could I honor him, whatever
penance the priest laid upon me.”
“Yes, Dollard is my husband. He is my Dollard,” said Claire.
“The nuns call you mademoiselle.”
“I have not told them.”
“They might see!” asserted Massawippa, slightingly. “Do women
lie in deadly anguish before the altar for brothers?” she demanded,
speaking as decidedly from her inexperience as any young person of
a later century, “or for detestable young men who wish to be
accepted as lovers?”
“Assuredly not,” said Claire, smiling.
“But fathers, they are a different matter. And in your case,
madame, husbands. We shall need other things besides bread and
eels. For example, two knives.”
“To cut our bread with?” inquired Claire.
“No; to cut our enemies with!” Massawippa replied, with
preoccupied eye which noted little the shudder of the European.
“O Massawippa! they may be engaged with the Iroquois even
now. Dollard has been gone two days.”
“Have no fear of that, madame. There will be no fighting until
Annahotaha reaches the expedition,” assumed the chief’s daughter
with a high air most laughable to her superior. And after keen
meditation she added: “We might start to-morrow daybreak if we but
had our supplies ready.”
“Massawippa,” exclaimed Claire, “how do you barter with
merchants? Can we not send for them and buy our provisions at
once?”
“Madame, send for the merchants? You make me laugh! Very
cautiously will I have to slip from this place to that; and perhaps I
cannot then buy all we need, especially with gold louis. They may,
however, think coureurs de bois have come to town. And now at
dusk is a better time than in broad daylight.”
Claire went in haste to her casket, which stood in the nuns’
parlor, and selected from it things which she might not have the
chance of removing later. These she put in her cell, and came back
to Massawippa with her hand freighted.
“How much, madame?” the half-breed inquired as pieces were
turned with a clink upon her own palm.
“All. Three louis.”
“Take one back, then. Two will be too many, though one might
not be enough. Madame, that Frenchman who feeds the nuns’ pigs
and tends this fire, he will let me out; and what I buy I will hide
outside the Hôtel-Dieu.”
 XV.

THE WOOING OF JOUANEAUX.

I N consequence of Massawippa’s plan the Frenchman who fed

the nuns’ pigs guarded in dolor his palisade gate at about 10
o’clock of the evening.
The hospital had these bristling high pickets set all about
its premises as a defense against sudden attacks, and its faithful
retainer felt that he was courting its destruction in keeping its bolts
undone so late. There was, besides, the anticipative terror of a nun’s
stepping forth to demand of his hands the new novice. Cold dew of
suspense stood on his face; and he could only hope that Sister
Maillet, who usually had charge of the last novice, believed her to be
folded safely in her cell by Sister Brésoles, and that Sister Brésoles
believed her to be thus folded by Sister Maillet. When at last the cat
footsteps of Massawippa passed through the palisade gate she
requited his sufferings with scarce a nod of thanks, though she
hesitated with some show of interest to see him fasten both gate
and convent door. Indignation possessed him while he shot the bolts,
and freed itself through jerks of the head.
But instead of going to her cell, Massawippa entered the chapel;
and Jouaneaux, feeling himself still responsible for her, followed and
closed the door behind him.
 A solitary light burned on the altar. The girl knelt a long time in
her devotions.
Jouaneaux knelt also, near the door, and after a pater and an ave
it may be supposed that he begged St. Joseph to intercede for a
poor sinner who felt beset and impelled to meddle with novices.
Having finished her prayers, Massawippa began to ascend the
stairway to the rood-loft.
“Where are you going?” whispered Jouaneaux, following her in
wrath.
She turned around and held to the rail of the stair, while he stood
at the foot, she guarding her voice also in reply.
“I am going up here to sleep, lest I wake the Sisters. The floor is
no harder than their pallets, and the night is not cold.”
“And in the morning my honored Superior calls me to account for
you.”
“No one has missed me. I shall be up early.”
“How do you know you are not missed? Some one may this
moment open that chapel door.”
“Go away and quit hissing at me then,” suggested Massawippa,
contracting her brows.
Jouaneaux, drawn by a power irresistible, fell into the error of
vain natures, and set himself to lecture the creator of his infatuation.
“I want to talk to you. I want to give you some good advice. Sit
down on that step,” he demanded.
Massawippa settled down, and rested her chin on her dark soft
knuckles. Sparks of amusement burned in the deeps of her eyes.
Accustomed to having men of inferior rank around her, she was
satisfied that he kept his distance and sat three steps below her,
literally beneath her feet. Her beaver gown cased her in rich creases.
Seeing her thus plastic, Jouaneaux’s severity ran off his cheeks in
a smile. He forgot her abuse of the privilege he had stolen for her.
