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 Concrete Society Technical Report No. 55
Second Edition
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Design guidance for

strengthening concrete
structures using fibre
composite materials
Second Edition
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society
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World Leaders in
Composite Solutions
• High Strength
• Lightweight
• Non-corrosive
• Easy Installation
• Flexible

A comprehensive approach to single source support from specification through to completion.

For further information please contact Paul Russell on 0161 794 7411 or email
[email protected]

Degussa Construction Chemicals (UK),

Albany House, Swinton Hall Road, Swinton, Manchester M27 4DT
Tel: 0161 794 7411 Fax: 0161 727 8881
e-mail: [email protected] www.degussa-cc.co.uk
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 Concrete Society Technical Report No. 55
Second Edition
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

Design guidance for

strengthening concrete
structures using fibre
composite materials
Second Edition

Report of a Concrete Society Committee

The Concrete Society

Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
Concrete Society Technical Report No. 55

ISBN 1 904482 14 7

© The Concrete Society 2004

First edition published 2000

Further copies and information about membership of The Concrete Society may be obtained from:

The Concrete Society

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Station Approach, Blackwater
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E-mail: [email protected]; www.concrete.org.uk

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with any report or specification, they should be reviewed with regard to the full circumstances of such use.
Although every care has been taken in the preparation of this Report, no liability for negligence or otherwise can
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Concrete Society publications are subject to revision from time to time and readers should ensure that they are in
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 CONTENTS
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Members of the Project Committee viii 4 REVIEW OF APPLICATIONS 15

List of Figures x 4.1 Introduction 15
List of Tables x 4.2 Buildings 16
Executive Summary xi 4.2.1 Beams and slabs 16
4.2.2 Columns 17
1 INTRODUCTION 1 4.2.3 Connections 18
4.2.4 Walls 18
2 BACKGROUND 3 4.3 Bridges 18
2.1 Principles of strengthening 3 4.3.1 Beams and slabs 18
2.2 Assessment of structures to be strengthened 3 4.3.2 Columns 20
2.3 Strengthening solutions 4 4.3.3 Continuity 21
2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of fibre composite 4.4 Other structures 21
strengthening 5 4.4.1 Towers and chimneys 21
2.4.1 Advantages 5 4.4.2 Tunnels 21
2.4.2 Disadvantages 6 4.4.3 Marine/coastal structures 21
2.5 Design life 7 4.4.4 Miscellaneous structures 22
2.6 Economics 7
2.6.1 Installation 7 5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF
2.6.2 Whole-life costing 8 STRENGTHENED MEMBERS 23
2.7 Level of strengthening 8 5.1 Symbols 23
5.2 Overview of available design guidance 24
3 MATERIAL TYPES AND PROPERTIES 9 5.3 Basis of design 24
3.1 Introduction 9 5.4 Mechanical properties of materials 25
3.2 Fibres 9 5.4.1 Properties of concrete and steel
3.2.1 Types of fibre 9 reinforcement 25
3.2.2 Performance of different types of fibre 9 5.4.2 Properties of fibre-reinforced
3.3 Fabrics 10 polymers (FRP) 25
3.4 Plates 11 5.4.3 Properties of adhesives and laminating
3.5 Rods and strips for near-surface-mounted (NSM) resins 26
reinforcement 11 5.4.4 Stress–strain curves 26
3.6 Preformed shells for column confinement 11 5.5 Partial safety factors for loads 26
3.7 Specials 12 5.6 Design values for material properties 26
3.8 Adhesives and laminating resins 12 5.6.1 Introduction 26
3.9 Environmental aspects and Health and Safety 13 5.6.2 Design strength of steel and concrete 26
3.9.1 Environmental aspects 13 5.6.3 Design elastic modulus of FRP 26
3.9.2 Health and Safety 13 5.6.4 Design ultimate strain of FRP 27
3.10 Choice of materials for design 13 5.6.5 Design ultimate strength of FRP 27
3.10.1 Plates versus wet lay-up sheet systems 13 5.6.6 Steel stress 27
3.10.2 NSM systems 13 5.6.7 Deflection and cracking 28
3.10.3 Specific composite material 14 5.6.8 Adhesive 28
3.10.4 Stiffness issues 14

v
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5.7 Extreme loadings 28 7 SHEAR STRENGTHENING 47

5.7.1 Behaviour of structures in fire 28 7.1 Introduction 47
5.7.2 Seismic loading 28 7.2 Design procedure 47
5.7.3 Impact loading 29 7.2.1 Maximum shear capacity 47
5.7.4 Blast loading 29 7.2.2 FRP shear strengthening design 48
5.7.5 Vandalism 29 7.3 Spacing of FRP strips 49
7.4 Additional axial FRP 49
6 STRENGTHENING MEMBERS IN
FLEXURE 31 8 STRENGTHENING AXIALLY LOADED
6.1 General 31 MEMBERS 53
6.2 Moment capacity 31 8.1 Introduction 53
6.2.1 Introduction 31 8.2 Stress–strain model for FRP-confined concrete 53
6.2.2 Requirements of the existing section 31 8.3 Compression 55
6.2.3 Preliminary design 32 8.3.1 Introduction 55
6.2.4 Design resistance moment of FRP- 8.3.2 Tensile rupture of FRP 55
strengthened beam 32 8.3.3 Lap joint failure 56
6.2.5 Example design method 32 8.3.4 Shear 56
6.3 FRP separation failure 33 8.3.5 Serviceability 57
6.3.1 Introduction 33 8.4 Flexure 57
6.3.2 Bond failure 34 8.4.1 Introduction 57
6.3.3 Design procedure 34 8.4.2 Moment capacity with axial load 58
6.4 Flexural strengthening with NSM reinforcement 36 8.4.3 Debonding 59
6.4.1 Introduction 36 8.4.4 Anchorage 59
6.4.2 Design basis 37 8.5 Ductility 59
6.4.3 Bond behaviour 37 8.6 Strengthening columns with non-circular cross-
6.4.4 Modes of failure 37 section 60
6.4.5 NSM separation failure design 38
6.4.6 Anchorage design 38 9 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES 65
6.5 Flexural strengthening plate location 39 9.1 Emerging strengthening technologies already
6.6 Thick and multi-layer laminates 39 used in practice 65
6.7 Redistribution 40 9.1.1 Prestressing using FRP composites 65
6.8 Serviceability 40 9.1.2 Unstressed FRP anchorage techniques 67
6.8.1 Crack widths 40 9.1.3 Bolted plate anchors 67
6.8.2 Deflections and material stresses 40 9.1.4 Concrete masonry walls 68
6.8.3 Fatigue 41 9.2 Emerging strengthening technologies at the
6.8.4 Stress rupture 41 research stage 68
6.8.5 Strengthening under non-static live load 41 9.2.1 Prestressed NSM bars 68
6.9 Strengthening prestressed structures 42 9.2.2 NSM bars for shear strengthening 68

vi
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9.2.3 FRP anchor systems 68 10.8 Assembly and visual inspection 75

9.2.4 Steel-reinforced polymers 68 10.8.1 Installation of FRP plates 75
9.2.5 Deep embedded bar for shear 10.8.2 Installation of FRP fabrics 76
strengthening 69 10.8.3 Installation of NSM reinforcement 77
9.2.6 Prestressed carbon FRP straps for shear 10.9 Control samples 77
strengthening 69 10.10 Non-destructive tests 77
9.2.7 Mechanical fastening techniques 69 10.11 Application of over-coatings 77
9.2.8 Strengthening for torsion 69 10.12 Identification/warning signs 78
9.2.9 Life expectancy modelling 69 10.13 Records 78
9.2.10 Inorganic adhesives 69
11 LONG-TERM INSPECTION, MONITORING
10 WORKMANSHIP AND INSTALLATION 71 AND MAINTENANCE 79
10.1 Introduction 71 11.1 Inspection and monitoring regime 79
10.2 Evaluation of concrete condition 71 11.2 Frequency of inspections 79
10.3 Concrete preparation 72 11.3 Routine visual inspection 80
10.3.1 Concrete surface for plates and fabric 72 11.4 Detailed inspection 80
10.3.2 Slots in concrete surface for NSM 11.5 Maintenance 80
material 73
10.4 Material conformity 73 REFERENCES 81
10.5 Storage of materials 73
10.6 Site conditions 73 APPENDICES 89
10.7 Mixing and application of adhesive 74
10.7.1 General 74 A Glossary of terms 89
10.7.2 Application to substrate prior to plate B Systems available in the UK 91
installation 74 C Quality control of materials 95
10.7.3 Application to FRP plates 74 D Specialist suppliers, contractors, consultants,
10.7.4 Application to substrate prior to fabric universities/research organisations and owners 97
installation 75
10.7.5 Application to FRP fabrics 75 INDEX 99
10.7.6 Inserting adhesive into slots for NSM
reinforcement 75

vii
 MEMBERS OF THE PROJECT COMMITTEE
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Neil Loudon Highways Agency (Chairman)

Brian Bell Network Rail
Bob Berry Concrete Repairs Limited (representing the Concrete Repair Association)
Peter Brown Oxfordshire County Council (representing the CSS)
Lee Canning Mouchel Parkman
John Clarke The Concrete Society (Secretary)
Antony Darby University of Bath
Steve Denton Parsons Brinckerhoff
John Drewett Concrete Repairs Limited (representing the Concrete Repair Association)
Edward Donnelly Fyfe Co. LLC
Neil Farmer Tony Gee and Partners
Alan Hardie Network Rail
Chris Hughes weber building solutions
Tim Ibell University of Bath
Sarah Kaethner Arup R & D
John Keble weber building solutions
Mike Langdon Degussa Construction Chemicals
Sam Luke Mouchel Parkman
Mick Mahon Toray Europe Ltd
Peter Milligan Fyfe Co. LLC
Jim Moriarty London Underground
Steve Richards Exchem Mining and Construction
Martin Richardson Sika
Paul Russell Degussa Construction Chemicals
Jon Shave Parsons Brinckerhoff
Ian Smith Tony Gee and Partners
Simon Walters Mouchel Parkman

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS
Michael Johnston British Energy Generation UK Ltd
Tony McNulty Health & Safety Executive – Nuclear Inspectorate Directorate
Wendel Sebastian University of Bristol
David Tann University of Glamorgan

viii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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The work of preparing this Report was funded by the following organisations:

Degussa Construction Chemicals

Exchem Mining and Construction
Fyfe Co. LLC and Fyfe Asia Pte.
Highways Agency
London Underground Ltd
Network Rail
Sika
Toray Europe
weber building solutions

The Concrete Society is grateful to the following for providing photographs for inclusion in the Report:
Concrete Repairs Ltd (Figures 5, 6, 8, 11, 44 and 52)
Cornwall County Council (Figures 17, 37, 39, 45 and 50)
Halcrow Group Ltd (Figures 3, 40 and 43)
Highways Agency (Figure 9)
Makers UK Ltd (Figures 4, 13, 38 and 42)
Maunsell structural Plastics (Figures 12 and 48)
Parsons Brinckerhoff (Figure 15)
Sika Ltd (Figures 7, 14, 46 and 49)
weber building solutions (Figures 10, 41 and 47)

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES
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Figure 1: Different types of structural strengthening, Figure 38: Surface grinding.

applied to beams, slabs, walls and columns. Figure 39: Filling imperfections with quick-setting repair
Figure 2: Flow chart of assessment process. mortar.
Figure 3: Installing fibre composite plates in a culvert. Figure 40: Pull-off specimen after removal from concrete
Figure 4: Installing FRP plate, showing the flexibility of surface.
the material. Figure 41: Mixing adhesive.
Figure 5: FRP plate installed behind existing services. Figure 42: Application of adhesive to concrete surface.
Figure 6: Overlapped carbon FRP plates on Dudley Port Figure 43: Application of adhesive layer on to fibre com-
Bridge, West Midlands. posite plate.
Figure 7: Coil of carbon FRP plate. Figure 44: Cutting fabric.
Figure 8: Cutting carbon FRP plate on site. Figure 45: Applying resin using roller.
Figure 9: Shear reinforcement straps. Figure 46: Impregnation of fabric.
Figure 10: Strengthening around hole cut through slab. Figure 47: Installing FRP plates, using a roller to apply
Figure 11: Underpass, Great Missenden. pressure.
Figure 12: Applying carbon fibre sheet to Greenbridge Figure 48: Wrapping fabric round an arched member.
Subway, Swindon. Figure 49: Wrapping fabric round column.
Figure 13: Strengthening Glade Bridge. Figure 50: Rolling fabric to consolidate layers.
Figure 14: Strengthening the top surface of a bridge using Figure 51: Double-lap shear test.
carbon fibre plates. Figure 52: Spray application of mortar over-coating.
Figure 15: Column wrapping. Figure 53: Example of warning printed on carbon fibre
Figure 16: Machine for wrapping columns. plate.
Figure 17: Bible Christian Bridge, Cornwall. Figure 54: Examples of proposed warning plates fixed to
Figure 18: Assumed stress–strain curves. structure adjacent to strengthened area.
Figure 19: Strengthening beams and slabs with FRP.
Figure 20: Stress–strain curve for reinforcing steel in the
design of strengthened beams in flexure.
Figure 21: Possible failure modes and locations for FRP-
LIST OF TABLES
strengthened beam.
Table 1: Typical dry fibre properties.
Figure 22: Variation in FRP separation strain with bonded
Table 2: Examples of strengthening of buildings in the
length, based on Denton et al.(112).
UK.
Figure 23: Characteristic bond failure force vs anchorage
Table 3: Examples of strengthening of bridges in the UK.
length.
Table 4: Limit states relevant to FRP strengthening sys-
Figure 24: Shear reinforcement configurations.
tems.
Figure 25: General notation for shear strengthening.
Table 5: Partial safety factors for Young’s modulus at the
Figure 26: Typical variation in ultimate strain capacity with
ultimate limit state.
bonded length (after Neubauer and Rostasy(111)). Table 6: Recommended values of additional partial safe-
Figure 27: Experimental verification of design method ty factors, to be applied to manufactured com-
(after Denton et al.(112)). posites, based on Clarke(94).
Figure 28: Idealised stress–strain curve for FRP-confined Table 7: Partial safety factor for strain at the ultimate
concrete. limit state.
Figure 29: Stress–strain model. Table 8: Maximum stress ranges as a proportion of the
Figure 30: Laps in columns. design ultimate strength (%).
Figure 31: Stress–strain behaviour of variably confined Table 9: Maximum stress under service loads to avoid
concrete. stress rupture as a proportion of design strength
Figure 32: Recommended stress–strain curves for com- (%).
bined flexure and axial load. Table 10: Reduction in strength of adhesive for given live-
Figure 33: Assumed confined region for FRP-wrapped rec- load strains at FRP–concrete interface (%).
tangular column. Table B1: Suppliers of strengthening materials.
Figure 34: Overlapping parabolas in confined region. Table B2: Properties of fibre composite sheet materials.
Figure 35: Dead-end prestressing system (left) and stress- Table B3: Properties of composite plate materials.
ing anchorage (right). Table B4: Properties of NSM rods and strips.
Figure 36: Prestressing system used on Lauterbridge, Table B5: Properties of epoxy adhesives.
Gomadingen. Table B6: Properties of laminating resins.
Figure 37: Use of pull-out test to determine concrete
strength.

x
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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Fibre composites (or fibre-reinforced polymers, generally known as FRPs) have been used successfully for many years in the
aerospace and automotive industries. They are used in construction, for example as structural elements and for cladding. This
Report does not consider such applications but deals only with a recent development, strengthening concrete structures by
bonding fibre composites to the surface.

Suitable fibres are made from carbon, aramids or glass. These may be used in the form of:

• composite plates, made from fibres and epoxy resins which are fixed with epoxies to the soffits of beams and slabs
• sheet materials, which are wrapped round columns and similar members
• preformed shells, bonded round columns.

Advantages

The principal advantages of using composites over steel plates are their high strength and light weight; typical properties are
given for commercially available materials. This makes installation simple and quick and eliminates the need for temporary
support. The materials can be easily cut to length on site. The availability of long lengths and the flexibility of the materials
also simplify installation because:

• laps and joints are not required

• the material can take up irregularities in the shape of the concrete surface and can follow a curved profile
• the material can be readily installed behind existing services
• overlapping, required when strengthening in two directions, is not a problem because the material is thin.

These various factors in combination lead to a significantly simpler and quicker strengthening process than when using other
methods. This is particularly important for bridges because of the high costs of lane closures and possession times on major
highways and railway lines. An additional advantage of FRPs over some other types of strengthening is that the weight of the
structure and the dimensions of the member are not significantly increased. The latter may be particularly important for
bridges, tunnels and other structures with limited clearance.

Disadvantages

One disadvantage of FRP strengthening is the risk of fire, vandalism or accidental damage. For bridges over roads the risk of
soffit reinforcement being hit by over-height vehicles should be considered. In general, some form of protection will be
required.

Examples of FRP strengthening

There are many concrete structures around the world that have been externally strengthened with FRP. The Report concen-
trates on applications in the UK. The floors of various buildings have been strengthened to carry additional loads and FRP
has been used in structural alterations. Columns have been strengthened in several multi-storey car-parks by wrapping with
carbon fibre sheet.

Several major highway bridges and a large number of small bridges have been strengthened using FRPs to increase their load
capacity. Most applications have been on soffits but some bridges have had FRP bonded to the upper surface or around the
columns. Other strengthening applications in the UK include lighthouses and cooling towers. Elsewhere in the world almost
every type of concrete structure, from chimneys to tunnels, has been strengthened.

Design approach

Fibre composites have a straight-line stress–strain response to ultimate with no yielding. Thus elastic methods of analysis
with no redistribution are appropriate. For members in bending, the traditional design assumptions are still valid. However,
further checks are required to avoid peeling failure at the ends of the laminate and debonding from the concrete. If failure
occurs, it will be in the outer layer of the concrete; the proposed, conservative, approach is to limit the longitudinal shear
stress in the concrete at ultimate to 0.8N/mm2. To minimise the risk of debonding, the strain in the FRP should not exceed
0.8% when the applied load is uniformly distributed and 0.6% if combined high shear forces and bending moments are pres-
ent. A minimum anchorage length of 500mm is recommended.

xi
 FRP strips may be used to strengthen members in shear. The material may be treated as an external stirrup, again using tradi-
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tional design assumptions but the strain in the FRP should be limited to 0.4%.

Wrapping circular columns with FRP increases the axial load capacity as well as the bending and shear capacities. (Only lim-
ited increases are possible with square and rectangular columns.) Approaches are given which relate the enhanced ultimate
stress and strain in the concrete to the degree of confinement.

Workmanship and installation

The installation of FRP materials must carried out correctly, to ensure good long-term performance. Detailed guidance is
given, including the selection of the appropriate material and adhesive, adequate preparation of the concrete surface, applica-
tion of the composite and correct curing of the adhesive. It is important that the work is carried out by a suitably qualified
contractor with suitably trained staff.

Inspection and maintenance

As strengthening with FRPs is a relatively new technique, regular inspection and maintenance regimes should be set up. This
is particularly important for buildings which, unlike bridges, are not generally subject to any form of routine inspection.
Where practical, additional material should be installed, which can be removed at a later stage for testing. Information on the
materials used, along with information on the actions to be taken in the event of damage to the FRP, should be included in the
Health and Safety File.

Changes and additions in the Second Edition of TR55

Since the publication of the First Edition of TR55 in December 2000 materials and techniques have developed rapidly, along
with the range of applications. Hence it was thought necessary to produce this Second Edition of TR55. A number of the
changes are matters of detail, brought about by additional research findings and further experience of the use of the materials.
However, significant changes or additions have been made in some areas, including:

• modification of the treatment of partial safety factors in the design process; factors are now applied to the FRP strains rather
than the stresses
• extreme loadings
• design of members in shear, to provide a less empirical approach, allowing wider and more confident application of the
technique
• column design, to provide a more unified approach for axial and combined axial and flexural strengthening; a more detailed
approach has been developed for the strengthening of rectangular columns
• design guidance for the new technique of near-surface-mounted (NSM) reinforcement.

In addition, an overview of emerging technologies, such as the use of prestressed composites, mechanical anchorage systems
and alternatives to the adhesives currently used, has been included.

xii
 1 INTRODUCTION
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Fibre composites have been successfully used for many

years in the aerospace and automotive industries. They are
also used in construction, for example, for structural
elements, particularly in aggressive environments such as
chemical plants, and for cladding. This Report does not
consider such applications but deals only with a relatively
recent development, the strengthening of concrete structures
with fibre composite materials bonded on or near the
surface.

There are a number of situations where the load-carrying

capacity of a structure in service may need to be increased,
such as change of loading or use, or where the structure has
been damaged. In the past, strength would be increased by
casting additional reinforced concrete or dowelling in
Figure 1: Different types of structural strengthening, applied
additional reinforcement. The technique of strengthening
to beams, slabs, walls and columns.
concrete structures by bonding steel plates to the surface of
the tension zone with adhesives and bolts was developed in
Flexural strengthening can be achieved by bonding pul-
the 1960s. Since about the late-1980s the use of fibre-
truded strips or rods into slots cut in the cover region of the
reinforced polymers (generally known as FRPs) in this
concrete. This application is termed Near-Surface-Mounted
application has been developing rapidly.
(NSM) reinforcement, and has benefits where the exposed
concrete surface is to be trafficked or otherwise exposed to
Initial applications were with FRP plates, generally
potential damage. In the UK this technique has been applied
containing carbon fibres. They have many advantages over
to car park decks, and overseas to jetties and dock-side
steel plates in this application and they can be used in
structures that are subjected to loads from the movement of
situations where it would be impossible or impractical to use
shipping containers. The technique is also applicable where
steel: for instance, they can be formed in place into
the surface of the concrete is undulating, or if there is
complicated shapes. Fibre-reinforced polymers are lighter in
excessive laitance or a thin layer of poor quality concrete
weight than steel plates of equivalent strength. This makes
near the surface. Installation is more costly than for
installation much simpler and quicker and eliminates the
externally bonded reinforcement, due to the need to cut the
need for temporary support for the plates in most
slots and a slightly more complicated method for surface
circumstances while the adhesive gains strength. Fibre-
preparation. Usually the technique would only be used where
reinforced polymers can also be easily cut to length on site.
externally bonded reinforcement is not a good technical
solution.
Some types of fibre are also available in the form of fabrics,
which can be bonded to the concrete surface. The chief
An appreciable number of structures in the UK and
advantage of fabrics over plates is that they can be wrapped
elsewhere have been strengthened using FRP materials and
round curved surfaces, for example around columns or
the rate at which the technique is being used is increasing
completely surrounding the sides and soffits of beams.
rapidly. It is estimated that several hundred structures have
been strengthened in the UK to date, with the amounts of
A sketch showing a wide range of strengthening applications
fibre composite material involved ranging from a few metres
to a hypothetical structure is shown in Figure 1. Clearly not
(or m2) for a small job to several kilometres on a major one.
all structures are suitable for strengthening using fibre
composites. A major limitation will be when the concrete
There was little independent guidance on how the design of
strength is low or where there are ongoing corrosion or other
strengthening works should be carried out until the First
durability problems. The amount of strengthening that can
Edition of Technical Report 55 was published in December
be applied will often be limited by failure being induced
elsewhere in the structure. 2000(1). Subsequently, guidance documents have been

1
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

published in various countries, including the USA(2) and • Design guidance for the new technique of NSM rein-
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Canada(3). In addition, the Canadian Standards Association forcement

has published the first national code for strengthening with • Overview of emerging technologies, such as the use of
FRP(4). Following the publication of TR55, the Concrete prestressed composites, mechanical anchorage systems
Society published Technical Report 57, Strengthening and alternatives to the adhesives currently used.
concrete structures using fibre composite materials: accep-
tance, inspection and monitoring(5) in 2003, which covers The guidance in this Report is not specific to any particular
the vitally important topics of inspection and maintenance. type of FRP material or any particular strengthening
technique. It covers the use both of manufactured composite
Materials and techniques are developing rapidly, as is the materials bonded on or near the concrete surface and compo-
range of applications. Hence it was thought necessary to sites formed in situ on the surface.
produce this Second Edition of TR55. A number of the
changes are matters of detail, brought about by additional The Report deals mainly with the design of strengthened
research findings and further experience of the use of the members, i.e. beams, slabs and columns. Other aspects, such
materials. However, significant changes or additions have as currently available materials, appropriate application
been made in some areas, as follows: techniques and current uses, are described. It is intended to
cover the principles involved, not the detailed approaches
• Material and system selection guidance that are applicable to individual materials and techniques.
• The treatment of partial safety factors in the design process Further details of material properties and techniques can be
has been modified; factors are now applied to the FRP obtained from materials suppliers and from specialist
strains rather than the stresses designers and contractors. The important topics of inspection
• Extreme loadings and maintenance are covered briefly in this Report; more
• A more systematic and comprehensive approach to separa- detailed coverage is given in Concrete Society Technical
tion failure Report 57(5), which should be read in parallel with this
• Design of members in flexure, to give a more rational Report; reference is made to specific parts of Technical
approach that is closer to that used for reinforced concrete Report 57 (abbreviated to TR57) where appropriate.
• Design of members in shear, to provide a less empirical
approach, allowing wider and more confident application The Report is specifically concerned with strengthening
of the technique concrete structures. Fibre composites have been successfully
• Column design, to provide a more unified approach for used to strengthen metallic(6) and other structures. The basic
axial and combined axial and flexural strengthening. A principles of this Report will still be applicable but the
more detailed approach has been developed for the detailed design recommendations will not apply.
strengthening of rectangular columns
• Flow charts for flexure, separation, shear and column To help readers unfamiliar with composites, a glossary of
design terms is given in Appendix A.

2
 2 BACKGROUND
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2.1 PRINCIPLES OF STRENGTHENING 2.2 ASSESSMENT OF STRUCTURES TO

BE STRENGTHENED
A concrete structure may need strengthening for many
reasons. Examples are: The decision to strengthen a structure will come at the end of
what may be a prolonged assessment process. This is illus-
• To increase live-load capacity, e.g. of a bridge subject to trated, in outline only, in Figure 2. The process is indepen-
increased vehicle loads or a building, the use of which is dent of structure type and should be based on rigorous
to change from residential to commercial criteria and sound engineering judgement. The assessment
• To add reinforcement to a member that has been under- process will usually involve some investigation of the condi-
designed or wrongly constructed tion of the structure or some re-analysis and study of the back-
• To improve seismic resistance, either by providing more ground issues. Guidance may be obtained from documents
confinement to increase the strain capacity of the concrete, such as Concrete Society Technical Report 54 Diagnosis of
or by improving continuity between members deterioration in concrete structures(7) and the Institution of
• To replace or supplement reinforcement, e.g. damaged by Structural Engineers’ Appraisal of existing structures(8). In
impact or lost due to corrosion. (This will only be prac- all cases an experienced engineer should be part of the assess-
tical if the cause of the damage is identified and treated.) ment team. The process will usually be aimed at providing
• To improve continuity, e.g. across joints between precast answers to some or all of the following questions:
members
• To provide replacement reinforcement following structural • Has the condition or load-carrying capacity of the struc-
alterations, e.g. around holes cut through floor slabs for ture decreased significantly?
lift or stair installation or through walls to accommodate • Has the loading changed significantly?
new services. • Is the concrete of adequate quality and strength to make
strengthening a feasible option? This applies to the struc-
In most cases it is only practical to increase the live-load ture overall and not just to the surface or surfaces to
capacity of a structure. However, in some situations it may be which the FRP is to be bonded. It is suggested that the
possible to relieve dead load, by jacking and propping, prior
minimum concrete strength should be 20N/mm2 with a
to the application of the additional reinforcement. In these
pull-off strength of the surface in the zone to be
cases, the additional reinforcement will play its part in carry-
strengthened 1.5N/mm2.
ing the structure’s dead load. Prestressing techniques using
• What are the risks to the public, to commerce and to the
composite materials are being developed that will also help
structure of taking no action?
to carry part of the dead load. This approach is discussed
• What are the cost implications of strengthening, including
although not covered in detail in the design sections of this
direct costs, future costs and the cost of disruption while
Report.
the work is carried out?
• What are the cost implications of demolition and rebuild-
Three basic principles underlie the strengthening of concrete
ing, including direct costs, future costs, costs associated
structures using fibre composite materials, which are the same
with loss of use of the structure and disruption while the
irrespective of the type of structure:
work is carried out?
• What is the anticipated future life of the structure in its
• Increase the bending moment capacity of beams and slabs
present form?
by adding fibre composite materials to the tensile face
• Will inspection and maintenance be possible?
• Increase the shear capacity of beams by adding fibre
• How would strengthening works affect local infrastruc-
composite materials to the sides in the shear tensile zone
ture, commerce, safety and the environment?
• Increase the axial and shear capacity of columns by
• Are any political issues involved?
wrapping fibre composite materials around the perimeter.
• What is the age of the structure and is it of historical
importance?
These forms of strengthening can be used to increase the
• What parties and authorities would be required to approve
seismic performance of structures and also to enhance the
the works?
performance of joints between members.
• Are there any programming or funding constraints?

3
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
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Figure 2: Flow chart of assessment process.

By addressing these issues, decisions about the appropriate 2.3 STRENGTHENING SOLUTIONS
action for a particular structure can be made. In some cases
strengthening will not be a sensible option, unless remedial Strengthening solutions considered in a feasibility study can
work is carried out first. Examples are structures with signi- range from repair of a damaged structure in order to restore
ficant materials problems, such as high chloride content its original strength to adding elements to increase its capacity.
leading to severe reinforcement corrosion. In general it will
not be appropriate to strengthen a deteriorated structure All solutions are, to a greater or lesser extent, project-specific
unless the cause of the deterioration (e.g. chloride ingress) but some general approaches are commonly used. Repair typi-
has been addressed and, where possible, mitigated. cally involves crack injection and/or breaking out damaged
areas and reinstating with cementitious repair mortars or flow-
Once it has been decided that strengthening is a realistic ing concrete. As stated above, this approach is used where
option and that the structure is suitable for strengthening, the the aim is to restore the original strength of a structure.
next step is to identify an appropriate strengthening scheme.
The feasibility study should include consideration of the The most common traditional techniques for strengthening
points listed above in relation to possible schemes, such are as follows:
issues as whole-life costs of the various options and careful
assessment of the residual life and strength of the structure. • Increase the reinforced concrete cross-section. Approval
The risks associated with each option should be assessed authorities and owners of structures usually readily
during the feasibility study. This assessment should compare accept this solution as it has a proven track record.
the possible higher risks associated with new techniques However, loading restrictions are required while the con-
with little history of long-term performance to those of older, crete cures to an acceptable strength. This restriction may
tried and tested methods. However, the benefits of newer be critical in some instances – for example where a bridge
techniques can outweigh this perceived disadvantage: the closure would lead to unacceptable disruption.
risks associated with premature failure are low if • Add prestressing to relieve dead load. Like increasing the
strengthening is to be provided only for the live-load case. cross-section, this technique has a proven track record

4
 Background

and gains ready acceptance. Loading restrictions may be The lower weight makes handling and installation signifi-
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

required during installation, which may not be accep- cantly easier than steel. This is particularly important when
table. This technique requires the existing structure to be installing material in cramped locations. Figure 3 shows
capable of withstanding high local prestressing forces. carbon fibre plates being installed in a culvert with limited
• Use plate bonding to enhance tensile reinforcement of headroom.
elements. Steel plate bonding has been widely used and
can be considered to have a proven track record. Design
guidance is given in the Highways Agency Advice Note
BA 30/94(9). Disadvantages of the technique are the weight
and difficulty of handling the plates, difficulty in cutting
to shape, the need to apply and maintain corrosion protec-
tion and to anchor the plates to the concrete section while
avoiding damage to embedded reinforcement. As discus-
sed above, access and installation times may be critical
issues in some locations.
• Add material to provide confinement of the concrete in
compression members. This can be achieved by installing
in situ reinforced concrete or prefabricated steel collars
or wrapping the element with resin-bonded fibre compo-
site material. The use of collars is the most common
technique where space permits. The technique tends to be
readily accepted as the increase in the cross-section can
be clearly seen. With in situ reinforced concrete collars,
loading restrictions on the structure are required while
the concrete gains strength. Figure 3: Installing fibre composite plates in a culvert.
• Shear strengthening. This can be achieved by installing
external steel straps to beams. Work on soffits of bridges and building floor slabs can often
be carried out from man-access platforms rather than full
Fibre composite strengthening is seen as a viable alternative scaffolding. Steel plate requires heavy lifting gear and must
to some of these traditional methods. Fibre composite plate be held in place while the adhesive gains strength. Bolts
bonding is being used widely in place of steel plate bonding must be fitted through the steel plate into the parent concrete
because of the speed and ease of installation and the ease to support the plate while the adhesive cures and to reduce
with which the material can be cut to shape and bent to fit the effects of peeling at the ends. When applying FRP plate
slightly curved surfaces. As the technique is relatively new, or sheet material pressure is applied to the surface using a
a proven long-term track record does not exist and this is roller to remove entrapped air and excess adhesive. It may be
seen by some as a disadvantage. However, the basic tech- left unsupported. In general, no bolts are required; in fact,
nique and the adhesives are similar to those used for steel the majority of FRP strengthening material is uniaxial (that
plates, which have been widely and successfully applied. is all the fibres are aligned in one direction) and the use of
Fibre composites are particularly attractive in locations where bolts would seriously weaken the material unless additional
space does not allow a significant increase in cross-section cover plates are bonded on or the plates are designed with a
or where the installation time is critical. Columns can be proportion of fibres in the transverse direction. Furthermore,
strengthened by wrapping with fibre composite material, to because there is no need to drill into the structure to fix bolts
increase their axial capacity and their resistance to bending or other mechanical anchors there is no risk of damaging the
and shear. Overall the advantages of fibre composites tend to existing reinforcement. Fibre composite materials are avail-
outweigh the perceived disadvantage of a lack of track record able in very long lengths while steel plate is generally limited
and the reluctance of some approval authorities and owners to 6m. The availability of long lengths and the flexibility of
of structures to adopt new materials. the material (see Figure 4) also simplify installation:

2.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES • Laps and joints are not required.
• Within limits, the material can take up irregularities in
OF FIBRE COMPOSITE the shape of the concrete surface.
STRENGTHENING • The material can follow a curved profile; steel plate
would have to be prebent to the required radius.
2.4.1 Advantages • The material can be readily installed behind existing
services (see Figure 5).
Fibre composite strengthening materials have higher ultimate • Overlapping, required when strengthening in two
strength and lower density than steel. When taken together directions, is not a problem because the material is thin
these two properties lead to fibre composites having a (see Figure 6), but care must be taken with the applica-
strength–weight ratio significantly higher than steel plate in tion process in the region of the overlaps.
some cases, though it is generally not possible to use this fully.

5
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

In terms of environmental impact and sustainability, studies

Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

have shown that the energy required to produce FRP materials

is less than that for conventional materials. Because of their
light weight, the transport of FRP materials has minimal
environmental impact.

These various factors in combination lead to a significantly

simpler and quicker strengthening process than when using
steel plate. This is particularly important for bridges because
of the high costs of lane closures and possession times on
major highways and railway lines. It has been estimated that
about 90% of the market for plate strengthening in Switzer-
Figure 4: Installing FRP plate, showing the flexibility of the land has been taken by carbon plate systems as a result of
material. these factors.

2.4.2 Disadvantages

The main disadvantage of externally strengthening structures

with fibre composite materials is the risk of fire, vandalism
or accidental damage, unless the strengthening is protected.
A particular concern for bridges over roads is the risk of soffit
reinforcement being hit by over-height vehicles (‘bridge
bashing’). However, strengthening using plates is generally
provided to carry additional live load and the ability of the
unstrengthened structure to carry its own self-weight is un-
impaired (see also Section 2.7). Damage to the plate strength-
Figure 5: FRP plate installed behind existing services. ening material only reduces the overall factor of safety and
is unlikely to lead to collapse. An additional cause of damage
is that from following trades, such as drilling through FRP to
fix brackets, etc.

As detailed later, workmanship is critical to the success of a

fibre composite strengthening scheme. Thus a further cause
for concern is the difficulty of ensuring that the work is
carried out correctly. In the UK a certification scheme for
operatives and supervisors involved with strengthening has
been proposed and is currently being developed by TWI.

Problems with the adhesive layer will not generally be

visible from the surface. Similarly, it is difficult to assess the
presence of voids in wet lay-up systems and thus there is
uncertainty as to the properties that have been achieved.

Currently the properties of materials used in FRP strength-

ening schemes are not covered by British or International
Standards. However, the ‘Classification and Assessment of
Composite Materials Systems for use in the Civil Infrastruc-
ture’ project, being led by Oxford Brookes University, is
Figure 6: Overlapped carbon FRP plates on Dudley Port developing a classification scheme for adhesives and lamin-
Bridge, West Midlands. ating resins. Further information may be obtained from the
web site (www.compclass.org). In addition the British Board
The materials – fibres and resins – are durable if correctly of Agrément is developing approval for certain types of
specified, and require little maintenance. If they are damaged strengthening materials used in bridges under the Highways
in service, it is relatively simple to repair them, by adding an Authorities Product Approval Scheme (HAPAS).
additional layer.
Experience of the long-term durability of fibre composites is
The use of fibre composites does not significantly increase limited, though some installations have been in service for
the weight of the structure or the dimensions of the member. 13 years. This may be a disadvantage for structures for which
The latter may be particularly important for bridges and other
structures with limited headroom, and for tunnels.

6
 Background

a very long design life is required (see Section 2.5) but can 2.6 ECONOMICS
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be overcome by appropriate monitoring (see Chapter 11) and

as detailed in TR57(5). 2.6.1 Installation

A perceived disadvantage of using FRP for strengthening is The relative economics of the use of fibre composites and
the relatively high cost of the materials. However, compari- other strengthening systems depend on the circumstances.
sons should be made on the basis of the complete strength- Many factors are involved, and it is necessary to compare
ening exercise (see Section 2.6) taking into account ‘hidden’ costs both in the short and long term. The latter may be
costs such as delays and disruptions to the users of the difficult to quantify as the life-time behaviour can only be
structure. Installation can require large areas of the concrete estimated fairly crudely. In many cases the alternative may
surface to be prepared, particularly with fabrics, which can be demolition and replacement of the structure, with the
be labour-intensive. consequent disruption.

A disadvantage in the eyes of many clients will be the lack Factors such as the cost of access and possession time should
of experience of the techniques and suitably qualified staff to be taken into account as they can have a significant influence.
carry out the work, but this can be overcome by using High closure costs are often incurred by highway and rail-
suitably qualified designers and contractors. way works. These will vary significantly depending on a
range of factors, including the location, the season and the
2.5 DESIGN LIFE time of day. However, they will not take into account the
social costs of disruption. As an example, upgrading of a
The Highways Agency document BD 84/02, Strengthening major highway in New York City had to be carried out at
of concrete bridge supports for vehicle impact using fibre night as there was a requirement for the road to be fully open
reinforced polymers(10), uses 30 years for the design life of a during the day. The penalty for failure to reopen the carriage-
fibre composite strengthening system. This figure is consi- way in the morning was $30,000 per hour, with a penalty of
dered reasonable, based on current experience of the adhe- $20,000 per day for overrun of the complete project(12).
sives used in steel plate bonding. There is considerable
experience of the use of adhesives in other applications, such Studies carried out for Railtrack (now Network Rail) have
as marine structures, which would suggest a design life of at indicated that strengthening with FRP materials will be
least 40 years. Fibre composite structures such as the West approximately 30% cheaper than the equivalent strengthening
Mill Bridge(11) have been designed for significantly longer using steel plate. The use of FRP for column strengthening
lives. on one UK highway bridge halved the cost, as well as short-
ening the contract duration and significantly reducing the
Ideally, the design life for the strengthening system should need for lane closures.
be related to the remaining life of the structure and should
take into account the future plans for the structure. In many Loss of revenue can be significant when a structure is under-
cases, if a mature structure is to be strengthened, a 30-year strength and hence cannot be used to its full capacity. It was
life for a strengthening system may well be appropriate. reported that the Trenchard Street car park in Bristol was
However, this may not be the case for structures with long losing £1M per year in lost sales prior to strengthening.
design lives, such as bridges and nuclear structures. Here, it
may be necessary to accept a strengthening system with a In Florida, the beam–column connections in a parking garage
design life less than the anticipated remaining life of the struc- were strengthened by bonding carbon fibre sheet material to
ture, on the understanding that the life of the strengthening the sides of the beams(13). It was estimated that the adhesively
system will be reassessed at a future date. bonded repair was 35% cheaper than the conventional
method, which would have involved dowelling in additional
Because of the relative lack of long-term experience of the steel reinforcement and encasing the joint with additional
performance of fibre composite strengthening systems, concrete.
regular inspection and maintenance regimes should be
instigated (see Chapter 5 of TR57). This is particularly In Edmonton, Canada, carbon fibre reinforced polymer com-
important for buildings, which, unlike bridges, are not posite sheet material was applied to the soffits and sides of a
generally subjected to any form of routine inspection. Where bridge, to improve its shear resistance(14). The cost was
practical, additional material should be installed, which can reported as $70,500 for strengthening the complete bridge. A
be removed at a later stage for testing. This approach has conventional external stirrup system was estimated to cost
been adopted on a number of structures including the Barnes some $100,000. Thus the bonded solution showed approxi-
Bridge in Manchester and the John Hart Bridge in British mately 30% saving in costs, due chiefly to the fact that the
Columbia (see Section 4.3). It may be possible to incorpo- work was carried out from below the bridge and avoided the
rate some form of monitoring system in the fibre composite. traffic closures that would have been required for the
conventional system.