His genial nose tilted up, and as overture to his good advice,
showing all his gums, he whispered:
 “What a pretty little Sister of St. Joseph you will make!”
Massawippa stirred, and with her dull-red blanket arranged a rest
for her head against the balustrade.
“What do you think of me?” he inquired.
After reticent pause of a length to embarrass a modest
questioner, Massawippa admitted:
“You are not so black and oily as La Mouche.”
“Who is La Mouche?”
“He is my father’s adopted nephew.”
“Does he want to wed you?”
“He dare not name such a thing to me!”
“That is excellent,” commended Jouaneaux. “You have the true
spirit of a novice. You must never think of marriage with any man.”
He gloated upon her, his entire chest sighing.
The scandal of the situation, should any nun open the chapel
door, was a danger which made this interview the most delightful sin
of his life. But the two Sisters most given to vigils had watched all
the previous night, and he counted upon nature’s revenge to leave
him unmolested.
The taper burned upon the altar, and there were the sacred
images keeping guard, chastening both speakers always to a
reverent murmur of the voice which rose no louder, and which to a
devout ear at the door might have suggested, in that period of
miracles, some gentle colloquy between the waxen St. Joseph and
his waxen spouse. Massawippa, childishly innocent, and Jouaneaux,
nearly as innocent himself, would scarcely be such objects of
veneration, though their converse might prove equally harmless.
“Is this the good advice you wished to give me?” inquired
Massawippa.
“It is the beginning of it,” replied Jouaneaux.
“I do not intend to wed. There is no man fit to wed me,” said the
half-breed girl in high sincerity, leveling her gaze above his bright
poll.
 “Look you here, now!” exclaimed the Frenchman. “I am good
enough for you, if I would marry you. For while your fathers were
ranging the woods, mine were decent tillers of the soil, keeping their
skins white and minding the priest. Where could you get a finer
husband than I would make you? But I shall never marry. The Queen
of France would be no temptation to me. There you sit, enough to
turn the head of our blessed St. Joseph, for you turned my head the
moment I looked upon you; but I don’t want you.”
“I will bid you good-night,” said Massawippa, drawing her
blanket.
“At the proper time, little Sister; when I speak my mind freer of
its load. I must live a bachelor, it is true; but if I were a free man I
would have you to-morrow, though you scratched me with your wild
hands.”
“I am not for your bolts and bars,” returned Massawippa,
scornfully.
“If we were settled in the house I made upon my land,” said
Jouaneaux, tempting himself with the impossible while he leaned
back smiling, “little need you complain of bolts and bars. My case is
this: I had a grant of land on the western shore of this island of
Montreal.”
“Not where the Ottawa comes in?” questioned Massawippa,
impaling him with interest.
“That was the exact spot.” Jouaneaux widened his mouth pinkly
as he became retrospective. “And never wouldst thou guess what
turned me from that freeholding to a holy life. I may say that I lead
a holy life, for are not vows laid upon me as strait as on the Sulpitian
fathers? And straiter; I am under writings to the nuns to serve them
to the day of my death, and they be under writings to me to
maintain my sickness and old age. It is likely my skeleton barn still
stands where I set it up to hold my produce. Down I falls from the
ridge of it headlong to the ground, and here in the Hôtel-Dieu I lay
for many a month like a rag, the Sisters tending me. It was then I
said to myself, ‘Jouaneaux, these be angels of pity and patience, yet
they soil their hands feeding pigs and bearing up such as thou.’
Though I am equal to most of my betters, little Sister, I always held
it well to be humble-minded. The result is, I give up my land, I bind
myself to serve the saints in this Hôtel-Dieu, and therefore I cannot
marry.”
Jouaneaux collapsed upon himself with a groaning sigh.
“Then your house and your barn were left to ruin?” questioned
Massawippa, passing without sympathy his nuptial restrictions.
“My house!” said Jouaneaux, looking up with reviving spirit. “Little
Sister, you would walk over the roof of my house and not perceive
it.”
“In midwinter?”
“No, now, when young grass springs. I could endure to risk my
store of crops where the Iroquois might set torch to them, but this
pretty fellow, this outer man of me, I took no risks with him. I
chooses me a stump, a nice hollow stump.”
“And squeezed into it like a bear?”
“Jouaneaux is a fox, little Sister. Call your clumsy La Mouche the
bear. No: I burrows me out a house beneath the stump; a good
house, a sizable hole. Over there is my fire-place, and the stump
furnishes me a chimney. Any Iroquois seeing my stump smoking
would merely say to himself, ‘It is afire.’ Let a canoe spring out on
the river or a cry ring in the forest—down went Jouaneaux into his
house, and, as you may say, pulled the earth over his head. I also
kept my canoe dragged within there, for there was no telling what
might happen to it elsewhere.”
Massawippa regarded him with animation. “You had also a boat?”
“Indeed, yes!” the nuns’ man affirmed, kindled higher by such
interest. “A good birch craft it was, and large enough for two
people.” Another groaning sigh paid tribute to this lost instrument of
happiness.
“But your house may be all crumbled in now.”
“Not that house, little Sister. Look you! it had ceiling and walls of
timbers well fastened together and covered with cement. Was not
that a snug house? It will endure like rock, and some day I must go
and see it once more.”
“Perhaps you could not find it now.”
Jouaneaux laughed.
“My house! I could walk straight to it, little Sister, and lay my
hand on the chimney. That chimney stump, it standeth near the
river, the central one in a row of five. Many other rows of five there
be in the field, but none, to my eye, exactly like this.”
Massawippa rose suddenly and dived like a swallow up the
stairway. So much keener was her ear than Jouaneaux’s that she
was out of sight before he realized the probability of an interruption.
A hand was on the chapel latch, and he turned himself on the
step as Sister Judith Brésoles entered, her night taper in her hand.
When she discovered him, instead of screaming, she stood and fixed
a stern gaze on him, her mouth compressed and her brows holding
an upright wrinkle betwixt them. Her servitor stood up in his most
pious and depressed attitude.
“Jouaneaux, what are you doing here?”
“Honored Superior, I have been sitting half an hour or so
meditating before the sacred images.”
“Where is the novice Massawippa?”
“That is what troubles my conscience, honored Superior.” Beneath
his childlike distress Jouaneaux was silently blessing St. Joseph that
it was not Sister Macé with her tendency to resort to the rood-loft.
“Here is the case I stand in: the little Sister you call Massawippa, she
came begging me for a breath of air by the river before I fastened
the bolts to-night.”
“You turned that child upon the street!” exclaimed Sister
Brésoles. “I cannot find her in any cell or anywhere about the Hôtel-
Dieu. You have exceeded your authority, Jouaneaux. It is a frightful
thing you have done!”
“Honored Superior, she will be back in the morning. Those half-
Indians are not like French girls; they have the bird in them. This
one will hop over all evil hap.”
 “I would ring the tocsin,” said Sister Brésoles, “if alarming the
town would recall her. Without doubt, though,” she sighed, “the girl
has returned to her father.”
“Honored Superior, if she comes not back to matins as clean and
fresh as a brier-rose, turn me out of the Hôtel-Dieu.”
“Get you to bed, Jouaneaux, and, let me tell you, you must
meddle no more with novices. These young creatures are ever a
weight on one’s heart.”
“Especially this one,” lamented Jouaneaux, as, leaving the chapel
behind Sister Brésoles, he rolled his eyes in one last gaze at the
rood-loft.
 XVI.

FIRST USE OF A KNIFE.

T HE capeline, or small black velvet cap, which Claire had

worn on her journeys about New France sheltered her
head from the highest and softest of April morning
skies. Though so early and humid that mists were still
curling and changing form around the mountain and in all the
distances, it promised to be a fine day.
Massawippa led the way across the clearing, leaning a little to
one side as a sail-boat does when it flies on the wind, her
moccasined feet just touching the little billows of ploughed ground;
and Claire followed eagerly, though she carried her draperies
clutched in her hands. The rising sun would shine on their backs, but
before the sun rose they were where he must grope for them among
great trees.
One short pause had been made at the outset while Massawippa
brought, from some recess known to herself among rocks or stumps
in the direction of the mountain, a hempen sack filled with her
supplies. She carried this, and a package of what Claire had made up
as necessaries from her box in the Hôtel-Dieu, as if two such loads
were wings placed under the arms of a half-Huron maid to help her
feet skim ploughed ground.
 When they had left the clearing and were well behind a massed
shelter of forest trunks, Claire was moist and pink with haste and
exertion, and here Massawippa paused.
They were, after all, but young girls starting on an excursion with
the morning sky for a companion, and they laughed together as they
sat down upon a low rock.
“When I closed the door of the parlor,” said Claire with very pink
lips, “I thought I heard some one stirring in the cells. But we have
not been followed, and I trust not seen.”
“They were rousing for matins,” said the half-Huron. “No, they
think I ran away last night; and you, madame, they do not expect to
matins. We are taking one risk which I dread, but it must be taken.”
“You mean leaving the palisade and entrance doors unfastened?
My heart smote me for those good nuns. Is the risk very great? We
have seen no danger abroad.”
“Not that. No, madame. Their man, that stupid, who ranks
himself with Sulpitian fathers, he is always astir early among his
bolts and his pigs. It is his suspicion I dread. For he knows I slept in
the chapel last night, and he told me of his house, and in that house
we must sleep to-night. Perhaps he dare not tell the Sisters, and in
that case he dare not follow to search his house for us. We have also
his stupidity to count on. Young men are not wise.”