7
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

Beams of the Maryland Street Bridge in Winnipeg, Canada, • deterioration processes as they relate to the particular
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

were strengthened with vertical and horizontal sheets of structure or different parts of the structure
carbon fibre to increase the shear capacity. It was estimated • repair and strengthening methods and their durability
that the cost was about 70% of the conventional approach, • costs of repair or strengthening and maintenance activities
which would have involved removing parts of the bridge • indirect costs due to loss of service
deck, installing post-tensioned external shear stirrups and • the owner’s requirements for the serviceability and service
casting additional concrete round the beams. This compari- life of the structure.
son was on the basis of direct costs and did not consider
factors such as traffic delays. In many cases, the basic data to permit reasonable assess-
ments of the various elements that make up the whole-life
A 30-year-old processing tower in Qatar was strengthened cost are not available. Nonetheless, it can be appreciated that
with 3500m of carbon FRP plate. Several options were con- strengthening using fibre composites can be competitive in
sidered but the material was chosen because of the speed of whole-life cost comparisons because both installation and
installation. The plant was shut down for 25 days to allow the maintenance costs are usually lower than those of competing
work to be undertaken, but the contract was actually comple- techniques and possession times are shorter.
ted in 20 days. This enabled production to restart earlier than
planned, which was clearly of great benefit to the operators Prolonging the useful life of structures that will still be
of the plant(15). required for a long time into the future (e.g. road or rail
bridges) becomes an attractive proposition in whole-life cost
Hooks and Cooper(16) give two examples of significant cost terms. This is because, if replacement can be delayed for
savings. The crossheads of a 1950s bridge in New York were many years, the cost at present day value is considerably
strengthened in flexure and shear using carbon FRP plates, at reduced. For example, if a discount rate of 8% is assumed, a
a cost of $18,000. It was estimated that conventional repair cost of £1,000,000 at year 20 has a present day value of only
would have cost $150,000. Concrete box beams in Kentucky £200,000. It can be more economic, in whole-life cost terms,
were strengthened at a cost of $105,000, when replacement to strengthen now and replace in 20 years, than to replace now.
of the structure would have cost $450,000.
One factor which is difficult to take into account in whole-
Some economic considerations for particular applications are life costing is the time until the structure becomes obsolete.
reported in later chapters. Unfortunately, the information is This may happen for physical, economic, functional, techno-
largely qualitative, but can be used for guidance when investi- logical, social or legal reasons. This uncertainty can lead to
gating the economics of a situation. the lowest initial cost option being favoured on the basis that
there is little to be gained from additional spending now, if
2.6.2 Whole-life costing the structure is unlikely to be required in its present form in
ten years.
The technique of whole-life costing can play an important part
in making decisions on when and how to repair or strengthen 2.7 LEVEL OF STRENGTHENING
concrete structures. This is recognised in BS EN 1504 Part
9(17), which lists among the factors to be considered when A key factor in the choice of strengthening system will be the
choosing between repair options: level of strengthening (i.e. the maximum increase in load
capacity) that can be achieved. Strengthening against one
• The number and cost of repair cycles acceptable during mode of failure (e.g. bending) may increase the probability
the design life of the concrete structure of occurrence of another mode (e.g. shear). This must be
• The cost and funding of the alternative protection or repair considered in the design process. In addition, the design must
options, including future maintenance and access costs. explicitly consider the risks associated with any possible
partial or complete failure of the strengthening, due for
The whole-life cost of a repair or strengthening solution is example to fire, vandalism or accidental damage. Because of
the sum of the initial (installation) cost and the future the lack of long-term experience of fibre composite strength-
(maintenance) costs over the remaining life of the structure. ening, some clients are recommending that the approach
To permit meaningful comparisons to be made, future costs should only be used to increase the factor of safety against
are discounted to present day value. To carry out a life-cycle collapse. In other words, failure of the composite will not
cost analysis requires an understanding of: lead to the collapse of the structure.

8
 3 MATERIAL TYPES AND PROPERTIES
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3.1 INTRODUCTION for the plain fibres alone, not woven fabrics nor for the resul-
ting fibre composites. The strength and modulus for manufac-
Fibre composites are formed from high performance fibres tured composites will be significantly lower (see Sections
combined with an appropriate resin. Epoxies are generally 3.4 and 3.6). The values in Table 1 should only be taken as
used, but some development has been carried out on inorganic indicative; where necessary, actual values should be obtained
cement-based matrices(18). For strengthening applications, from the manufacturer. The fibres all have a linear elastic
the composite may be preformed into plates or panels and response up to ultimate load, with no significant yielding.
bonded to the concrete. The most common example is Details of some available materials are given in Table B1 of
composite plates bonded to the soffits of beams or slabs. Appendix B.
Alternatively, the fibres may be combined with the resin in
situ as part of the application process, such as in the wrap- 3.2.2 Performance of different types of fibre
ping of columns. The mechanical properties of fibre compo-
sites are chiefly controlled by the type, amount, orientation The selection of the type of fibre to use in a particular
and distribution of fibres in the cross-section. The role of the application will depend on many factors – the type of struc-
resin is to transfer stresses to and from the fibres and also to ture, the expected loading, the environmental conditions, and
provide some protection from the environment. This Chapter so on. Some information is given in this section; further
provides a general introduction to the fibres and resins used advice can be obtained from the suppliers of strengthening
for strengthening. For further information on the properties materials. Throughout, the comments refer to the performance
and behaviour of composites, the reader should consult of the fibre itself; in most situations this will be modified by
standard textbooks, such as An introduction to composite the resin or adhesive.
materials(19) and Composite materials: engineering and
Chemical resistance
science(20).
Carbon and aramid fibres are resistant to most forms of
3.2 FIBRES chemical attack. Many types of glass fibre, including the
widely used E glass, are attacked by alkalies (pH greater than
3.2.1 Types of fibre about 11) but not by acids. Alkali-resistant (AR) glass fibres
are specially formulated for use in highly alkaline environ-
The most suitable fibres for strengthening applications are ments and are therefore suitable for strengthening concrete
glass, carbon or aramid. (Aramids are better known by the structures. Aramids absorb much more water than either of
trade names Kevlar® and Twaron.) Each is a family of fibre the other two fibres, which can cause problems with the
types in general, with individual fibre types within the fami- resin–fibre interface. There is some evidence to suggest that,
lies that may vary. Typical values for the properties of fibres in the presence of salts, fracture of all types of fibre can occur
are given in Table 1. It should be noted that these values are due to the formation of angular crystals.

Table 1: Typical dry fibre properties.

Tensile strength Modulus of elasticity

Fibre Elongation (%) Specific density
(N/mm2) (kN/mm2)
Carbon: high strength* 4300–4900 230–240 1.9–2.1 1.8
Carbon: high modulus* 2740–5490 294–329 0.7–1.9 1.78–1.81
Carbon: ultra high modulus† 2600–4020 540–640 0.4–0.8 1.91–2.12
Aramid: high strength and high modulus‡ 3200–3600 124–130 2.4 1.44
Glass 2400–3500 70–85 3.5–4.7 2.6
* Based on polyacryonitrile precursor
† Based on pitch precursor
‡ Aramids with the same strength but a lower modulus are available but are not used in structural strengthening applications.

9
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

Resistance to ultraviolet light Stiffness

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Glass and carbon fibres are not affected by ultraviolet light. The elastic modulus of carbon fibre is similar to, or signifi-
Aramid fibres change colour under ultraviolet light and the cantly greater than, that of steel. The stiffness of aramid is
strength is reduced. However, when embedded in a resin lower and that of glass significantly lower.
matrix this degradation only occurs near the outer surface
and there is little effect on the overall mechanical properties. Impact resistance
(Direct exposure to sunlight can embrittle all resins and a
protective paint is normally recommended if direct exposure Performance of fibres during impact is highly dependent on
is likely.) the elastic strain energy generated and absorbed. Fibres com-
bining high strength with high elongation (tensile strength
Electrical conductivity greater than 3,500N/mm2 and elongation greater than 2%)
are most suitable for applications where impact resistance is
Aramid and glass fibres are non-conducting and hence are important. Selected grades of carbon, aramid and glass fibre
suitable for use close to power lines, electrified railway lines can meet these requirements.
and communications facilities. As carbon fibres conduct elec-
tricity they should be electrically isolated from any steel to Fire
prevent the establishment of a galvanic cell. In general the
resin will be sufficient for this, but where there is a particular Glass fibres retain strength up to their melting point (over
risk it is recommended that a glass fibre sheet be additionally 1000°C) while carbon fibres oxidise in air above 650°C.
included as the outermost layer of the FRP strengthening Aramid fibres are not normally used above 200°C. None of
system. the fibres will support combustion. In composites, the resin
behaviour will dominate performance; most generate toxic
Designers should also be alert to the possibility of carbon smoke. Several composite systems have coatings that can
fibres within an FRP attracting induced currents when placed provide protection.
close to an AC electricity supply. While no experimental
work appears to have been carried out in this area, it is theor- 3.3 FABRICS
etically possible that induced currents within a carbon FRP
could lead to unacceptable heating of an ambient cure adhe- Fabrics are available in two basic forms:
sive as it has been shown that the conducting properties of
carbon fibre can be used to pass an electric current to achieve • Sheet material. The fibres are generally in a unidirec-
a higher adhesive cure temperature. tional arrangement, though biaxial and triaxial arrange-
ments are available. They may be on a removable backing
For UK railway applications it is a requirement that any sheet or in the form of a woven or stitched cloth.
conducting material that could become live due to induced • Prepreg material. This consists of fibres preimpregnated
currents or short circuits from traction power sources must be with resin, which is cured once in place, by the application
electrically connected to the return conductor. For metallic of heat or by other means.
structures this is normally achieved by attaching an electrical
bond between the return conductor and the structure. Due to The selection of the appropriate form of fabric will depend on
the distributed nature of carbon fibres within the adhesive the application.
matrix of a carbon FRP it is virtually impossible to guarantee
that every single fibre can be connected to the return con- The properties of the sheet materials depend on the amount
ductor by an electrical bond. Hence Network Rail will only and type of fibre used. An additional consideration is the
permit the use of aramid FRP in close proximity to its AC arrangement of the fibres; parallel lay gives unidirectional
overhead electrification systems; however, carbon FRP is properties while a woven fabric has bidirectional properties.
permitted where DC electrification systems are present. In woven fabrics, perhaps 70% of the fibres are in the ‘strong’
direction and 30% in the transverse direction. It should be
Care is needed when handling or cutting carbon FRP close to noted that the kinking of the fibres in the woven material
electrical equipment due to the risk of short-circuit by air- significantly reduces the strength and stiffness. In addition
borne particles (see Section 3.9). In addition, when used close some fabrics are formed with equal amounts of fibres in two
to power lines etc., steps must be taken to ensure that, in the directions, at ±45° to the longitudinal axis.
unlikely event of adhesive failure, the composite does not
come into contact with the electrical source. The thickness of the material will depend on the type and
arrangement of the fibre. Fabrics are available in various
Compressive strength widths to suit the particular application. The sizes and proper-
ties of some available materials are given in Table B2 of
The compressive strengths of carbon and glass fibres are close Appendix B.
to their tensile strengths; that of aramid is significantly lower.

10
 Material types and properties

3.4 PLATES can be produced, with the width and thickness being tailored
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to the particular application. Widths up to 1.25m have been

Unidirectional plates are usually formed by the pultrusion produced and thicknesses up to 30mm. Other forms of manu-
process. Fibres, in the form of continuous rovings, are drawn facture, such as resin infusion, are sometimes used but these
off in a carefully controlled pattern through a resin bath, are generally less attractive commercially.
which impregnates the fibre bundle. They are then pulled
through a die, which consolidates the fibre–resin combina-
tion and forms the required shape. The die is heated which
sets and cures the resin, allowing the completed composite to
be drawn off by reciprocating clamps or a tension device.
The process enables a high proportion of fibres (generally
about 65%) to be incorporated in the cross-section. Hence, in
the longitudinal direction, relatively high strength and stiff-
ness are achieved, approximately 65% of the relevant figures
in Table 1. Because most of, if not all, the fibres are in the
longitudinal direction, the transverse strength will be very low.

Plates formed by pultrusion are 1–4mm thick and are

supplied in a variety of widths, typically between 50 and
150mm. The sizes and properties of some available plates
are given in Table B3 of Appendix B. (It should be noted
that, while plate properties and dimensions of plates can be
tailored to suit the particular application, it will generally be
more economical to use stock sizes.) Carbon is the most
widely used fibre though glass is used in some applications.
As pultrusion is a continuous process, very long lengths of
Figure 8: Cutting carbon FRP plate on site.
material are available. Thinner material is provided in the
form of a coil, with a diameter of about 1m, as shown in
Figure 7. It can be easily cut to length on site using a simple
3.5 RODS AND STRIPS FOR NEAR-
guillotine (see Figure 8). SURFACE-MOUNTED (NSM)
REINFORCEMENT

As NSM material is installed within the cover region of the

concrete, the diameter of the rod, or maximum possible
dimension of the cross-section of the strip, is limited. Most
experimentation to date has used circular bars of diameters
in the range 7–16mm, or rectangular strips of thickness less
than 2mm. Initial UK applications have used carbon FRP bar
with a circular cross-section of less than 10mm diameter.
The sizes and properties of some rods and strips are given in
Table B4 in Appendix B.

3.6 PREFORMED SHELLS FOR COLUMN

CONFINEMENT

Preformed shells have been used to strengthen columns on a

number of structures. (It should be noted that the basic
principles of strengthening columns given in Chapter 8 are
applicable, but strengthening with shells is a more complex
design process.) There have been a number of applications in
Figure 7: Coil of carbon FRP plate. North America but only one in the UK to date. For a circular
column, the most appropriate manufacturing process is
Plates can also be produced using the prepreg process, which probably filament winding. Resin-impregnated fibres are
is widely used to produce components for the aerospace and wound round a mandrel, in the pattern required to give the
automotive industries. Typically plates have a fibre volume required hoop and longitudinal properties. Once fully cured,
fraction of 55% and can incorporate 10% off-axis fibres the cylindrical shell is removed from the mandrel and cut
(usually glass aligned at an angle of 45° to the longitudinal longitudinally so that it can be bonded round the column.
axis) to improve the handling strength. Lengths up to 12m Alternatively, shells can be formed, by hand lay-up or other
processes, on the inside or outside of a suitable mould.

11
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

In general, the internal diameter of the shell should be close (usually solvent-free, two-pack materials which cure at
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to that of the external diameter of the column, to keep the ambient temperature). The properties of some available
increase in the overall diameter to a minimum. Typically, epoxy adhesives and laminating resins are given in Tables
shells are installed with a clearance of between 50 and 150mm B5 and B6 in Appendix B. Generally the adhesives should be
from the concrete surface, with the annulus later filled with procured from the same supplier as the plates or fabrics, to
an expansive grout. This will induce a permanent tensile stress ensure that the materials are compatible.
in the composite and compression in the concrete. It will be
necessary to check that the stress in the FRP is low enough The adhesives that are sometimes considered as alternatives
to avoid the risk of stress rupture. to epoxies have certain drawbacks:

The strength and stiffness of the shell in the hoop and • Polyester adhesives have high curing shrinkage, high co-
vertical directions will depend on the type and proportion of efficient of thermal expansion, can be subject to alkaline
fibres in the cross-section and on the method of manufacture hydrolysis, and are difficult to bond to when hardened.
of the composite. They will be significantly lower than the • Vinyl ester adhesives are subject to curing shrinkage, and
values in Table 1. The performance of the shell is highly the bond is badly affected by moisture.
dependent on the efficiency of the connection between the • Polyurethane adhesives have high curing shrinkage, can
component FRP units. be affected by moisture and are difficult to bond to.

Because of the cost of fabricating mandrels or moulds, this The selection of the type of epoxy to be used in a particular
approach is only likely to be cost-effective when a large application is governed by various factors, including the
number of identical columns are being strengthened, such as environment and the required speed of fabrication. Advice
in multi-span bridges or multi-storey buildings. should be obtained from the adhesive manufacturer. The adhe-
sive should be able to withstand a maximum temperature of
3.7 SPECIALS 50°C in service and generally have a glass transition tempe-
rature (Tg) between 50 and 65°C. In special circumstances,
Plates formed into an ‘L’ shape may be used as an external such as bonding FRP material to the top surface of a bridge
link to provide shear reinforcement on beams, with the lower deck which is to receive hot bituminous surfacing (see Section
leg of the ‘L’ providing the anchorage for the vertical por- 4.3.1), the adhesive may be heated significantly. This may
tion(21,22) (see Figure 9). The same type of unit could be used require an epoxy to be selected with a higher glass transition
to provide anchorage at the top of a beam, at the interface temperature but the adhesive’s performance at lower tempera-
with the slab or at beam–column connections. There have tures may then be affected. Advice should be sought from
been various applications of this type in Germany and the supplier.
Denmark but only one in the UK.
Where fire is a significant design consideration, such as in
tunnels and confined spaces, the adhesive selected should be
one that releases a minimum amount of toxic gases. Owners
may have their own standards for the approval of materials
(e.g. Fire safety performance of materials used in the Under-
ground(25)). Advice should be sought from the supplier.

Adhesives are generally specified on the basis that the

concrete surface is maintained in a dry condition during the
strengthening work and is in a normal atmospheric exposure
situation in service. Where the concrete surface cannot be
kept dry during the work or where, for example, the surface
is submerged or sometimes submerged in service, adhesives
with special properties may be required and specialist advice
should be obtained from adhesive manufacturers.

Figure 9: Shear reinforcement straps. Where it is exposed to significant ultraviolet light, protective
paints, which must be compatible with the adhesive, will
3.8 ADHESIVES AND LAMINATING generally be required to prevent the exposed epoxy resin in
RESINS a fabric system degrading. Guidance should be sought from
the supplier of the strengthening system.
General information on adhesives may be found in publica-
tions such as Adhesives in civil engineering(23) and A guide to For porous surfaces, a priming coat may be required, which
the structural use of adhesives(24). The adhesives and lamina- must be compatible with the adhesive. (It was noted earlier
ting resins most commonly used with concrete are epoxies that bonding to a honeycombed surface is not feasible.) As

12
 Material types and properties

indicated in Section 10.2, the quality of the surface should be However, there are specific instances where the use of wet
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assessed after priming by pull-off tests; tests have shown that lay-up sheets is preferred over the use of plates for flexural
correctly specified primers increase the pull-off strength by strengthening, often due to the lowering of longitudinal shear
about 10%. stress in the adhesive layer due to the sheets being thinner
than plates. In particular, one might consider the use of wet
3.9 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS AND lay-up sheets under the following circumstances:
HEALTH AND SAFETY
• high demand on longitudinal shear stress within the adhe-
3.9.1 Environmental aspects sive layer, particularly in short-span situations
• poor quality substrate material, so that longitudinal shear
capacity is low
Under CDM Regulations(26), designers in the UK must
• requirement for a special anchorage system, such as that
consider all environmental aspects, including the eventual
described in Section 9.1.2
disposal of the materials used. Aramid, glass and carbon fibres
• strengthening around a corner
are all non-toxic and inert, and are not considered to be
• transportation of discrete plates difficult
hazardous as waste. For landfill disposal, they do not contain
• shallow structure requiring low levels of strengthening
any substance that could leach out to contaminate the ground-
distributed over a large area.
water or the air. The most commonly used adhesive and
matrix materials, when fully cured, are also substantially
The working practices of the installer may dictate whether a
inert at normal ambient temperatures and so are not hazar-
plate or wet lay-up system is used. From the point of view of
dous. However, incineration of matrix and adhesive materials
the environment, plates must be wiped down with a solvent
may not be an appropriate disposal method unless special
prior to installation, whereas sheets require no such chemical
care is taken. In addition, incineration of carbon materials
preparation. On the other hand, the adhesive associated with
may release fine electrically-conductive particles into the air.
plates does not drip, whereas wet lay-up adhesive may drip.
Various approaches are being developed for recycling compo-
While quality control needs to be particularly high during
sites, mainly involving grinding the material to form a filler
installation of either plate or wet lay-up systems, it is fair to
in new composites.
say that quality control needs to be even higher for wet lay-
up in order to minimise unevenness, misalignment, lamina-
3.9.2 Health and Safety
tion defects, voids and crimping.
All fibres when encapsulated in cured matrix or adhesive
In situations where wet lay-up sheets are used to strengthen
present negligible risk to human health in normal use. How-
structures in shear, as much of the structure should be wrapped
ever, care must be taken when cutting and machining all
as possible, so that the use of sheets is preferred over that of
composites, because fine fibre particles may irritate skin,
plates under such circumstances. Such applications might
eyes and mucous membranes. In addition, care must be
mean U-wrapping a beam, for instance, rather than merely
taken when handling resins; suitable protective clothing
adhering sheets to the sides of the beam. Furthermore, in
should be worn. Reference should be made to the COSHH
such circumstances, practicality of detailing means that the
Regulations(27) and to manufacturer’s data sheets. See also
U-wrap will lead to sheets aligned vertically, rather than
Section 10.1.
inclined sheets.

3.10 CHOICE OF MATERIALS FOR 3.10.2 NSM systems

DESIGN
The following situations lend themselves to consideration of
3.10.1 Plates versus wet lay-up sheet systems NSM systems for strengthening:

Presently, in most concrete flexural strengthening projects, • The strengthened surface of the structure is trafficked or
the chosen system involves the use of carbon FRP pultruded susceptible to damage.
plates, bonded to the concrete structure through adhesive, • A thin layer of poor quality or loose concrete exists on
because: the surface to be strengthened, but the rest of the sub-
strate is of high strength.
• minor unevenness in the surface can easily be bridged by • The surface is very uneven.
the adhesive layer of a plate system • There is limited headroom (although installing NSM over-
• less surface area of concrete needs to be prepared than head can be difficult).
would be the case if wider, but thinner, wet lay-up sheets
were used Particular care should be taken to prevent damage to existing
• plates are usually easier to install than sheets reinforcing bars when cutting the required slots. It would be
• pultruded plates contain more fibres than a wet lay-up unwise to use NSM in a situation where the depth of cover
sheet of similar cross-section. was low.

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

While NSM has been proven to be practical and of real • Robustness and/or toughness of the material is a particu-
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benefit in niche applications, its relative cost against the more larly important design criteria: under such circumstances,
conventional plate or sheet systems should be considered, aramid might be considered (although a protective layer
together with the level of NSM experience in the industry, on carbon can be used, e.g. an abrasion-resistant layer on
and the availability and quality of trained NSM installers. a car park column).
• Low-level strengthening required, so that relatively low-
3.10.3 Specific composite material cost glass could be considered, placed in substantially
thicker layers than the equivalent carbon.
To date, most concrete strengthening applications involving • Wrapping of columns in the hoop direction to enhance
composites have used a carbon system, mainly due to high confinement in the event of seismic actions. Under such
installed stiffness and strength requirements. Furthermore, circumstances, glass could be considered.
such carbon systems are usually less expensive than other
systems due to less material being required, the area of sur- 3.10.4 Stiffness issues
face preparation being small and the time of installation
being short. This is also reflected in the level of worldwide When using carbon systems, it is usual to use ‘standard’
research and testing, which focuses heavily on carbon. modulus fibres. Such materials are normally adequate for the
Therefore, it seems sensible that a carbon strengthening majority of strengthening schemes. Higher stiffness
system should be considered initially because of confidence materials (usually denoted HM for ‘High Modulus’) are
and knowledge in its use, although various reasons may substantially more expensive than the equivalent standard
sway the choice towards other materials instead. Such circum- modulus materials, so that good reasons for their use are
stances where other materials (aramid or glass) should be usually required. Such reasons might include the following:
considered include the following:
• High strains cannot be induced into the carbon FRP, so
• Strengthening against blast: Du Pont has conducted much that high stiffness fibres are required.
research into the use of aramid systems for such strength- • The quantity of standard modulus carbon fibre required
ening, so that the knowledge base is high. for a particular stiffness is excessive.
• Electromagnetically inert material is required, perhaps
near to overhead electrification on railway lines or radio/ Outside the area of concrete strengthening, it is usual to
radar installations. strengthen iron and steel structures using very high-modulus
carbon FRP plates due to the otherwise large quantities of
standard-modulus carbon FRP that would be required.

14
 4 REVIEW OF APPLICATIONS
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4.1 INTRODUCTION those structures that have been described in published papers
or articles, i.e. for which information is in the public domain.
It is estimated that to date (Summer 2004), approximately Details of other projects may be found in information sheets
150 structures in the UK have been strengthened with FRP. produced by suppliers and specialist consultants. Further
Some examples are given in Tables 2 and 3, for buildings details of the structures in the tables, and others, are given in
and bridges, respectively. The tables give details of only the subsequent Sections.

Table 2: Examples of strengthening of buildings in the UK.

Location Date Details of strengthening Material Published reference

King’s College Hospital, London 1996 Soffit of slab to carry Carbon plate Parker(28), Hollaway and
additional storey Leeming(29)
Wormsley Library, Oxfordshire 1996 Soffit of slab, following Carbon plate Gold and Martin(30)
removal of load-bearing wall
Nestlé Factory, Tutbury, Staffordshire 1997 Soffits of beams Carbon plate Luke(31), Hollaway and
Leeming(29), Taylor et
al.(32)
Allders Department Stores, Croydon and 1997 Soffit of slab around Carbon plate Gold and Martin(30)
Portsmouth openings for new escalators
Nuclear power plant 1997 Walls, to resist accidental Carbon plate Garden(33)
loading
Abertillery Leisure Centre, Gwent, Wales Soffits of beams Carbon plate Luke(34)
Car park, Manchester 2002 Columns, so that two further Carbon sheet Russell & Lomax(35),
storeys could be added Russell & Modi(36)
Car park, Bristol 2002 Top surface of slabs Near-surface- Farmer(37)
mounted rods
Car park, Liverpool 2003 Top surface of slabs Near-surface- Farmer(38)
mounted rods

Table 3: Examples of strengthening of bridges in the UK.

Location Date Details of strengthening Material Published reference

Haversham Bridge, Milton Keynes 1996 Top of slab, longitudinally Carbon plate Soudain(39), Anon(40),
Luke(34), Taylor et al.(32)
Subways, Jarrow, Tyne and Wear 1996 Soffit of slab Carbon plate Hollaway and
Leeming(29)
Underpass A413 Great Missenden, Bucks 1997 Soffit of slab Carbon plate Anon(41)
Devonshire Place Bridge, Skipton, North 1997 Edge of slab Carbon plate Smith(42), Lane et al.(43),
Yorkshire Taylor et al.(32)
Bible Christian Bridge, A30 Bodmin 1998 Wrapping of columns Carbon sheet Parker(44)
Bypass, Cornwall Aramid sheet
Glass sheet
Greenbridge Subway, Swindon, Wiltshire 1998 Soffit of slab Carbon sheet Anon(45)
Glade Bridge, Leatherhead, Surrey 1998 Soffit of beams Carbon plate Farmer(46)

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

Table 3: Examples of strengthening of bridges in the UK (continued).

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Location Date Details of strengthening Material Published reference

St. Columb Gas Works Bridge, Cornwall 1998 Soffit of slab Carbon plate Anon(47)
Dudley Port Bridge, Dudley, West 1998 Soffit of slab Carbon plate Anon(40)
Midlands
River Gardens Bridge, Hounslow, 1999 Soffit of slab Carbon plate Barton(48)
Middlesex
Barnes Bridge, Manchester 1999 Soffit of slab Carbon plate Sadka(49)
Coopersale Lane Bridge, Essex 2000 Wrapping of columns Aramid fabric Denton et al.(50)
A19, Tyneside 2000 Wrapping of columns Glass-reinforced Kendall(51), Pinzelli(52)
shell
Brockley slip road, M1 2001 Upper surface of cantilever Carbon plate Luke and Canning(53)
deck
Chilthurst Bridge 2002 Soffit of slab with innovative Carbon fabric Denton(54)
anchorage
A92 Tay Road Bridge, north approach 2003 Wrapping of columns Aramid sheet Drewett(55)
viaduct
Patchway Viaduct, A38 2003 Wrapping of columns Aramid sheet Richardson(56)
Theydon Bois Viaduct 2002 Upper surface of deck at Carbon plate Luke and Canning(53)
supports
St Michael’s Road Bridge, Liverpool 2003 Soffit of slab Carbon plate Luke and Canning(53)

4.2 BUILDINGS to allow additional services to pass through. (Note that,

although this technique is widely used to strengthen slabs
4.2.1 Beams and slabs locally, no specific guidance relating to the global perfor-
mance of the slab is given in this Report. An example of the
Additional load capacity technique is shown in Figure 10.) In addition there have been
situations where the floor slab has been strengthened with
Carbon FRP plates were bonded to the soffit of the concrete carbon fibre sheet material rather than plates, such as the
trough slab which formed the roof of Normanby College, Beyer Building, Manchester University, where openings were
part of King’s College Hospital in London, to strengthen it formed for new air conditioning ducts.
sufficiently to carry an additional floor(28). It was suggested
that the conventional strengthening approach using steel
plates would not have been possible because of the problems
of inserting bolts into the soffits of the thin ribs.

Similarly the main beams supporting the floors in a factory

in Tutbury were strengthened using carbon fibre plates to
increase the flexural capacity by 30% to cater for the installa-
tion of new plant and processing equipment(32). The work was
carried out with minimum disruption to the factory operations.

Structural alterations

As part of the refurbishment of Allders Department Store in

Croydon, new escalators were required. This necessitated
cutting holes up to 10m by 6m in the 300mm-thick flat slab
and strengthening the adjacent slabs. After considering Figure 10: Strengthening around hole cut through slab.
various options, carbon fibre plate bonding was selected as it
minimised disruption to the operation of the store. The same At Wormsley Library, Oxfordshire, the installation of new
approach was used at the company’s store in Portsmouth, services required the removal of a load-bearing wall. The
where new stairwells were constructed(30). Figure 10 shows concrete slab above was strengthened with carbon fibre plate
carbon fibre plates installed around a hole cut through a slab to carry the resulting increase in dead and live loading(30).

16
 Review of applications

Some of the main beams in a car park in Cleveland, Ohio Fire damage
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required modification to increase the headroom. This required

the removal of as much as 270mm of concrete from the A number of prestressed concrete beams in a multi-storey
soffits in some areas and the installation of new prestressing car park in Orpington were damaged due to a vehicle fire.
strands. Carbon fibre NSM rods were installed in the top of Following repairs to the concrete, the beams were
the slab near the columns to help achieve the required strengthened with carbon FRP plates. After strengthening the
moment capacity(57). beams were load tested and insulation boards fitted to
provide one-hour fire protection. Similar work was under-
Due to a design error, the simply supported beams of a ware- taken at a retail premises in Portsmouth, using a combination
house in Belgium were under-strength and had insufficient of carbon FRP plate and wrapping.
bearing at the intermediate supports. To improve the perfor-
mance they were made continuous using a combination of Repair
carbon fibre sheet and steel plate(58).
The steel–concrete composite slab of a car park in Chicago
Insufficient reinforcement suffered severe corrosion damage, both to the steel decking
and the top continuity steel over the supports, because of de-
Carbon FRP plates have been used to strengthen balcony icing salts. As part of the repair, carbon fibre plates were
slabs in Germany to overcome problems of deflections caused bonded to the top surface of the slab over the supports. As
by insufficient steel reinforcement(59). The same approach has some of the existing cracks were about 3mm wide, the plates
been used in Italy. were debonded on either side of the support to reduce the
peak stresses(61).
The shear capacity of the ends of precast prestressed double-
tee beams in a multi-storey car park at Pittsburgh Interna- Corrosion induced by de-icing salts had seriously weakened
tional Airport were strengthened using carbon fibre sheet(60). the decks of a car park in Liverpool. After making good the
damaged concrete, the slabs were strengthened using NSM
NSM reinforcement has been used to improve the seismic carbon fibre composite rods(38).
resistance of a number of concrete shear walls in buildings
in Turkey. The approach has also been used for seismic 4.2.2 Columns
upgrading in Italy and USA.
Wrapping a column with fibre composite (glass, carbon or
Incorrectly located reinforcement aramid) significantly increases the structural capacity of the
column. This is most effective on circular columns, and is
The top reinforcement in the cantilever slabs of a car park in significantly less effective for square or rectangular columns.
Bristol had been depressed, resulting in a cover of up to Much work has been carried out in Japan and the USA with
95mm, significantly reducing the strength. Carbon fibre NSM the aim of developing cost-effective retrofitting to increase
rods were installed to a depth of about 20mm(37) to reinstate the seismic resistance of columns. A major programme on
the strength. the performance of concrete columns enclosed by compo-
sites was carried out at Southampton University(62).
At Yarborough School, Lincoln, carbon fibre strips were used
to strengthen precast stair treads which had been installed Additional load capacity
the wrong way up.
Aramid fibre sheets were used to strengthen the main
Structural damage columns of a seven-level car park in Manchester so that two
further storeys could be added, providing an additional 300
In Italy carbon fibre strips have been bonded in two car parking spaces(35,36). The material was chosen in
directions to both faces of a prestressed double curvature preference to conventional approaches, such as casting an
concrete shell roof structure. The structure had been additional layer of concrete round the columns, because of
damaged, resulting in the loss of some prestress; conven- the speed of installation and the minimal increase in the
tional repair techniques were deemed to be not appropriate. column dimensions.
Carbon fibre strips were also used to strengthen the main
roof beams of an exhibition building, increasing both the Insufficient reinforcement
flexural and shear capacity. The ground floor beams of a
residential building, which had been damaged by an earth- Newly constructed circular columns for a multi-storey
quake were repaired with carbon fibre sheets wrapped round building in Dublin were found to have insufficient links.
and bonded to the concrete. They were strengthened by wrapping with carbon fibre sheet.
This approach caused minimal disruption to the construction
programme.

17
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

Incorrect detailing 4.3 BRIDGES

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During remedial work on a multi-storey car park in West 4.3.1 Beams and slabs
London, it was found that the links in the columns were
located inside the main bars rather than outside. To rectify Additional load capacity
this fault, all 400 columns were wrapped with carbon fibre
sheet in discrete bands, replicating the links. In 1997, a small concrete underpass beneath the A413 at Great
Missenden in Buckinghamshire (Figure 11) was strength-
Incorrect design ened with carbon fibre composite plates(40). The alternative
would have been the complete reconstruction of the bridge,
Excessive ground movements and floor loadings led to the with consequent major traffic delays and disruption.
shear failure of newly-constructed square columns in the
basement car park of a hotel in Dublin. After repairing the
shear failure, the columns were strengthened by wrapping
them with carbon fibre sheet. The approach was found to be
quicker than traditional strengthening methods.

Additional seismic capacity

In Canada glass FRP shells have been bonded to the surface

of damaged columns to improve their load-carrying capacity.
In Japan and the USA columns have been strengthened
following earthquake damage by wrapping them with carbon
FRP, in the form of either thin strips or sheets. Similarly,
columns have been strengthened by wrapping them with
aramid fibre tape, bonded to the surface. Figure 11: Underpass, Great Missenden.

4.2.3 Connections The late 1960s Greenbridge Subway in Swindon was

strengthened with carbon fibre fabric to increase its flexural
In Florida the beam–column connections in the parking capacity to that required for current traffic loadings; Figure
garage of the Palm Beach Hilton Hotel have been strength- 12 shows the material being applied. Carbon fibre plates
ened by bonding carbon fibre sheet material to the sides of were used to strengthen the soffit of the River Gardens
the beams(13). This approach was chosen in preference to the Bridge in Hounslow(48) to increase the live-load capacity and
conventional solution of increasing the size of the connection allow heavy vehicles into an industrial estate. Two bridges in
by dowelling in additional steel reinforcement and encasing Crawley were strengthened with carbon fibre plates applied
the joint with additional concrete. It was estimated that the to the soffits to increase the load capacity.
adhesively bonded repair was 35% cheaper than the conven-
tional method.

4.2.4 Walls

In 1997, pultruded carbon fibre plates were installed for the

first time in an operating nuclear power station in the UK(33).
The plates, of only 1m length, were bonded in several loca-
tions across structural cracks in reinforced concrete walls.
The objective was to restore the original reinforcement
contribution of the embedded reinforcing bars, which had
yielded due to widening of the cracks. The length of the
composite plates, and their cross-sectional dimensions, were
tailored to suit the substrate material properties and
anticipated design loads in the walls. Figure 12: Applying carbon fibre sheet to Greenbridge
Subway, Swindon.
Trials in the UK and the USA have demonstrated that aramid
fibres bonded to the faces of concrete walls can significantly Carbon fibre plates have been applied to the top surfaces of
increase their blast resistance. several bridges to increase the transverse bending capacity,
including the Adur Viaduct on the A27 in Sussex and part of
the M40 in Buckinghamshire.

18
 Review of applications

Both the bridge deck and the cross-heads of the A71 The ends of 64 beams of the John Hart Bridge in Prince
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Williamston Interchange Bridge in West Lothian were found George, British Columbia(64) were strengthened with diagonal
to be under-strength. They were strengthened with two sheets of carbon fibre, to increase the shear capacity by about
widths of carbon FRP, which caused minimal disruption to 20%. In addition to the areas that required strengthening,
traffic. carbon fibre sheet was applied to non-critical locations.
These may be removed at a later date to determine the long-
The Glade Bridge (Figure 13) carries an access road over the term performance.
railway between Leatherhead and Bookham in Surrey. The
precast concrete slabs were strengthened using carbon fibre Repair following damage to the structure
plates to upgrade the capacity from 5 to 17 tonnes(47). This
was the first bridge in the UK over a railway strengthened The edge of the slab of the Devonshire Place Bridge in
using carbon fibre plates. As the electrical supply is ‘third Skipton, Yorkshire was repaired with carbon fibre plate fol-
rail’ there were no concerns about the electrical conductivity lowing damage to one of the tendons(32,42). The edge beam of
of the material (see Section 3.2.2). a bridge in Crawley, West Sussex that had been struck by a
vehicle, was strengthened with carbon fabric.

The soffits of some of the beams of the Ibach Bridge, near

Lucerne in Switzerland, were repaired with carbon FRP plates
following damage to a prestressing tendon(65). Similarly,
repair work to the soffits of beams has been carried out in
Italy(66) to repair the damage caused by vehicle impact, the
carbon plates being used to provide some additional shear
capacity as well as increasing the flexural capacity. A beam
on Interstate Highway 95 at West Palm Beach, Florida, was
also strengthened using carbon fibre sheet after it was struck
by a truck, causing twisting and longitudinal cracking.

Insufficient reinforcement
Figure 13: Strengthening Glade Bridge.
A bridge to the north of Wilmington, Delaware, USA had
The soffit of the Parkhouse Bridge, Helhoughton, Norfolk developed longitudinal cracks because of insufficient trans-
was strengthened using NSM reinforcement. Two sizes of verse reinforcement in the bottom of the precast box-beams.
carbon FRP bars were used, namely 16mm and 20mm, both They were repaired with carbon fibre sheet(67).
with a peel ply finish. The reason for using NSM rather than
carbon FRP plates was because of concern that material Incorrect reinforcement detailing
floating in the river might hit the plates and remove them.
This would appear to be one of the first situations in which The top surface of Haversham Bridge in Milton Keynes was
NSM has been installed overhead. strengthened using carbon fibre plates to increase the hog-
ging capacity. (Figure 14 shows a similar strengthening job
Woven carbon fibre mats have been bonded directly to the in Switzerland.) The plates were provided because the top
soffit of a bridge over the A10 motorway in France to steel had insufficient lap lengths and anchorage for the
strengthen it(63). This appears to be the first application of increased loading requirements. Carbon fibre plates were
carbon fibre mats in Europe. chosen in preference to steel plates because of the improved
durability and the absence of the bolts required with
In Canada, carbon fibre sheets were applied to the soffits and steel(32,34,39). (The composites are protected by the running
sides of the Clearwater Creek Bridge near Edmonton, Alberta, surface during normal operation but there is some concern
to improve the shear resistance(14). This is a three-span high- that they may be susceptible to damage when the surface is
way bridge with a length of about 18m. Four beams of the planed off prior to resurfacing.)
Maryland Street Bridge in Winnipeg(64) were also strength-
ened with vertical and horizontal sheets of carbon fibre to The soffit of the Barnes Bridge, which carries the A34 over
increase the shear capacity by 36%. The alternative would the M60 Manchester Outer Ring Road, was found to have
have been to remove parts of the bridge deck, install post- inadequate laps in the reinforcement during an assessment of
tensioned external shear stirrups and cast additional concrete its ability to carry 40-tonne vehicles(49). It was strengthened
round the beams. The work was carried out without inter- with carbon FRP plate of three different sizes (Figure 15).
rupting the traffic on the bridge and was estimated to cost
about 70% of the conventional approach. This comparison
was based on direct costs and did not consider factors such
as traffic delays.

19
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

4.3.2 Columns
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In this Section, the applications are grouped according to the

type of strengthening material used. The materials are
generally applied by hand (see Figure 15), though specialist
machines have been developed for large structures. These are
clamped around the column and a carrier head revolves
around the column, laying down a continuous fibre tape under
tension. The machine is gradually raised round the column, as
the required thickness of fibre is installed. Figure 16 shows
one such machine.

Wrapping with fabrics

Figure 14: Strengthening the top surface of a bridge using The first trial application of FRP for the wrapping of
carbon fibre plates. columns was carried out on the Bible Christian Bridge over
the A30 Bodmin Bypass in Cornwall(44,68) (see Figure 17).
Three different systems were applied to the 6m-high
800mm-diameter columns. The materials were glass, carbon
and aramid, in either sheet or ribbon form. The concrete sur-
face was first cleaned and repaired, then generally impreg-
nated with a thixotropic epoxy resin before the application of
the first layer of fibre. In each case, several layers of the fabric
were applied vertically, to increase the flexural capacity, as
well as in the hoop direction to increase the shear capacity.

Figure 15: Column wrapping.

Figure 17: Bible Christian Bridge, Cornwall.

Columns of the approach spans of the A92 Tay Road Bridge,

which was constructed in the mid-1960s, were wrapped with
aramid fibre sheet to improve their vehicle impact resis-
tance(55). Similar work was carried out on the Patchway
Viaduct on the A38(56). As part of the installation, addi-tional
bands of aramid were installed above the area to be
strengthened that included deliberate defects. Trials were
subsequently carried out to assess the effectiveness of thermo-
graphy in locating the defects.

Carbon sheet for wrapping columns was developed in Japan

and has been widely used for strengthening bridges, parti-
cularly to improve their seismic resistance(69). The approach
has been approved by the California Department of Transpor-
Figure 16: Machine for wrapping columns. tation since the early 1990s(70).