Present discomfort, which puts coming risks farther into the
future in most minds, made Claire thrust out her pointed satin feet
and look at them dubiously.
“What would Dollard think of these, Massawippa? I have one
other pair of heeled shoes in that packet, but they will scarcely hold
out for such journeying.”
“Madame, that is why I stopped here,” said Massawippa, opening
her sack. “It was necessary for us to kneel in the chapel and ask the
Holy Family’s aid before we set out; but we have no time to spend
here. Let me get you ready.”
“Am I not ready?” inquired Claire, giving her companion a rosy
laugh.
 “No, madame; your feet must be moccasined and your dress cut
off.”
The younger girl took from the sack a pair of new moccasins and
knelt on one knee before Claire—not as a menial would kneel, but as
a commanding junior who has undertaken maternal duty. She flung
aside the civilized foot-beautifiers of Louis’ reign and substituted
Indian shoes, lacing them securely with fine thongs.
“These are the best I had, madame, and I carried them out of
the Hôtel-Dieu under my blanket and hid them with our provisions
last night.”
“What a sensible, kind child you are, Massawippa! But while you
were doing this for me I took no thought of any special comfort for
you.”
“They will bear the journey.”
Massawippa rose and took from her store two sheathed knives
with cross-hilts—not of the finest workmanship, but of good temper:
their pointed blades glittered as she displayed them. She showed her
pupil how to place one, sheathed, at a ready angle within her
bodice, and then took up the other like a naked sword.
“Now stand on the rock, madame, and let me cut your dress
short.”
“Oh, no!” pleaded Claire for her draperies. “You do not
understand, Massawippa. This is simply the dress which women of
my rank wear in France, and because I am going into the woods
must I be shorn to my knees like a man?”
Retreating a step she stretched before her the skirt of dark glacé
satin with its Grecian border of embroidery at the foot, and in doing
so let fall from her arm the overskirt, which trailed its similar border
upon the ground behind her.
“Madame,” argued Massawippa, suspending the knife, “we have a
road of danger before us. That shining stuff hanging behind you will
catch on bushes, and weary you, and will soon be ragged though
you nurse it on your arm all the way.”
 “Cut that off, therefore,” said Claire, turning. “I am not so childish
as to love the pall we hang over our gowns and elbows. But the skirt
is not too long if it be lifted by a girdle below the waist. Cut me out a
rope of satin, Massawippa.”
The hiss of a thick and rich fabric yielding to the knife could be
heard behind her back. Massawippa presently lifted the plenteous
fleece thus shorn, and pared away the border while the elder girl
held it. Together they tied the border about Claire’s middle for a
support, and over this pulled the top of her skirt in a pouting ruff.
It was now sunrise. Having thus finished equipping themselves
they took up each a load, Claire bearing her packet on the arm her
surplus drapery had burdened, and when Massawippa had thrust
both cast-off shoes and satin under a side of the rock they hurried
on.
 XVII.
JOUANEAUX’S HOUSE.
T HE sun had almost described his arc before Claire and
Massawippa reached the extremity of the island.
Massawippa could have walked two leagues in half the
day, but wisely did she forecast that the young
Frenchwoman would be like a liberated canary, obliged to grow into
uncaged use of herself by little flights and pauses. Besides,
Jouaneaux’s house would give them safe asylum until they crossed
the river.
“That must be his barn,” said Massawippa, pointing to a pile of
hewed timbers, too far up the bank and too recently handled by man
to be drift. They lay in angular positions, scarce an upright log
marking the site of the little structure Jouaneaux had tried to erect
for his granary.
Two slim figures casting long shadows eastward on the clearing,
the girls stood trying to discern in those tumultuous waters where
the Ottawa came in or where the St. Lawrence’s own current
wrestled around islands. The north shore looked far off, thick clothed
with forests. Massawippa held her blanket out to canopy her eyes,
anxiously examining the trackless way by which they must cross.
“But the first thing is to find Jouaneaux’s house,” she said,
turning to Claire.
“I was thinking of that,” Claire answered, “and counting the
stumps in rows of five. All this land is covered with stumps,
Massawippa.”
 “He said the row of five nearest the water.”
“Did he tell you how to enter?”
“That I had no time to learn. But, madame, if a man went in and
out of this underground house, surely you and I can do the same.
Here be five stumps—the row nearest the river.”
They went to the central stump. It had a nest of decayed yellow
wood within, crumbled down by the tooth of the air, but probing
could not make it hollow.
“Perhaps he deceived you about his house,” said Claire.
Massawippa met her apprehension with dark seriousness.
“It would be the worst about the boat,” she replied. “I counted on
that boat all day, so that I have not thought what to do without it.”