20
 Review of applications

In New York State, the piers of a railway bridge over a major below water. Possibly the largest application to date has been
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highway were wrapped with a water-cured prepreg glass the Yolo Causeway, west of Sacramento, California, where
fabric(71). This appears to be the first use of a water-cured 3000 columns were wrapped with glass fibre reinforced
material. It is not clear whether the wrapping provided addi- preformed shells(78). The first application in the UK was on
tional strength or was mainly to protect the concrete, which the A19 on Tyneside, where 24 columns were strengthened
had suffered severe damage; the bridge was described as with glass FRP shells(51,52). The original columns were
‘structurally sound’. tapered, but the shells were of uniform diameter throughout.
Thus the thickness of the annulus filled with grout increased
In Canada, repairs were carried out in August 1996 at Saint- from the bottom of the column to the top.
Étienne-de-Bolton, Québec, where nine columns of a bridge
over Highway 10 were repaired, five with glass fibre and 4.3.3 Continuity
four with carbon fibre, supplied by three different com-
panies(72,73). The circular columns are 6m high, with a dia- There has been limited use of composites to improve the
meter of 760mm. The work was backed up by laboratory continuity of bridges. In 1986 the joints in the Kattenbusch
studies, including the behaviour of the wrapping materials Bridge in Germany were strengthened by bonding a large
under wet–dry and freeze–thaw cycles. number of glass fibre reinforced polymer composite plates
across them(65). The plates were 3.2m long, 150mm wide and
In Montreal, one of the main piers of the Champlain Bridge 30mm thick.
over the St Lawrence River was wrapped in October 1996. A
total of nine layers of glass fibre wrap were installed to give 4.4 OTHER STRUCTURES
a thickness of 10mm, both to strengthen and protect the
concrete from ice damage. The column is 1.37m in diameter. 4.4.1 Towers and chimneys
To reduce the problems associated with working over water,
the fibre sheets were preimpregnated with resin and wrapped In Japan, deteriorated concrete chimneys have been strength-
round a roller on land. They were then installed on the pier ened by means of carbon or aramid fibre tapes bonded to the
by simply rolling out while the resin was still wet(73,74). This surface, generally to increase the seismic resistance but also
technique should not be confused with the use of a prepreg to increase the resistance to wind and thermal loading(79).
part-cured material. When a former cement plant in San Antonio, Texas was
converted into a retail and entertainment complex, the chim-
Combined plates and wrapping neys were wrapped in glass FRP to increase their flexural
and shear capacities and to improve their appearance(80).
The reinforcement in circular columns of a bridge in Poland
was heavily corroded. After repair of the concrete, the area Trials are planned for NSM reinforcement strengthening on
of longitudinal reinforcement was found to be insufficient the chimneys of a disused power station in London. In
and the links needed to be reinstated. The repaired columns addition, a cathodic protection system will be installed to
were strengthened longitudinally with carbon FRP plates and protect the steel reinforcement. Hence aramid FRP rods have
then wrapped with carbon sheet(75). been selected for the NSM because they are non-conducting.

Expansive grout combined with fabric 4.4.2 Tunnels

As part of the repair of the Leslie Street bridge in Toronto(74), Carbon fibre sheets have been used in a number of highway
an expansive mortar was cast round a deteriorated column. and railway tunnels, to repair cracks in concrete linings and
The repair was wrapped with a plastic sheet, followed by a also to increase the strength. Fukuyama et al.(81) reported that
glass fibre wrap. As the mortar continued to expand it ten- there were approximately 25 such applications in Japan in 1996.
sioned the glass fibre, putting the parent concrete into biaxial
compression. A large-diameter water chamber forming part of the
Frontenac Hydroelectric Power Plant in Sherbrooke, Quebec,
Preformed shells Canada was strengthened in 1998 with glass FRP on both the
inside and the outside faces. This was an environment with
Various types of prefabricated glass fibre composite shell are very high humidity and the strengthening was made more
being developed in the USA, including the full height ‘Hard- complicated by water seeping through the highly porous
core’ system, as used on the Santa Monica Freeway in Los concrete(82).
Angeles and the segmental ‘Clockspring’ system(76).
4.4.3 Marine/coastal structures
Preformed shells were used to strengthen columns on the
New Jersey Turnpike, which had heights between 3 and Various lighthouses in the North Sea have been strengthened
4.5m(77). The shells were installed with a clearance of with carbon fibre sheet material. The alternative, steel bands,
50–150mm from the concrete surface, which was later filled lifted into position using a helicopter, would have been a
with grout. In some locations the lower end of the shell was more expensive option.

21
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

The deck of the 29-span Langstone Bridge, which connects Francisco, 245 submerged reinforced concrete foundation
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Hayling Island near Portsmouth to the mainland, was piers were retrofitted for seismic confinement using a
strengthened with carbon fibre plates to enable to bridge to combination of systems.
carry 40-tonne vehicles.
4.4.4 Miscellaneous structures
Following the construction of a new pier at the Humber Sea
Terminal, part of the approach span required strengthening. Vertical and horizontal bands of aramid FRP were used to
Carbon fibre plates were bonded to the underside of the strengthen the cooling towers of West Burton Power Station
approach ramp(83). in Nottinghamshire(86). Aramid was chosen because of its
abrasion resistance. The turbine support units at Torness
The US Navy is carrying out trials on various composite Power Station were strengthened using carbon fibre sheet.
materials for strengthening concrete piers(84). Gee(85) reports
that piles in the tidal zone were wrapped using an epoxy In Japan, concrete electricity transmission poles have been
specially formulated for use underwater and the strengthened strengthened using carbon fibre sheet material. In Montreal,
area then protected with a layer of plastic sheet until the resin Canada, laboratory trials have been carried out on railway
had fully cured. The supporting columns of various piers and sleepers strengthened with polyester fabric(87). A 30-year-old
other coastal structures in California have been strengthened processing tower in Qatar was strengthened with 3500m of
by wrapping with carbon fibre. In some cases the strength- carbon FRP plate. Several options were considered but the
ening extended below ground level. At Fort Mason in San material was chosen because of the speed of installation(15).

22
 5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF
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STRENGTHENED MEMBERS

5.1 SYMBOLS fcu characteristic compressive cube strength of

concrete
The following symbols are used in this Report. They are ff stress in axial FRP at location of shear force
largely compatible with BS 8110(88). It should be noted that ffd design tensile strength of FRP
some of these symbols may differ from those used in Euro- ffk characteristic tensile strength of FRP
code 2, EN 1992 Design of concrete structures(89).
ffm mean tensile strength of FRP
Ae effectively confined area of concrete fr confinement pressure
Af area of FRP fy characteristic tensile strength of steel reinforcement
Afa additional longitudinal FRP strengthening area G dead load
gs shape factor for non-circular columns
due to shear
Afs area of FRP shear reinforcement h overall depth of member
Ics second moment of area of strengthened concrete
Ag gross cross-sectional area of section
equivalent transformed cracked section
Aol area of overlapping parabolas for rectangular
k confinement effectiveness factor
columns kb bond force factor, defined in Equation 16
Asa area of effectively anchored additional
lol length of overlapping region of parabolas
longitudinal tensile steel for shear requirement in
lnsm anchorage length provided for NSM bar
BS 5400
AsaF increase in FRP required if Asa steel is ignored lnsm,max anchorage length for NSM bar required to generate
a major dimension of elliptical column Tnsm,max
b width of section lt anchorage length
ba width of adhesive layer lt,max maximum anchorage length
bbarperim perimeter of NSM FRP bar M design ultimate moment
bf width of laminate Madd additional required moment capacity
bnotchperim effective perimeter of NSM notch N ultimate axial load on column
c minor dimension of elliptical column n factor for anchorage of shear strengthening
D diameter of circular column ne number of effective axial reinforcing bars
d effective depth of section Q live load
df effective depth of FRP shear reinforcement Rc corner radius of rectangular column
Ec initial modulus of elasticity of concrete s standard deviation
Efd design elastic modulus of FRP sf spacing of FRP strips
Efk characteristic elastic modulus of FRP Tk characteristic bond failure force
E0 secant modulus of concrete = 0.67fcu/(γmc εc0) Tk,max ultimate bond failure force
E2 slope of linear portion of confined concrete stress– Tnsm characteristic anchorage force for NSM
strain curve Tnsm,ad characteristic adhesive bond failure force
Es modulus of elasticity of steel Tnsm,max maximum NSM anchorage force
e eccentricity of load on column = M/N tf thickness of FRP laminate
fat design adhesive tensile strength V shear force due to ultimate loads
fcc confined concrete axial compressive stress Vadd shear force additional to that present at the time of
fccd design confined concrete compressive strength strengthening
fc0 unconfined concrete compressive strength = Vc shear resistance of concrete
0.67fcu/γmc Vf shear resistance of FRP
fctm tensile strength of concrete = 0.18(fcu)2/3 (ideally VR,max maximum allowable shear resistance of member
derived from in situ pull-off tests) Vs shear resistance of steel reinforcement
Vu ultimate shear capacity

23
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

vmax maximum permissible shear stress Highways Agency. Their design guide BD 84/02(10) provides
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x depth of neutral axis of FRP-strengthened member advice on strengthening concrete bridge supports using FRP.
z lever arm The Agency is currently drafting further guidance on using
FRPs for strengthening highway structures. The Construction
αe modular ratio of steel to concrete Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA) has
∀f modular ratio of FRP to concrete published a report on the use of composites in construction(93)
ß Angle between the principal fibres of the FRP and and guidelines on strengthening metallic structures using
a line perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the FRPs(6). Advice on the design of adhesively bonded joints,
member for fibre composite materials, is given in the EUROCOMP
∆ff change in force over length ∆y of FRP for longitu- design code and handbook(94).
dinal shear stress
∆y short length along FRP for longitudinal shear 5.3 BASIS OF DESIGN
stress
γmA partial safety factor for adhesive This part of the Report provides the necessary guidance for
γmc partial safety factor for concrete engineers to carry out the design of non-prestressed FRP
γE partial safety factor for modulus of elasticity of strengthening systems for concrete structures. It should be
FRP read in conjunction with BS 8110(88) and BS 5400: Part 4(95)
γmE design partial safety factor for modulus of as appropriate. It is important, however, to recognise that the
basis of strengthening using FRPs differs from the design of
elasticity of FRP
conventional steel-reinforced concrete structures in a number
γmf design partial safety factor for strength of FRP
of important respects. These include the elastic-brittle
γmm partial safety factor for manufacture of FRP behaviour of FRP materials and the bond behaviour of
γms partial safety factor for steel externally applied FRPs.
γme design partial safety factor for strain of FRP
γε partial safety factor for strain of FRP The strengthening will generally be carried out following a
εc0 axial strain in unconfined concrete at peak stress detailed appraisal. When the structure is a bridge, reference
should be made to the Highways Agency’s BD 44 The assess-
=2.4 x 10–4√(fcu/γmc)
ment of concrete highway bridges and structures(96), which
εcc confined concrete axial strain
gives modified forms of the equations in BS 5400 for appraisal.
εccu confined concrete ultimate axial strain The partial safety factors used are lower than those used in
εfd design ultimate strain of FRP BS 5400, reflecting the reduced level of uncertainty, and the
εfe effective FRP strain use of the ‘worst credible’ strength is permitted. For buildings,
εff final strain of FRP for flexural strengthening the Institution of Structural Engineers’ Appraisal of existing
εfk characteristic failure strain of FRP structures(8) also suggests lower partial safety factors, but
εfse effective strain in the FRP for shear strengthening appropriate equations have not been developed, though the
εt position of transition region between parabola and approaches adopted by BD 44 should be equally applicable
to other types of structure. Where appropriate, guidance in
straight line for confined concrete
the present document is generally based on BS 8110.
εy yield strain of steel = 0.002
φ creep coefficient The design of FRP strengthening systems should be based on
τ longitudinal shear stress limit state principles. The aim of limit state design is the
achievement of an acceptable probability that the structure
5.2 OVERVIEW OF AVAILABLE DESIGN being strengthened will perform satisfactorily during its
GUIDANCE design life. This involves checking that the structure does
not reach a limit state during its intended life, which may
Since the publication of the First Edition of this Technical render it unfit for use.
Report, a number of national and international guidelines
have been introduced dealing specifically with the design of Limit states broadly fall into two categories: ultimate and
externally strengthened concrete structures. In particular the serviceability. Ultimate limit states normally encompass
Federation Internationale du Beton (FIB) task group 9.3 have mechanisms that cause partial or complete collapse of the
published Bulletin 14(90) and the American Concrete Institute structure while serviceability limit states correspond to states
has published ACI 440.2R(2). Other guidelines have been that principally affect the appearance or proper performance
developed by the Japan Society of Civil Engineers(91), the ISIS of the structure. Examples of ultimate and serviceability
Canada Research Network(3) and by Täljsten in Sweden(92). limit states relevant to FRP strengthening systems are given
In the UK other relevant publications are provided by the in Table 4.

24
 Structural design of strengthened members

Table 4: Limit states relevant to FRP strengthening systems. ment, fy, should be taken as 250 and 460N/mm2, respectively.
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Both steel types have a mean modulus of elasticity, Es, of

Ultimate Serviceability
Strength Deflection 200kN/mm2. Different steel strengths may be appropriate for
Bending Cracking historic structures.
Shear Steel stress
Compression Fatigue Where there is sufficient knowledge of the properties of the
Anchorage/plate separation Creep actual materials in the structure, modified values may be used.
Fire Stress rupture BD 44(96) uses the concept of the worst credible strength,
Durability both for the steel and the concrete. Where actual values are
available, modified values for the partial safety factors given
The design of FRP strengthening systems is mainly con- in Section 5.6 may be used.
centrated on the ultimate limit state of strength (see Chapters
6 to 8). This includes checks for bending, shear and compres- 5.4.2 Properties of fibre-reinforced polymers (FRP)
sion, conditions normally associated with reinforced concrete
design, as well as checks for plate separation that are peculiar The mechanical properties of FRP materials depend princi-
to FRP-strengthened structures. Since structural strengthening pally on the type and percentage of fibre used. These aspects
invariably increases the stiffness of flexural members, which are likely to vary between competing composite products,
in turn increases the risk of brittle failure, a check on ductility and since there is currently no agreed standard specification
will also be necessary (see Section 6.2.4). Since the propor- for their manufacture, all design must be on the basis of the
tional increase in stiffness will be less than the increase in actual properties obtained from the manufacturer, who should
strength, it will also be necessary to check the deflection of supply either characteristic values or mean values and stan-
the strengthened structure against the appropriate limits. dard deviations. Only materials manufactured in accordance
with an approved quality control scheme should be used;
Service loads should not adversely affect the appearance or Appendix C gives guidance on the appropriate level of
efficiency of strengthened structures. Generally, FRP- testing required.
strengthened structures should experience closely spaced
narrow cracks provided that good bond exists between the The normally available mechanical properties of FRP are
FRP and the concrete substrate. However, where problems tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and elongation at
are anticipated the designer should take steps to ensure that failure. For fabric materials, the mechanical properties may
the design crack widths do not exceed the limits recom- be measured directly on samples, which may be assumed to
mended in BS 8110 or BS 5400, as appropriate. The steel be representative of the material applied to the structure. The
reinforcement should not yield under the service load, properties of plates should be determined on representative
otherwise permanent deformations in the structure will result. samples. For wet lay-up systems, test samples should be
Fatigue and stress rupture are taken into account by using prepared under the same conditions as the composite is
lower design stresses determined in accordance with Section applied to the concrete. Fully cured samples may then be
6.8. Much of the testing work that has been carried out has tested to give an indication of the in situ properties. The
confirmed that carbon FRP retains its chemical and physical mechanical properties of other manufactured composites,
properties when exposed to conditions typical of those such as shells, should be determined by the manufacturer
relevant to concrete construction. However, other materials from tests on coupons.
are less stable when exposed to moisture or ultraviolet
radiation, and consideration must therefore be given to the For example, the characteristic tensile strength of FRP, ffk, is
use of protective coating systems (see also Section 10.11). related to the mean tensile strength, ffm:
For buildings, fire should also be included in the above limit
states as it will influence the properties of both the FRP and ffk = ffm – 2 s (Equation 1)
the adhesive used to attach the FRP to the concrete (although
some fire-rated structural systems are available). This aspect
where s is the standard deviation. (Note: sufficient samples
is discussed further in Section 5.7.1.
must be tested to ensure that two standard deviations is
realistic, see Appendix C.)
5.4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS Tables B2 and B3 in Appendix B give typical mechanical
properties for a range of FRP strengthening systems that are
5.4.1 Properties of concrete and steel reinforcement currently available. The information is taken from manu-
facturers’ data sheets and is thought to be correct at the time
The strength of the concrete to be used in the design equations of publication. For design purposes, actual properties must
given in Sections 6 to 8 should be the characteristic (28-day) be obtained from the manufacturer. As test methods vary, the
compressive cube strength, fcu. The characteristic tensile information should detail the basis for the information (e.g.
strength of modern mild steel and high-yield steel reinforce- frequency of testing, standard deviation).

25
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

5.4.3 Properties of adhesives and laminating resins The partial safety factors are intended to take into account
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the uncertainties associated with the material itself and with

Tables B5 and B6 in Appendix B give typical properties for its use in the structure. Guidance on developing project-
epoxy adhesives and laminating resins that are currently specific partial safety factors can be found in the CIRIA
available. (The comments in Section 5.4.2 regarding the report on FRPs in construction(93). However, in most situa-
information on FRP are equally applicable.) It is important tions and in the absence of independent field-testing of mate-
that the adhesive or laminating resin being used is compatible rial properties as installed, the partial safety factors given in
with the laminate or fibre. Ideally, to ensure compatibility, the following Sections may be used.
all the components of the system (including any priming or
top coating materials) should be from a single supplier. The magnitude of the partial safety factors applied to the
FRP will depend on the type of fibre and the stage in the
5.4.4 Stress–strain curves
manufacturing process at which the test samples are taken
The equations developed for the design of FRP strength- (see Section 5.6.3). The partial safety factors are intended to
ening systems given in Sections 6 to 8 are based on the take into account changes in material properties with time. In
rectangular parabolic stress–strain relationship for concrete this respect they differ from the factors applied to traditional
in compression and the relationship for reinforcing steel construction materials such as steel and concrete, whose
described in Section 6.2.4, which gives the reason for properties are assumed not to change with time.
adopting this relationship. Alternatively, more exact stress–
strain curves, such as those given in Eurocode 2(89), may be 5.6.2 Design strength of steel and concrete
used in analysis.
In general, the design strength of the steel and concrete
Unlike steel reinforcement, all FRP has a linear elastic should be assessed using appropriate values of the partial
response to failure, with no or very limited yielding. Woven safety factors for concrete, γmc, and for steel reinforcement,
fabrics have a degree of non-linearity, but this may be γms, given in BS 8110 or BS 5400 as appropriate. When the
ignored for design purposes. worst credible strengths are used (see Section 5.4.1), the
factors may be modified in line with the recommendations of
5.5 PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS FOR BD 44(96).
LOADS
5.6.3 Design elastic modulus of FRP
For the ultimate and serviceability limit states, the design
loading will normally be obtained by multiplying the charac- In most practical design situations the limiting factor govern-
teristic dead and imposed loads by appropriate partial safety ing the failure of an FRP-strengthened structure is the strain
factors taken from BS 8110 for buildings or from BS 5400 in the FRP (e.g. anchorage, separation failure, etc.), although
or BD 37(97) for bridges. rarely ultimate strain. It is therefore the stiffness of the FRP
that is of importance. Although durability tests in laboratory
Prior to strengthening, the designer will need to assess the conditions on unloaded glass and carbon FRP composites
probable effect of an accidental loss of strengthening effec- have shown that there is little significant degradation of the
tiveness resulting from fire, vandalism or impact. Guidance modulus of elasticity under long-term (10,000hr) environ-
on assessing the flexural strength of structures in fire is given mental exposures such as salt water, high alkalinity, humidity
in Section Four of BS 8110: Part 2. See also Section 5.7 of and freeze–thaw(98), the modulus of elasticity of FRP may
this Report. change with time under load and may vary according to the
method of manufacture and application. In particular, lack of
If the magnitude of the initial strains that exist in the struc- straightness of fibres can significantly affect the stiffness. In
ture need to be estimated in order that they can be excluded addition, the accuracy with which the properties are obtained
from the strain in the FRP (see Section 6.2.5, part (c)), the from test samples is dependent upon the method of manu-
partial safety factor for dead load and imposed load should facture. Therefore, it is necessary to apply partial safety
be taken as 1.0. The level of imposed load to be used in the factors relating to both material type and method of manu-
calculations will be very structure-dependent and will be a facture to the modulus of elasticity of FRP in arriving at the
matter for judgement. design strength of structures strengthened with external
reinforcement:
5.6 DESIGN VALUES FOR MATERIAL
Efd = Ef / γmE (Equation 2)
PROPERTIES
where
5.6.1 Introduction
γmE = γE × γmm (Equation 3)
The characteristic material properties (see Section 5.4) are
divided by appropriate partial safety factors (γmE, γmε, γmm)
from Tables 5 to 7 to give the values to be used in design.

26
 Structural design of strengthened members

Recommended partial safety factors for modulus of elas- Table 7: Partial safety factor for strain at the ultimate limit state.
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ticity are given in Table 5 and partial safety factors for

method of manufacture and application can be taken from Material Partial safety factor, γε
Table 6. Carbon FRP 1.25
Aramid FRP 1.35
AR glass FRP 1.85
Table 5: Partial safety factors for Young’s modulus at the ultimate
E glass FRP 1.95
limit state.
5.6.5 Design ultimate strength of FRP
Material Factor of safety, γE
Carbon FRP 1.1 In some instances the ultimate tensile strength of the FRP is
Aramid FRP 1.1 required during the design of a strengthened structure (e.g.
AR glass FRP 1.6 ultimate flexural strength, although actual failure is likely to
E glass FRP 1.8 be due to separation of the FRP from the concrete, which, in
general is related to FRP strain). In such cases, the design
Table 6: Recommended values of additional partial safety factors, strength can be derived from the design modulus of elas-
to be applied to manufactured composites, based on Clarke(94). ticity, Efd, and the design strain, εfd:

Type of system (and method of Additional partial

ffd = Efd εfd (Equation 6)
application or manufacture) safety factor, γmm
Plates
Hence, given the partial safety factors acting on the modulus
Pultruded 1.05
of elasticity and the ultimate strain of the FRP, the partial
Prepreg 1.05
safety factors acting on the strength of the material are as
Preformed 1.1
follows:
Sheets or tapes
Machine-controlled application 1.05
γmf = γmE ×γmε = γE × γε × (γmm)2 (Equation 7)
Vacuum infusion 1.1
Wet lay-up 1.2
Prefabricated (factory-made) shells So the design strength is given by:
Filament winding 1.05
Resin transfer moulding 1.1 ffd = ff / γmf (Equation 8)
Hand lay-up 1.2
Hand-held spray application 1.5 It should be noted that the resulting material partial safety
factor for ultimate strength is equivalent to that proposed in
5.6.4 Design ultimate strain of FRP the First Edition of TR55. Figure 18 shows the relationship
between design stress and strain and the partial material
It is also possible in some situations that the ultimate strain safety factors.
in the FRP may govern failure of a strengthened structure
Stress
(e.g. shear strengthening or ultimate strain of confined con-
crete) although, typically, other strain limits are reached first. ffk
Again, durability tests on unloaded specimens of glass and
carbon composites have demonstrated significant long-term
ultimate strain reductions, particularly due to exposure to
Ef
humidity(98). As for the material partial safety factor for ffd
modulus of elasticity, the partial safety factor for ultimate
strain is also related to both material type and route of manu- Ef
facture and application. Thus, the design strain is given by:
εf εf
εfd = εfk / γmε (Equation 4) Strain

Figure 18: Assumed stress–strain curves.

where
5.6.6 Steel stress
γmε = γε × γmm (Equation 5)
The designer must check that the steel reinforcement does
Recommended partial safety factors for ultimate strain are not yield under service loads, otherwise the structure may
given in Table 7 and partial safety factors for manufacture sustain permanent deformations. Therefore it is recommended
method can, again, be taken from Table 6. that the partial safety factors for steel reinforcement be
increased to 1.25 in performing this check. This condition
may be rather onerous for older structures reinforced with

27
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

grade 230 steel, which would otherwise be considered suit- such as that given in BS 476: Part 20(99), for the required fire
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able for strengthening. Under these circumstances, designers endurance. A design approach, only for members in flexure,
may consider increasing the allowable steel stress to 1.0 fy, is given in Section Four of BS 8110: Part 2, which gives
provided that other factors, e.g. crack widths and concrete reduced values for the strengths of the steel and concrete at
quality, do not preclude this approach to strengthening. elevated temperatures. However, as fire is considered as an
accidental load, the partial safety factors on the materials are
5.6.7 Deflection and cracking reduced and, more importantly, the partial safety factors on
the dead and live loads are also reduced. Thus in many cases,
The deflections and crack widths in structures being strength- the fibre composite strengthening could fail completely with-
ened should be kept within values specified in current codes out risking failure of the structure. This may be illustrated by
and standards, such as BS 8110 or BS 5400. The calculations the following simple example, which ignores any material
should be based on the partial safety factors contained in property changes due to the elevated temperatures:
these documents.
1. Consider a floor slab with a dead load G and live load Q
5.6.8 Adhesive 2. Original design capacity = 1.4 G + 1.6 Q
3. The slab is strengthened to carry an additional 50% live
In general, the ultimate behaviour of a strengthened section load
will be governed by the strength of the concrete and not by 4. Hence modified design capacity = 1.4 G + 1.6 (1.5 Q)
the strength of the adhesive, provided the following are 5. Required design capacity in fire = 1.05 G + 1.0 (1.5 Q)
satisfied: 6. In a typical floor slab, G Q, so required design capacity
in fire = 2.55 G
• All the materials used are in accordance with recognised 7. Capacity of unstrengthened slab = 3.0 G which is greater
standards. than the required capacity in fire.
• The material properties are checked on samples made on
site. If failure of the fibre composite strengthening in fire would
• The in-service temperature does not differ significantly lead to the collapse of the structure, it will obviously be
from that at which the test samples were made and cured. necessary to consider the behaviour of the fibre composite
• The work is carried out by suitably experienced staff, in materials as well as the behaviour of the adhesive. The fibres
accordance with the advice in Chapter 10. themselves are unlikely to be affected by the elevated tempe-
• Detailed and proven method statements and specifica- rature. However, it is likely that the adhesive will be affected
tions are used. if the temperature exceeds the adhesive’s glass transition
• The structure is ‘fail-safe’, i.e. failure of the strength- temperature, which may be of the order of 50 to 60°C for
ening will not lead to failure of the structure. conventional materials. If the glass transition temperature is
reached then the effectiveness of the FRP strengthening will
If any of the above parameters are not satisfied, higher values be reduced.
of γmA, the partial safety factor for adhesive, will be required.
An approach for determining appropriate partial safety factors Specific advice on fire resistance of FRP materials should be
may be found in A guide to the structural use of adhesives(24). sought from the manufacturer. If necessary, options for in-
creasing the fire resistance of FRPs may include providing a
It should be noted that cyclic strains applied to an adhesive layer of suitable insulating material over the fibre composite.
during the curing period, for example due to traffic loading The carbon fibre mats used to strengthen the soffit of a bridge
on a bridge under repair, may lead to a change in the over the A10 motorway in France were covered with a layer
properties of the adhesive. However, it has been suggested of plaster and mortar for fire protection(100). Unless a rigorous
that these changes are likely to be small, perhaps a 10% analysis is undertaken it is sensible to neglect the strength-
reduction in the strength of the fully cured material. ening from FRP in fire situations. As shown above, such a
situation does not preclude the use of FRP strengthening.
As a general recommendation, the sustained stress in the
adhesive should be kept below 25% of the short-term strength, In addition to concerns about the structural behaviour of
which equates to the recommended minimum material partial strengthened structures in fire, the emission of smoke and
safety factor of 4.0. toxic fumes will be a major consideration, particularly in
enclosed situations such as tunnels. Improved performance
5.7 EXTREME LOADINGS can be achieved by the use of appropriate fillers and the use
of intumescent coatings or other high-temperature foam
insulation barriers.
5.7.1 Behaviour of structures in fire
5.7.2 Seismic loading
For design of reinforced or prestressed members, fire
resistance is generally ensured by the provision of adequate Seismic loading will not be a major loading case for most
cover to the reinforcement. More detailed analysis can be UK structures. However, it may be important for strength-
carried out working from a standard time–temperature curve, ening work in connection with nuclear-related structures.

28
 Structural design of strengthened members

This is a highly specialised area of design, which is outside While both issues are clearly of vital importance to security,
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the scope of this Technical Report. Reference should be public-domain blast test results are notoriously difficult to
made to publications by experts in the field, such as Priestley come by. Furthermore, much of the research conducted on
et al.(101), Seible et al.(102) and Triantafillou(103). FRP strengthening of structures against blast has been under-
taken on concrete masonry walls under static loading(105).
5.7.3 Impact loading However, some studies of the effects of real blast loading on
FRP-strengthening schemes against debris projectiles have
The consequences of structural collapse due to vehicle impact been carried out(106).
on bridge supports are considerable. In an impact, about 80%
of the energy is absorbed by the vehicle crushing, with the It seems that masonry walls can indeed be strengthened to
remainder being absorbed by the structural element. It is resist disintegration during blast loading(107). However, an
necessary to ensure that both the flexural strength and obvious question that remains is what effect the increase in
deformability of a column are adequate. The designer should strength might have on an increase in stiffness of the same
ensure that the deformability of the strengthened structure is wall. Such an effect could be problematic in seismic
at least as great as it would be for the equivalent conven- zones(108).
tionally designed structure.
5.7.5 Vandalism
It has been shown that there is an increase in concrete
strength at very high loading rates. While it is not clear In situations where deliberate vandalism is considered to be
whether there is such an increase in concrete strength under a potential problem (primarily in an urban environment)
vehicle impacts, tests commissioned by the Highways Agency there are a number of possible actions that can be taken.
on circular columns wrapped with aramid FRP have shown Firstly, the FRP may be physically protected, by providing
that the wrapping is at least as effective under impact loading some form of barrier that limits accessibility (either to the
as under static loading. Therefore, it would seem that methods surface of the strengthened structure or around the structure
of designing for impact loads based upon the application of as a whole). Secondly a form of strengthening which is inhe-
equivalent static loads are reasonable. rently resistant to physical attack, such as NSM, may be
chosen if possible. Thirdly, frequent inspection or moni-
Tests on rectangular columns carried out by Suter et al.(104) toring should be carried out so that any damage resulting
have shown the effectiveness of longitudinal aramid FRP from vandalism can be quickly remedied. However, it is not
followed by hoop wrapping in increasing the flexural capa- possible for these measures to prevent damage from a deter-
city and hence the energy-absorbing capacity of columns mined attack. It is therefore necessary, as in the case of fire
under equivalent static loading. It should be noted that tests damage, for the unstrengthened structure to be able to satis-
have only been carried out using aramid FRP, due to its factorily carry the unfactored service loads.
toughness. However, this does not mean that other FRP types
are necessarily unsuitable. Accidental damage may also occur due to contractors drilling
through FRP or removing protective coatings without reali-
5.7.4 Blast loading sing the structural implications. This can be avoided by
making contractors aware that the FRP should not be inter-
There are two fundamental issues for the designer to fered with. This may be achieved by application of some
consider when blast is involved. The first is strengthening of form of printed warning, either directly on to the FRP or in
the structure to withstand the blast so that the structure is close proximity if the finish of the FRP is important. Further
serviceable immediately following overload. The second is guidance and suggested warning signs can be found Section
providing protection to the public by preventing the façade, 10.12 and in the Concrete Society’s TR57(5).
in particular, from disintegrating into projectile debris.

29
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society
 6 STRENGTHENING
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MEMBERS IN FLEXURE

6.1 GENERAL of the concrete to ensure a proper bond and long-term

durability. Tests to determine these properties (e.g. pull-
The flexural strength of reinforced concrete beams and slabs off tests) should be outlined in the specification.
can be increased by bonding FRP laminates to the tension • The surface preparation of the concrete substrate is suffi-
faces of the members, as shown in Figure 19. For members cient to achieve the required level of bond strength
strengthened in flexure the following should be considered: required in the design.

• maximum moment In addition, this design guidance is dependent on assump-

• risk of peeling failure at the ends of the FRP tions based on the installation methods and specification
• risk of debonding of the FRP and the concrete substrate detailed in Chapter 10.
• shear capacity of the section
• ductility of the strengthened member 6.2 MOMENT CAPACITY
• compliance with relevant serviceability limit states, e.g.
cracking, deflection, fatigue, creep-rupture. 6.2.1 Introduction

The section should be designed such that yielding of the steel

reinforcement precedes both compressive failure of the con-
crete and tensile failure of the FRP.

In cases where the FRP will theoretically reach its design

tensile strain before the concrete crushes, failure normally
occurs due to plate separation rather than plate rupture and
the strain limits for debonding discussed in Section 6.3.3
will frequently govern the design. In some cases the concrete
will crush before the FRP reaches its design tensile strain
(see Section 6.2.4). Provided that the steel strain at failure is
sufficiently large, however, this should not result in brittle
failure of the strengthened member.
Figure 19: Strengthening beams and slabs with FRP.
Design ultimate moments should normally be determined by
In addition, this design guidance is dependent on the follo- linear elastic methods. If there is evidence of local yielding
wing assumptions: taking place, the results of an elastic analysis need to be
applied with care. Since members undergoing strengthening
• No slip between the FRP strengthening and the substrate will usually be steel reinforced, some redistribution of elastic
(i.e. plane sections remain plane). This assumption places moments may occur near ultimate. Section 6.7 gives further
limits on adhesive thickness, adhesive shear modulus and guidance on redistribution.
FRP composite in-plane shear rigidity.
• Inter-laminar shear strength of the FRP strengthening is 6.2.2 Requirements of the existing section
greater than the adhesive bond shear strength. This should
be covered in the specification by specifying the type of The ultimate capacity of the existing section should be
resins that are acceptable, limits on fibre volume fraction assessed by conventional concrete design methods, such as
and elastic modulus of the FRP strengthening. those in BS 5400-4:1990 clause 5.3.2.1 or BS 8110-1:1997
• The substrate quality is such that it will not reduce the clause 3.4.4.1 as appropriate to the structure being considered.
effectiveness of the FRP strengthening. Therefore the
actual condition must be established and taken into Particular care should also be taken to apply appropriate
account in design together with likely future deteriora- material parameters and factors for the age of the structure in
tion which may be indicated by chloride levels, existing question, in order to reflect likely variability in materials at
cracks, moisture and half-cell potential of the concrete the time of their incorporation into the structure. In parti-
substrate. The specification should also outline clearly cular, since many of the structures that require strengthening
the allowable minimum compressive and tensile strengths will have been built prior to publication of the 1997 edition

31
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

of BS 8110, it would seem appropriate to use a partial safety • The stresses in the metallic reinforcement are derived
factor for steel, γms, of 1.15 rather than the value of 1.05 now
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from the stress–strain curves in BS 8110-1:1997 (see

recommended by the code. Figure 20). This condition is more onerous and appro-
priate for longitudinal shear than the stress–strain curve
The section should only be considered for strengthening if in BS 5400-4, while having negligible effect on ultimate
the ultimate capacity of the unstrengthened (existing) section moment capacity. The material partial safety factor for
is at least as great as the effects arising from the unfactored steel, γms, should be set to an appropriate value for the
loads to be applied. This ensures that even in the event of date of construction and with the compressive stress
removal of the FRP strengthening by some unforeseen event, limited to fy/(γms+fy/2000), as it is in BS 5400-4.
catastrophic collapse of the structure is not likely. • The strains in the FRP reinforcement take into account
the strains present in the bonded surface at the time of
6.2.3 Preliminary design application of the reinforcement.
• The stresses in the FRP reinforcement are derived from
An initial but potentially non-conservative estimate of the the assumption that the FRP has a linear elastic characte-
FRP requirement for the section can be obtained by assu- ristic until rupture.
ming that the position of the neutral axis remains approxi-
mately equal to that of the unstrengthened section. The In addition, if the ultimate moment of resistance, calculated
approximate area of FRP required, Af, can therefore be in accordance with this clause, is less than 1.15 times the
obtained by dividing the required additional moment capa- required value, the section should be proportioned such that
city of the beam, Madd, by the product of the steel lever arm, the strain at the centroid of the tensile reinforcement is not
z , and the design stress in the FRP (given by εfe Efd) as follows: less than 0.002 + fy/(Esγms).

Af = Madd / εfe Efd z (Equation 9)

stress
where fy/γms
εfe = the lesser of εfk / γmε (the design ultimate strain of
FRP) and a strain of 0.008. Typically the value of
0.008, which would result in separation failure (see
Section 6.3.3) governs. E=200 kN/mm2
Efd = design modulus of elasticity of FRP, Efk /γmE strain
z = steel lever arm
Figure 20: Stress–strain curve for reinforcing steel in the
This calculation becomes a less reliable predictor of the FRP design of strengthened beams in flexure.
area required if the existing section is already heavily rein-
forced, or if the section is doubly reinforced. In any event, it Allowance should also be made for the requirements of
is always necessary to proceed with the detailed design additional tensile capacity (to carry the tensile forces arising
method rather than rely on this initial estimate. from the truss analogy for resisting shear) if significant shear
and bending moment coincide, as would be the case when
6.2.4 Design resistance moment of FRP-strengthened strengthening a continuous structure over a support.
beam
6.2.5 Example design method
When analysing a cross-section to determine its ultimate
moment of resistance the following assumptions should be The requirements of Section 6.2.4 can be met by adopting
made: the following example design method at any section that
may be critical:
• The strain distribution in the concrete in compression and
the strains in the reinforcement, whether in tension or (a) Calculate the loads to be applied to the structure, deter-
compression, are derived from the assumption that plane mining loads applied before the strengthening (such as
sections remain plane and that no longitudinal slip occurs element self-weight) and loads after strengthening (such
between or within the components of the section. as traffic loading in the case of a bridge) separately. From
• The stresses in the concrete in compression are derived these determine both shear forces and bending moments
from the stress–strain curve in either BS 5400-4:1990 at the section considered. To simplify later stages these
Figure 1 or BS 8110-1:1997 Figure 2.1, with the strain at load effects should also be determined both unfactored
the outermost compression fibre at failure taken as no and with ultimate limit state load factors applied.
more than 0.0035. (b) Calculate the area of reinforcement necessary to satisfy
• The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored. the Asa requirements of BS 5400-4:1990 clause 5.3.3.2.
(c) Calculate the strain in the section at the position where
the FRP is to be applied under the unfactored loading

32
 Strengthening members in flexure

present at the time the strengthening is to be applied. In where

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calculating this value, appropriate allowance should be V = the shear force due to ultimate loads
made for the duration of the loads, since these loads are εff = the final strain in the FRP at step (g)
likely to be predominantly dead loads and consequently Efd = Efk / γmE
the modulus of elasticity adopted should be that for long-
term loading. In calculating these strains the following If the calculation described does not converge at a solution
assumptions should generally be adopted: that meets the criteria described, then the quantity of FRP to
• Plane sections remain plane. be applied may need adjustment and the calculation repeated
• The reinforcement, whether in tension or compression, until an adequate design is achieved.
is elastic with a modulus of elasticity of 200kN/mm2.
• The concrete in compression is elastic with an appro- 6.3 FRP SEPARATION FAILURE
priate modulus of elasticity as discussed above. This
may be half the value in Table 3 of BS 5400-4:1995. 6.3.1 Introduction
• The concrete has zero tensile capacity.
(d) Assume an initial concrete maximum compressive strain, For members strengthened in flexure, failure can occur when
which should be less than 0.0035. there is a loss of composite action between the FRP and the
(e) Assume an initial neutral axis position. concrete section. Typically failures occur through the develop-
(f) Adopting the assumptions described in Section 6.2.4 ment of a longitudinal failure-plane close to the interface
calculate the forces in the component parts of the cross- between the FRP and the concrete or at the level of the main
section. The strain used to calculate the force in the FRP reinforcement. In experimental studies, FRP separation has
should be evaluated by subtracting the initial strain in the been found to be the most common failure mechanism. It is
concrete at the position of the FRP at the time of therefore essential that it is taken into account in the design
strengthening (calculated in step (b)) from the strain at of FRP strengthening schemes. Figure 21 illustrates typical
the position of the FRP from the assumed linear strain FRP separation failures observed in tests.
profile (dependent on the assumed neutral axis position
and maximum concrete strain in steps (d) and (e)). Op-
tionally, the area of existing steel tensile reinforcement
assumed in this calculation should be the provided area
minus the value of Asa required at this section, as calcu-
lated at step (b).
(g) Iteratively adjust the assumed neutral axis position and
concrete maximum compressive strain until step (f) results
in zero net axial force present in the section (i.e. ‘force
balance’ is achieved) and the moment of these forces
matches (or exceeds) the required bending moment.
(h) Check the calculated stresses and strains against the
Figure 21: Possible failure modes and locations for FRP-
following criteria: strengthened beam.
• The concrete maximum compressive strain should
not exceed 0.0035. Despite the importance of FRP separation, it remains a subject
• The FRP maximum tensile strain should not exceed that stimulates considerable research. A number of different
the limit calculated in accordance with Section 6.3.3. initiation mechanisms have been identified and proposals to
• The section exhibits adequate plasticity. In the absence categorise them developed, for example see Blaschko et
of more rigorous examination, the strain at the centroid al.(109) and Teng et al.(110). While the precise mechanisms are
of the tensile reinforcement should be not less than: still the subject of some debate, the design approach given
fy here has been used in many practical strengthening schemes
0.002 + (Equation 10) and is recommended.
Esγ ms

It should be noted that the proposed method is largely based

unless the ultimate moment that can be resisted by the on laboratory and field data obtained from strengthening
section is at least 1.15 times the applied ultimate schemes using carbon FRP. It may not therefore be directly
moments. applicable to other composite materials, although the same
• The stress in the FRP is less than the ultimate capacity principles should apply. In some cases the approach may be
of the FRP. unduly conservative for composite materials other than
(i) If the area Asa was not subtracted at step (f), the area of carbon.
FRP calculated shall be increased by an area AsaF, where:
Work on steel plate bonding has shown that separation
AsaF = V /(2 εff Efd) (Equation 11) failures tend to initiate from the ends of the plates. To address
this, limitations on plate aspect ratio are incorporated in the

33
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

Highways Agency Advice Note on steel plate bonding, BA for varying anchorage lengths and a range of different FRP
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

30(9), together with requirements for bolting. Early work on plate thicknesses. From this Figure it can be seen that, for all
FRP separation failures similarly focused on the ends of the the cases considered, the maximum force that can be deve-
plates. loped in the FRP anchorage is less than 25% of the ultimate
FRP capacity.
However, for FRP strengthening schemes, experimental evi-
dence now shows that separation can also initiate from Experimental studies have, however, shown that the FRP
flexural cracks in the span, shear cracks or concave irregu- force that can be developed in the span of strengthened beams
larities in the surface profile, and that all of these cases need can be very much greater than the FRP anchorage capacity.
to be taken into account in the design. Importantly, research These findings indicate that, provided there is a gradual build-
has also shown that externally bonded FRP strengthening up of stress outside the anchorage region, it is possible for
can be highly effective without the need for bolting or the the FRP to sustain stresses in excess of the anchorage capacity
use of other mechanical fixings. without separation failure occurring. Importantly, it seems
that this gradual build-up of FRP stress relies on some
It has been shown that increasing the area of FRP bonded to flexural cracking of the concrete as the ultimate limit state is
the concrete and reducing the FRP thickness reduce the approached. Thus, particular care is required in cases where
likelihood of separation failure modes. the FRP is bonded to concrete that is not expected to crack
at the ultimate limit state, for example because of changes in
6.3.2 Bond failure section properties or the presence of prestress.

The bond behaviour of externally bonded FRP differs mar- 6.3.3 Design procedure
kedly from that of embedded steel reinforcement. Experi-
ments have shown that the longitudinal shear stress that can The design procedure to account for FRP separation failures
be transferred between the FRP and the concrete is not first requires two structure-dependent conditions to be
independent of the bonded length, as typically assumed for checked, namely that failure will not be initiated either by shear
embedded steel reinforcement. Thus, while it is possible to cracking or by irregularities in the concrete surface profile.
anchor steel reinforcement by providing an anchorage length Provided these are satisfied, three further design-specific
beyond which the full strength of the reinforcement can be criteria must be considered relating to the strain in the FRP,
developed, this is not typically the case for externally bonded the longitudinal shear stress between the FRP and the
FRP. This aspect of the behaviour of externally bonded FRP concrete and the stresses developed in the anchorage region.
greatly influences, and adds complexity to, the design of
strengthening schemes. Shear-crack-induced FRP separation

In tests on the anchorage of FRP externally bonded to con- The presence of shear cracks can lead to a tendency for a step
crete, it has been found that beyond a limiting bonded length, to develop in the tension face of the member to which the
of the order of 50–300mm, there is no further increase in the FRP is bonded. This can result in the development of size-
ultimate anchorage load-capacity with increased bonded able transverse tensile stresses in the adhesive and the surface
length. Furthermore, this ultimate anchorage capacity can be concrete, leading to the initiation of FRP separation failure.
very much less than the ultimate tensile capacity of the FRP.
Such a mode of failure may be disregarded if the maximum
E frp = 230GPa
applied shear force can be carried by the concrete alone,
ε frp = 0.015 neglecting any contribution to the shear capacity provided by
1.4
F ctm = 3MPa shear reinforcement. However, for beams this criterion may
1.2
Kb =1 ε frp = ε frpu well not be satisfied. Experimental studies(113) have shown
εfrpdb, max /εfrpu

1
that shear cracking will have initiated at or before 67% of the
0.8 ultimate shear capacity of the section (including all forms of
ε frp = ε frpdb (Neubauer & Rostasy)
0.6 ε frp = 0.5ε frpu reinforcement). Therefore should the maximum applied shear
0.4 ε frp = 0.004 force exceed 67% of the ultimate capacity, it may be presumed
0.2 that shear-crack-induced separation failure will occur. Should
0 the maximum applied shear force lie between the concrete-
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 only shear capacity and 67% of full capacity, careful consi-
tfrp (mm) deration should be given to shear crack initiation.
Figure 22: Variation in FRP separation strain with bonded
Surface irregularity-induced FRP separation
length, based on Denton et al.(112).
Concave irregularities in the profile of the surface to which
Such behaviour is shown in the work of Neubauer and the FRP is bonded will lead to the development of tensile peel-
Rostasy(111). Based upon their model, the ratio of the strain ing stresses in the adhesive and surface concrete as the FRP
when FRP separation occurs to the ultimate FRP strain attempts to straighten under load. Such transverse tensile
capacity is plotted in Figure 22 (based on Denton et al.(112)) stresses can promote the initiation of FRP separation failure.

34
 Strengthening members in flexure

It is usually the case during strengthening works that the It is therefore recommended that the strain in the FRP at
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surface to which FRP will be bonded is concavely curved to ultimate limit state should nowhere exceed 0.008. This strain
some extent. Such unevenness is sometimes relatively local, limit will be more critical than the ultimate FRP strain
perhaps due to formwork being flexible during casting, or capacity in the substantial majority of design cases,
alternatively it could also be more global, for example when particularly when standard modulus materials are used. It
the entire soffit of a structure is curved. may be quite conservative in some cases and may potentially
be relaxed if specialist advice is sought.
Through testing(114,115), it has been found that concave curva-
ture can significantly affect the degree of strengthening Longitudinal shear stress between FRP and concrete
achieved. The work of Eshwar et al.(114) suggests that the
extent over which the concave curvature exists may affect the To ensure that the build-up of stress in the FRP outside the
significance of such concavity, and it seems that the beha- anchorage region is sufficiently gradual, it is recommend
viour of strengthened members is more sensitive to global that the longitudinal shear stress between the FRP and the
than local curvature. concrete, determined as described below, should nowhere
exceed 0.8N/mm2 at the ultimate limit state. This value is
It is advised therefore that if the soffit of a concrete structure mentioned in the current Highways Agency Advice Note for
to be strengthened is globally concave, reference should be steel plate bonding, BA 30(9), and is broadly in line with both
made to specialist literature(114,115), and specialist advice the allowable shear stress values recommended in BS 8110:
sought. Part 1 and BS 5400: Part 4. Provided specialist advice is
sought, it may be reasonable to moderately increase this
If undulations in the concrete are local with a smoothly limiting longitudinal shear stress in special cases.
varying profile, the influence of curvature may be dis-
regarded in the design provided over any 1-m length, any For surface-mounted reinforcement, when both the original
concavity in the FRP profile, as installed, does not exceed section and the applied FRP are prismatic and do not taper
3mm in depth. Fabric-based systems tend to closely follow along their length, assuming the concrete and steel
the profile of the concrete to which they are bonded and it is reinforcement to behave linear-elastically, the longitudinal
therefore essential that the Specification for such schemes shear stress, τ, can be calculated using the expression:
requires the concrete surface to which the FRP will be
bonded to have only smooth variations in profile with a τ = Vadd∀f Af (h – x) / Ics ba (Equation 12)
maximum unevenness of 3mm in 1m. For plate-based
systems, the FRP tends not to follow the profile of the where
concrete so closely and therefore greater unevenness in the Vadd = difference between the ultimate shear force and the
concrete profile, up to 5mm in 1m, may be acceptable applied shear force when the strengthening is installed
provided the FRP, once installed, has a smooth variation in ∀f = short-term modular ratio of FRP to concrete
profile with a maximum unevenness of 3mm in 1m. In such = Efd /Ec
cases, the difference in the concrete and FRP profile must be
Af = area of FRP plate
taken up in the adhesive.
x = depth of neutral axis of strengthened section
Maximum FRP strain Ics = second moment of area of strengthened concrete
equivalent cracked section
Early work on FRP separation failures sought to establish ba = width of adhesive layer
design values of the FRP strain below which separation would h = total depth of the section
not occur. Such design values were typically rather less than
the ultimate FRP strain capacity. Neubauer and Rostasy(111) The longitudinal shear stress should be checked near to the
suggest a limit of 5εy (critical for mild steel) or half the plate ends, where the shear force acting on the strengthened
ultimate plate strain, which for the materials tested was portion of the member will be at its greatest. Equation 12
0.0075. Other workers have suggested somewhat lower limits, may be used in this position provided both the concrete in
in the order of 0.006 for sagging moments and 0.004 for compression and steel reinforcement are still behaving
hogging moments(116). approximately elastically. The longitudinal shear stress need
not, however, be checked within lt,max of the end of the plate,
Such an approach alone does not fully capture the mechanics where lt.max is determined in accordance with Equation 15.
that underpin the initiation of FRP separation failure. How-
ever, it does seem prudent at present to retain a limit on the Additionally, the longitudinal shear stress must be checked
maximum design FRP strain. When used in conjunction with where any changes in section properties occur, at positions
a limit on the maximum longitudinal shear stress between the where there are discontinuities in shear force, such as at the
FRP and the concrete, UK experience suggests that higher position of point loads, and at the location along the span
strain limits than those described above are reasonable. where the steel reinforcement stress–strain behaviour goes

35
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

from elastic to yielding. At this point the longitudinal shear lt,max = 0.7 √ (Efd tf /fctm) (mm) (Equation 15)
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stress can increase dramatically because the steel reinforce-

ment no longer contributes to the flexural stiffness of the where
section and any increase in bending moment must be carried kb = 1.06.√ [(2 – bf /bw) / (1 + bf /400)] > 1.0
–
by the FRP alone. The position in the span where the steel (Equation 16)
first yields must be found, either by an iterative trial-and- bf = plate width (mm)
error method or by calculating the strain profile along the
bw = beam width or plate spacing for solid slab (mm)
length of the beam. Once the position where the reinforce-
ment yields is found, the longitudinal shear stress should be tf = plate thickness (mm)
found by calculating the stress ff in the FRP at this position Efd = elastic modulus of the plate (N/mm2)
and at a position a short distance, ∆y, further along the fctm = tensile strength of concrete = 0.18 (fcu)2/3 (N/mm2)
section in the direction of increasing bending moment. The (Equation 17)
difference in stress in the FRP, ∆ff, along this length can then
be found and the resulting shear stress can be approximated (Ideally fctm should be obtained from pull-off tests on the
using the equation: actual concrete.)

∆f f It is recommended that, where the FRP is curtailed in the

τ = tf (Equation 13) span, a minimum anchorage length of 500mm should be
∆y
provided. In situations where it is not possible to provide an
anchorage length in excess of lt,max, the bond force will be
This approach to calculation of longitudinal shear stress
less than Tk,max and may be calculated using the following
should be used wherever the section properties are non-linear.
expression:
Anchorage design
Tk = (Tk,max lt /lt,max) [2 – lt /lt,max] (N) (Equation 18)
In addition to maintaining low longitudinal shear stresses,
adequate FRP end anchorage must be provided. Work on end The anchorage design should be undertaken by determining
anchorage lengths has been carried out by a number of the point in the span where the FRP is no longer required.
authors. The recommended approach is based upon the model From a sectional analysis, in accordance with the approach
proposed by Neubauer and Rostasy(111). described in Section 6.2, the force that will be developed in
the FRP if it is bonded to the member at this point should
Figure 23 illustrates the model. Also as described above, it then be determined. It is important to recognise that, although
can be seen that the characteristic bond failure force, Tk, the FRP may not be required at this point, the fact that it is
bonded to the concrete will nevertheless mean that some
increases with increasing anchorage length, lt, but that there
force will be developed in it. The resulting FRP force should
is a threshold anchorage length, lt,max, above which no increase be checked to ensure that it is less than the ultimate
in the bond failure force is possible. anchorage capacity, Tk, and if so, an acceptable anchorage
design will result from extending the FRP by an anchorage
length beyond this point. If this condition is not satisfied
then the FRP should be extended further towards the support
or consideration given to using a thinner but wider FRP
laminate. Alternatively, consideration may be given to using
an anchorage device, provided that its capacity has been
proved by testing.

6.4 FLEXURAL STRENGTHENING WITH

NSM REINFORCEMENT

6.4.1 Introduction
Figure 23: Characteristic bond failure force vs anchorage
length. Flexural strengthening can be achieved by bonding
pultruded strips or rods into slots cut in the surface of the
The maximum ultimate bond force, Tk,max, and the corres- concrete. This application is termed Near-Surface-Mounted
ponding maximum anchorage length, lt,max, needed to acti- (NSM) reinforcement, and has benefits where the exposed
vate this bond force can be calculated using the following concrete surface is to be trafficked or otherwise exposed to
expressions: potential damage. The technique is also applicable where the
surface of the concrete is undulating, or if there is excessive
Tk,max = 0.5 kb bf √ (Efd tf fctm) (N) (Equation 14) laitance or a thin layer of poor quality concrete near the

36
 Strengthening members in flexure

surface. The method also results in an increased bond area, Most experiments to date have been performed on NSM bars
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which helps to delay the onset of debonding type failure. with circular or rectangular cross-section. Circular bar dia-
Installation is more costly than for externally bonded rein- meters range between 7 and 16mm while strips are usually
forcement, due to the need to cut the slots and prepare the rectangular in shape of thickness less than 2mm. Most tests
bond surface. Usually the technique would only be used where on NSM bars have used carbon or glass FRP bars(117,118).
externally bonded reinforcement is not a good technical Tests have shown that higher average bond stresses are
solution. obtained from bars made from carbon than those made from
glass(118) probably due to the higher stiffness of carbon.
6.4.2 Design basis
To improve the bond capacity, NSM bars have either a
Other than for FRP curtailment (see Section 6.4.4), the basis prepared surface (by grit-blasting, abrasion or peel ply) or a
for design of NSM schemes is substantially the same as for deformed surface, with ribs similar to deformed steel bars or
surface-mounted flexural strengthening. Appropriate allow- spiral surface deformations, as a result of the method of
ance must be made for the fact that the FRP reinforcement is manufacture. It has been observed that deformed bars perform
located within the section, and will therefore be strained better in terms of bond than grit-blasted bars(118).
slightly less than the surface of the concrete. Flexural design
methods and limits should therefore be as for surface- The size and shape of the groove into which the bar is placed
mounted reinforcement (see Section 6.2). affect the mode of failure of the anchorage of an NSM bar. It
should be noted that other factors such as strength and
Material details and compatibility should be in accordance thickness of the adhesive surrounding the bar interact with
with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Complete systems the size (depth and width) to determine the mode of failure.
should be adopted, since details, such as the preparation of
Although cement-based adhesive materials can be used to
the surface after the groove has been cut, depend upon the
fill the grooves and surround the bar, experimentation has
adhesive used. For example, clean dry surfaces are normally
shown that this gives lower average bond strengths than
required, but primers may be necessary before certain adhe-
epoxy adhesives, which have higher tensile strengths.
sives are applied to the concrete. The type and thickness of
Expansive cement-based mortars should be avoided since
epoxy to be used should be in accordance with the manu-
facturer’s recommendations. Since this may also be affected the expansion can introduce cracks and weaken the bond(119).
by the location and orientation of the groove and specific Furthermore, most of the existing experimental results on
requirements of the structure (e.g. environmental exposure, NSM techniques have been obtained using epoxy adhesives.
service conditions such as elevated temperatures) this should
be discussed with the manufacturer early in the design Due to the experimental results noted above, and reflecting
process. the bars currently available in the UK market, guidance is
presented here for a subset of the possible NSM schemes.
6.4.3 Bond behaviour
6.4.4 Modes of failure
Curtailment and anchorage of NSM FRP differs from that of
surface-mounted FRP. The adhesive is a thicker block than Both pull-out tests and beam tests have indicated that the
the thin layer used for surface-mounted strips. The interface ultimate load carried by NSM bars increases with increasing
area between FRP and adhesive is potentially much smaller bond length. As for surface-mounted strips, there is a limit to
than that between adhesive and concrete. Furthermore the this length beyond which any further length increase does
practicalities of surface preparation are likely to result in not enhance the bond strength(117). However, the strength
different qualities of preparation on the sides of the slots than arising from this limit is a much higher proportion of the
on the bottom of the slot. For these reasons, some of the FRP capacity than is the case for surface-mounted strips, and
debonding criteria used for surface-mounted plates are not is correspondingly less likely to be a limiting design factor.
applicable to anchorage of NSM rods.
There are two main modes of failure associated with NSM
There are more variable factors for NSM applications than bars. Failure normally involves debonding, which occurs at
for surface-mounted strips and plates. The key factors include the adhesive–bar interface or concrete–adhesive interface,
bar size and shape, bar material, bar surface preparation although in some cases tensile failure of the FRP bars may
(deformed or sandblasted), groove size, shape and surface occur before bond failure. The two main failure modes are:
preparation, bonding agent (epoxy or cementitious material),
strength of concrete and location of existing bars. The effects • Adhesive splitting failure: splitting of the adhesive cover
of these factors have been noted experimentally and are still surrounding the bar as a result of high tensile stresses that
being actively researched. However, few experimental pro- are initiated at the FRP bar–epoxy adhesive interface
grammes have examined all these variables and how they • Concrete splitting failure: splitting of the concrete
interact. surrounding the adhesive as a result of concrete at the
interface reaching its tensile strength. This mode normally
occurs when the adhesive strength is much higher than
the surrounding concrete.

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

These modes of failure are generally accompanied by pull- published test data for the performance of NSM bar
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out of the NSM bar along the interface where the failure is anchorage with a wide range of properties. The guidance is
initiated. Mixed mode failure involving a combination of the limited to the following:
two has also been reported(117–120).
• circular bars of up to 16mm diameter
Adhesive splitting is predominantly governed by the thick- • epoxy adhesive used to bond bars into grooves
ness of the epoxy surrounding the NSM bar while concrete • surface preparation of the bar (e.g. peel ply or a deformed
splitting is governed by the groove size. By using adhesives surface) such that manufacturer’s testing demonstrates
of high tensile strength, adhesive splitting failures, which that the bar will not pull out from the adhesive used
form with longitudinal cracking through the adhesive cover, • grooves such that the installed bar is straight
can be minimised(121). It is then possible to increase the • grooves having square cross-section, with both width and
groove dimensions and minimise the induced tensile stresses depth of groove at least twice the bar diameter
at the concrete–adhesive interface thus preventing concrete • existing structural metallic reinforcement not intersecting
splitting failure. the groove
• where grooves are spaced on the structure, the clear
6.4.5 NSM separation failure design spacing between grooves should be at least the width of
the groove and the last groove should be at least four
Shear-crack-induced separation, surface irregularity-induced times the bar diameter from an edge of the structure
separation and maximum FRP strain should be checked as • grooves having a surface preparation that provides a
for surface-mounted strips (Section 6.3.2). In checking irregu- rough gripping surface for bonding (i.e. not simply
larity, the profile of the as-installed bars should be con- diamond-sawn).
sidered, since NSM bars may be appropriate for an undulating
surface if this is corrected by the groove-cutting process. For conditions outside these criteria, specialist advice should
be sought. Detailed analysis as described in the references
Outside the anchorage length, the longitudinal shear stress may be required to confirm anchorage, or it may be
between the adhesive and concrete should also be checked as appropriate to undertake testing to confirm the assumed
for surface-mounted strips, except that in applying Equation performance.
12 an equivalent value should be substituted for ba,
representing the useful perimeter of the groove. For a To avoid adhesive splitting failure, bar force should be
rectangular groove this would normally be the minimum limited to no more than:
width plus the minimum depth, i.e. only half of each side of
the groove is counted since the groove sides cannot normally Tnsm,ad = 0.1bbarperim lnsm f at for plain FRP bars (including
be prepared to as high a standard as an exposed face. If spirally wound and sand coated
special methods and particular care are used on the sides of bars) (Equation 19)
the groove, it may be appropriate to increase the useful
Tnsm,ad = 0.3 bbarperim lnsm f at for deformed FRP bars
perimeter to the width plus twice the depth, i.e. the gross
perimeter of the groove. If there is a layer of weak laitance (Equation 20)
near the surface of the concrete the value for the depth
should be reduced appropriately.
where
6.4.6 Anchorage design Tnsm,ad = characteristic adhesive bond failure force
bbarperim = perimeter of FRP bar
Two main approaches have been developed in order to lnsm = anchorage length provided for NSM bar
predict the anchorage length required and the maximum fat = design adhesive tensile strength.
stress that can be carried by NSM reinforcement. In the first
approach data from bond slip tests are used to model the
To avoid concrete splitting failure, the maximum ultimate
bond behaviour of NSM anchorage(118). These equations can anchorage force, Tnsm,max, and corresponding maximum
predict the anchorage length required and the resulting stress
anchorage length, lnsm,max, can be calculated from the follow-
in the bar. In the second method an average bond stress is
assumed and the radial pressure exerted on the surrounding ing expressions:
concrete is related to the ultimate cracking stress in the
adhesive or concrete interface(117).
Tnsm, max = 1.9 Efd Af bnotchperim f ctm (Equation 21)
However, in view of the variability and relative novelty of
the technique, a cautious approach is suggested, which may Efd Af
be relaxed if a more rigorous design method based on lnsm, max = 4.5 (Equation 22)
bnotchperim f ctm
specialist advice is carried out. The guidelines are presented
here for a subset of possible NSM schemes based upon

38
 Strengthening members in flexure

where 6.6 THICK AND MULTI-LAYER

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Tnsm,max = maximum NSM anchorage force (N) LAMINATES

lnsm,max = anchorage length required to generate Tnsm,max
Efd = design FRP modulus of elasticity (N/mm2) The FRP strengthening systems available in the UK are gene-
Af = area of FRP (mm2) rally pultruded plates of less than 2mm thick (1.2mm and
1.4mm are the most common) and fabrics with an effective
bnotchperim = effective perimeter of notch (mm) (making
thickness of between 0.1mm and 0.3mm (see Appendix B).
allowance for surface preparation and/or weak
laitance layer) Some manufacturers can supply thicker plates, either manu-
fctm = concrete tensile strength (N/mm2) factured in a single process or by bonding together pre-
viously manufactured pultruded plates to produce a thicker
In situations where the maximum anchorage length is not laminate. In addition, it is possible to bond plates in stacks
possible or necessary, the anchorage force generated by a on site. Fabrics are laminated on to the structure by applying
shorter length can be assessed from: successive layers of resin and fabric until the required
thickness (and hence strength) is obtained.
lnsm ⎛⎜ l ⎞
Tnsm = Tnsm, max ⎜ 2 − nsm ⎟⎟ (Equation 23)
lnsm, max ⎝ lnsm, max ⎠ However, there are limitations to the thickness of FRP that
can be usefully employed. Frequently, the prevention of a
where debonding failure of the FRP from the concrete will limit the
Tnsm = characteristic anchorage force for NSM thickness, since stacking two laminates will almost double the
lnsm = anchorage length provided for NSM. longitudinal shear stresses in the FRP–concrete adhesive bond.

While the use of NSM strips, rather than rods, appears to be Additional layers increase the number of potential failure
an efficient strengthening technique, there is at present insuf- modes, since failure can occur in the adhesive between
ficient information available for specific design guidelines layers and exacerbates potential failure within the FRP. If the
for such situations to be included and specialist advice stacked layers are not of the same length (which is normal,
should be sought. in order to reduce stress concentrations in the curtailment
zone), there are also additional anchorage zones that must be
checked for debonding.
6.5 FLEXURAL STRENGTHENING
PLATE LOCATION It is preferable not to stack pultruded plates. In some situa-
tions (e.g. T-beams with narrow webs that have insufficient
Flexural strengthening is usually achieved by bonding plates width of soffit to accommodate the required areas of FRP) it
(or fabric) to the tensile face of the member being may be the only way that an otherwise suitable scheme can
strengthened (i.e. the soffit of a sagging simply supported be detailed. In these situations stacking of plates in situ, or
beam). This achieves maximum efficiency in use of material, use of thicker laminated plates may be appropriate if the
since the FRP is subjected to the maximum possible tensile following conditions are met:
strain. However, in certain situations it may be appropriate
to bond plates to other parts of the section. • The plates are intended by the manufacturer for such use,
and have sufficient inter-laminar strength that they will
If this is undertaken, there is reduced utilisation of the FRP not suffer internal shear failures.
as it is less highly strained since it is located nearer to the • The plates that are bonded to both sides have suitable
neutral axis of the section. Other issues must also be preparation to both faces; some plates incorporating peel
considered. Most significantly, if it is proposed to bond the ply are manufactured with this on only one face, and
FRP to the sides of the beam, the strip will now be subjected would not be suitable for stacking without further prepa-
to bending about its strong axis, in which it may have ration work.
significant flexural stiffness. Although this may make a • Peeling failure is checked at the curtailment of every
small additional contribution to the flexural stiffness of the plate, and allowance is made in the design calculations
section as a whole, the most significant effect is that for the non-prismatic section.
debonding of the plate may be precipitated, since in addition • The construction sequence is carefully specified to ensure
to tensile peeling and longitudinal shear stress, the adhesive that bonding subsequent plates does not disturb or damage
interface is now also subject to transverse shear stresses. the bond of the lower plates.
There has been no significant research with plates in this
orientation. If this arrangement is considered, the adequacy For stacks of plates formed in situ, the stack should not
of the design should be confirmed by testing, unless the normally be more than two high. There is some limited UK
beam is very deep and therefore the differential strain experience with stacks three high, but in this case specialist
between the edges of the plate relatively small

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

advice should be sought. For stacks formed by the manu- widths in steel-reinforced concrete structures is given in
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facturer under factory conditions, higher stacks may be Section Three of BS 8110: Part 2, and Section Five of BS
possible. Testing may be necessary to demonstrate the perfor- 5400: Part 4. These methods can be adapted for FRP-
mance of the stack, but it is unlikely that greater than 5mm strengthened structures simply by calculating the strain in
thickness will be useful, due to the limits of the bond the tension steel, using a suitable concrete compression
strength to the concrete. stress–strain curve, and crack width under permanent load
and transient load separately. The FRP strengthening can
When fabrics are used, multiple plies can be overlaid to betaken into account by using the transformed area of the
achieve the necessary strength of the FRP component. The FRP laminate in calculating the strain in the tension steel
same overall limitations apply, but these limits will normally under transient loading (unless the construction sequence is
be reached when many plies are installed. If large numbers such that the FRP laminate will be subject to permanent
of plies are overlaid, it is likely to be the achievable quality loads, for example where surface finishes are applied over
of workmanship that limits the design, and a trial installation the FRP laminate). The second moment of area of the section
should be considered in order to demonstrate that a void-free should be determined assuming that the long-term modular
laminate can be produced under the site conditions relevant ratios of steel to concrete, αe, and FRP to concrete, αf, are
to the particular project. given by:

6.7 REDISTRIBUTION αe = Es /(½ Ec) or αe = Es /((1/1+φ) Ec) (Equation 24)

Moment redistribution in any continuous concrete structure αf = Efd /(½ Ec) or αf = Efd /((1/1+φ) Ec) (Equation 25)
relies on adequate rotation capacity of critical sections(122). If
a structure displays ductility, it will also display rotation where
capacity. However, if a structure displays rotation capacity, it φ = creep coefficient.
will not automatically display ductility(123–125). This is impor-
tant in the context of FRP-strengthened concrete structures It is worth noting that calculating crack widths is not as
because research has shown that ductility is usually limited straightforward as suggested here. This is because, when the
in such structures(126), even though adequate levels of rota- FRP strengthening system is placed on the surface, the crack
tion capacity often exist(127,128). spacing is defined by the load on the unstrengthened
structure. The crack width due to live load would be signi-
Therefore, moment redistribution into FRP-strengthened ficantly reduced due to the presence of the FRP strength-
zones is permitted up to a maximum of 30% if it can be ening. However, only a limited amount of experimental and
demonstrated that there exists sufficient rotation capacity theoretical work defining the extent of this reduction in
within the strengthened zone and within the surrounding crack width has been carried out. In the interim, therefore,
structure to allow such redistribution to be take place (see the procedure outlined above is recommended, which will
Denton(129)). provide a conservative estimate.

However, moment redistribution out of FRP-strengthened Where a wet lay-up FRP strengthening system is used to
zones relies on a substantially higher level of rotation capa- fully cover the concrete surface the durability of the concrete
city being available in the strengthened zone. Therefore, structure may be significantly improved in the region of the
moment redistribution out of FRP-strengthened zones is not FRP strengthening. However, additional appropriate construc-
recommended. tion details, for example, to prevent the build-up of moisture
in the substrate adjacent to the wet lay-up FRP strength-
6.8 SERVICEABILITY ening, should also be considered.

6.8.1 Crack widths 6.8.2 Deflections and material stresses

The causes of any existing cracking in the concrete substrate For buildings, deflections due to the projected increased load
should be ascertained, and resolved if possible, prior to should not exceed the limits recommended in BS 8110. To
installation of the FRP strengthening system. Any such avoid excessive deformations in bridges, the stresses in the
cracks should be repaired prior to installation of the FRP steel reinforcement and concrete at working loads should not
strengthening system, for example by resin injection; all normally exceed 0.8fy and 0.6fcu (or 0.6 times the worst
materials used should be compatible with the FRP credible strength), respectively. See also Sections 5.6.5 and
strengthening system. 5.6.6. Such deflections and material stresses can be
estimated using elastic principles. The presence of the FRP
Normally, crack widths will not be excessive providing the strengthening will only reduce the live-load deflections
FRP strengthening system has been properly installed. (assuming that the FRP is not prestressed and jacking is not
Where necessary crack widths at service loads should be used). The material stress limits in Sections 6.8.3 and 6.8.4
checked against the limits recommended in BS 8110 or BS are applicable. The equivalent transformed section for long-
5400: Part 4, as appropriate. Guidance on calculating crack term loading should be obtained by assuming that the

40
 Strengthening members in flexure

modular ratios of steel to concrete, αe, and FRP to concrete, It is recommended that the maximum stress in the FRP at
αf, are given by Equations 24 and 25, respectively, and for
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service loads, as a proportion of the design strength, should

short-term loading are based on the short-term elastic moduli not exceed the values given in Table 9.
of the concrete and steel. Table 9: Maximum stress under service loads to avoid stress rup-
ture as a proportion of design strength (%).
6.8.3 Fatigue
Material Maximum stress (%)
For bridges, the designer should consider the effect of Carbon FRP 65
repeated live loading on the fatigue strength of the steel
Aramid FRP 40
reinforcement and the FRP. Checks for fatigue failure should
be carried out in accordance with the recommendations in Glass FRP 45
Clause 4.7 of BS 5400: Part 4. The stress range in the FRP
should be limited to the appropriate value given in Table 8. 6.8.5 Strengthening under non-static live load
The failure mode for fatigue is typically yield of the steel
followed by spalling at the concrete soffit and debonding of One of the great benefits of using FRP for retrofit strength-
the FRP. ening is the ease, speed and short period of time required for
the works. In order to maximise these benefits during the
Highways Agency Advice Note BA 30(9) controls the fatigue strengthening of concrete bridges, it is clearly desirable that
behaviour of steel plate bonding applications by limiting the traffic be allowed to flow over the bridge during the works.
cyclic stresses that may be applied to the steel plate. In the USA, strengthening under such live load is permitted,
Table 8: Maximum stress ranges as a proportion of the design
as long as vehicle speeds are controlled(131).
ultimate strength (%).
The obvious caveat to strengthening under live load is the
Material Stress range (%) effect that intermittent loading has on the curing process in
Carbon FRP 80 the adhesive. Hejll et al.(132) have carried out laboratory tests
Aramid FRP 70 on concrete bridge girders strengthened under static condi-
tions and under simulated live-load conditions, in which a
Glass FRP 30 load causing 60% of the yield strain in the steel reinforce-
ment was applied cyclically every 108 seconds. Their tests
Lap splices of FRP plates showed that there was effectively no difference in ultimate
capacity and behaviour between bonded systems (either
Wherever possible, lap splices of FRP plates should be laminate or NSM) that had been installed under static or under
avoided in regions where the fatigue stress range is high. In simulated live-load conditions. What is more, the level of
addition, lap splices in adjacent plates should be staggered strengthening was 80–150% of the original capacity of the
and alternated to avoid the concentration of lap splices in a unstrengthened bridge girders, adding confidence to their
single region. claim that traffic need not be stopped during FRP strength-
ening works on bridges.
Preliminary research(130) has shown that the fatigue life of a
lap splice is dependent on the length of the lap, among other This tends to confirm work by Barnes and Mays(133) who
factors. Therefore, the minimum length of any lap splice conducted tests on strengthened beams with a 1Hz cyclic
should be 300mm or the manufacturer’s minimum recom- load during curing of between 20 and 170 microstrain. Their
mended lap splice length, whichever is the greater. research showed that for strengthening concrete beams under
live load there was no effect on the ultimate strength. This was
Delaminations/voids because failure in their test specimens was due to the con-
crete cover pulling off, rather than failure of the adhesive.
Concrete Society Technical Report 57(5) provides guidance However, further tests designed to investigate failure in the
on the acceptable limits of delamination and voids in an adhesive itself showed a significant reduction in strength if
adhesive bond. the adhesive interface governed.

6.8.4 Stress rupture It is therefore recommended that the strength of the adhesive
be reduced in accordance with Table 10. If this reduced
Rupture of the FRP may occur at service loads due to sus- adhesive strength is less than the design strength of the
tained stresses in the material. Applications where sustained concrete, then the live load during adhesive curing should be
stresses may be present in the FRP include: restricted. This should be taken into account when calcu-
lating achievable anchorage force in NSM-strengthened
• temporary dead load removal by jacking, followed by structures.
FRP strengthening
• physical removal of dead load, followed by FRP
strengthening and then reinstatement of dead load.

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

Table 10: Reduction in strength of adhesive for given live-load ability issues govern prestressed design whereas these guide-
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strains at FRP–concrete interface (%). lines focus predominantly upon ultimate limit state. There are,
therefore, a number of factors to consider when strength-
Live-load strains at ening a prestressed structure such as:
Reduction in strength of
FRP–concrete interface
adhesive (%)
during curing (10–6) • the need to accurately assess current and future stress
20 10 states
50 12 • the sensitivity of the strengthened section to the initial
100 16 stress state compared with that of an uncracked rein-
forced concrete section
150 22
• the lower ductility of prestressing tendons compared with
200 32 reinforcing steel
• different anchorage behaviour due to reduced cracking
6.9 STRENGTHENING PRESTRESSED preventing the full generation of anchorage force.
STRUCTURES
A fuller discussion of strengthening prestressed concrete
Many of the same principles outlined in the previous structures is given in the FIB Technical Report(90).
Sections of this Chapter can be applied to the strengthening
of prestressed concrete structures. However, note that service-

42
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43
Strengthening members in flexure
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44
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

45
Strengthening members in flexure
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Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
 7 SHEAR STRENGTHENING
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7.1 INTRODUCTION can therefore be governed by separation of the FRP from the
concrete, and it is not sufficient to assume that fracture of the
Externally bonded FRP laminates and fabrics can be used to FRP will occur. Such separation is typically associated with
increase the shear strength of reinforced concrete beams and the propagation of a failure plane in the concrete close to the
columns. FRP may be bonded to the concrete in various surface.
configurations. Ideally FRP should be wrapped around the
whole perimeter of the member (fully wrapped). Alter- Side-only or U-wrapped members will be more prone to
natively, it can be applied only to the sides of the member separation failures than fully wrapped members. Full wrap-
(side-only) or to the sides and the tension face of the member ping is therefore preferable and should always be used when
(U-wrapped). Figure 24 shows examples of possible FRP it is feasible. However, it is generally not practicable for
shear strengthening configurations. This Chapter focuses on beams, because the top of the beam is inaccessible. In most
rectangular beams and columns. Guidance on strengthening cases it will be possible to fully wrap columns.
of circular columns in shear is included in Section 8.3.4.
The behaviour of reinforced concrete in shear is complex.
Furthermore, considerably less research has been undertaken
into FRP shear strengthening than flexural strengthening. It
is therefore appropriate at present to adopt a cautious design
procedure for shear strengthening. The design procedure given
is based upon that proposed by Denton et al.(112). In deve-
loping their proposals, they reviewed numerous alternative
design approaches and provide a detailed justification for
their proposed method.

The majority of experimental testing of reinforced concrete

Side Only U-Wrapped Fully Wrapped members strengthened in shear has used carbon rather than
(n=2) (n=1) (n=0) aramid or glass fibre. Although the underlying principles
should be common to all materials, the design procedure
presented below is best suited to designs using carbon FRP.
Figure 24: Shear reinforcement configurations.
The approach should be conservative if applied to aramid or
glass FRP, and in some cases may be significantly so.
The orientation of the FRP fibres can affect the performance
of the strengthening system. Theoretically fibres that are
As with flexural strengthening, the assumptions made in the
inclined to resist the formation of shear cracks can be more
design should be reflected in the installation work on site. It
effective than fibres aligned perpendicular to the longi-
is therefore important to consider the issues outlined in
tudinal axis of the member. However, if the shear force
Section 6.1 in developing the design for shear.
direction can reverse, or if the FRP is partially or fully
wrapped around the beam, systems with fibres aligned
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member are 7.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE
more convenient and are typically used in practice.
7.2.1 Maximum shear capacity
In understanding the behaviour of FRP strengthening in
shear, it is important to recognise that the bond behaviour of Irrespective of the amount of conventional or FRP shear
FRP differs markedly from conventional embedded steel reinforcement provided, the shear strength of a section can
reinforcement. As discussed in Section 6.3, it has been found be limited by a diagonal compression shear failure in the
in tests on the anchorage of externally bonded FRP that concrete. Such a failure can be avoided by limiting the maxi-
beyond a limiting bonded length, no further increase in the mum shear stress in the concrete. According to Clause 3.4.5.2
ultimate anchorage load-capacity occurs with increasing of BS 8110, the maximum permissible shear stress, vmax,
bonded length. This maximum anchorage capacity can be should be taken as the lesser of 0.8√fcu or 5N/mm2, whatever
very much less than the ultimate tensile capacity of the FRP. shear reinforcement is provided. Similar limits are included
The contribution that the FRP makes to the shear capacity in BS 5400 Part 4, where vmax is the lesser of 0.75√fcu or

47
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

4.75N/mm2. It is recommended therefore, that such a criterion εfse = effective strain in the FRP for shear strengthening
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be used in the design of FRP shear-strengthened members. Afs = area of FRP (mm2) for shear strengthening mea-
The maximum allowable design shear force due to ultimate sured perpendicular to the direction of the fibres.
loads, VR,max, at any cross-section, is thus obtained from: When FRP laminates are applied symmetrically on
both sides of a beam, Afs is the sum of the areas of
VR,max = vmax b d (Equation 26) both laminates, i.e. Afs = 2 bf tf
bf = width of the FRP laminate (mm) measured perpen-
where
dicular to the direction of the fibres. For continuous
b = width of section
FRP sheet, sf is taken as 1.0 and bf is taken as cos β
d = effective depth of section
vmax = maximum concrete shear stress df = effective depth of the FRP strengthening, measured
(determined from the appropriate Standard) from the top of the FRP to the tension reinforcement
(mm)
Tests on FRP-strengthened beam and slab structures have Efd = design tensile modulus of the FRP laminate
indicated that the shear capacity of such structures can be (N/mm2) (see Section 5.6.3)
limited by the longitudinal shear capacity at the interface lt,max = anchorage length required to develop full anchorage
between the beam and slab. This interface should therefore capacity (see Section 6.3) (mm)
be checked to ensure its adequacy, using conventional design sf = longitudinal spacing of the FRP laminates used for
or assessment Standards. shear strengthening (mm). For continuous FRP
sheet, sf is taken as 1.0 and bf is taken as cos β
7.2.2 FRP shear strengthening design
tf = thickness of the FRP laminate (mm).
The ultimate shear capacity of an FRP strengthened beam
can be expressed as: The notation is illustrated in Figure 25.

Vu = Vc + Vs + Vf (Equation 27) Afs = 2bf tf

α
where d h bf
Vc = contribution from the concrete to the shear capacity sf
(N)
Vf = contribution from the FRP to the shear capacity (N)
Vs = contribution from the steel to the shear capacity (N)
FRP Laminates on both sides
Vu = ultimate shear capacity of FRP strengthened section
(N).
Figure 25: General notation for shear strengthening.
Vc and Vs can be determined from conventional design stan-
dards, such as Clauses 3.4.5.3 and 3.4.5.4 of BS 8110: Part 1: The effective strain in the FRP, εfse, accounts for the varia-
1997. For structures designed to the 1985 edition of BS tion in strain in the FRP along the shear crack when the ulti-
8110, it would be more appropriate to assume a steel stress mate limit state is reached. It should be taken as the minimum
of 0.87fy, rather than 0.95fy, as in the 1997 edition. Alterna- of:
tively, equivalent criteria are included in BS 5400 Part 4.
(i) εfd / 2
Assuming a 45° shear crack, it follows from equilibrium that
the contribution of the FRP to the shear capacity is given by: f ctm
(ii) 0.64
Efdt f
⎛ n ⎞
⎜ d f − lt ,max ⎟ (iii) 0.004
Vf = Efd ε fse Afs ⎝ 3 ⎠ (cos β + sin β ) (Equation 28)
sf where
fctm = tensile strength of the concrete (N/mm2)
where
n = 0 for a fully wrapped beam, 1.0 when FRP is bonded εfd = design ultimate strain capacity of FRP (see Section
continuously to the sides and bottom of a beam and 5.6.4)
2.0 when it is bonded to only the sides of a beam
β = angle between the principal fibres of the FRP and a The first strain limit of half the ultimate strain capacity
line perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the represents the average FRP strain when fracture of the FRP
member. β is positive when the principle fibres of occurs. Alternative limits have been suggested for this condi-
the FRP are rotated away from the direction in tion. Chen and Teng(134) propose half the ultimate strain capa-
which a shear crack will form city, while Täljsten(92) proposes 0.6 times the ultimate strain

48
 Shear strengthening

capacity. It appears that Täljsten’s limit applies when the Figure 27 shows a comparison of experimental measured
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behaviour of the member is predominantly elastic and that values of Vf and those determined using the design method
Chen and Teng’s limit is more suitable when the behaviour described above (after Denton et al.(112)), with all partial
of a member is characterised by rigid body movements of the safety factors taken as unity. There appears to be reasonable
regions of the member either side of a shear crack. The lower agreement. Furthermore, the substantial majority of cases lie
of the two values has been adopted. on the safe side, with the experimentally measured values
exceeding those determined using the proposed design
The second strain limit corresponds to debonding of the FRP, method.
and is based on Neubauer and Rostasy’s anchorage model(111),
as described in Section 6.3. In other design approaches, FRP
separation has been considered primarily for FRP bonded
200
either to the sides of beams or to the sides and the tension Side and U-Wrapped
180 Fully Wrapped
face of beams. Here it is recognised that this condition should

Vf (Design Method)
160 Design = Exp
also be applied to fully wrapped beams to ensure that the 140
integrity of the concrete is maintained and Vc does not dimi- 120
100
nish before Vf reaches its design value, as explained by 80
60
Denton et al.(112). For small beams such an approach may be 40
conservative, but importantly it should be safe for the cases 20
most frequently encountered in practice. 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

The final 0.004 strain limit was proposed in early design V f (Experimental)
methods to ensure that the concrete integrity is maintained. Figure 27: Experimental verification of design method (after
This convenient rule of thumb appears to have limited Denton et al.(112)).
rational justification, and as is shown by Denton et al.(112),
does not necessarily prevent the development of wide cracks. 7.3 SPACING OF FRP STRIPS
It is retained because it seems sensibly cautious to do so.
As in the case of steel shear reinforcement, the centre-to-
In Equation 28, the effective depth is reduced by a length
centre spacing of strips of FRP should not be so wide as to
equal to (n/3)lt,max. This adjustment accounts for the reduc-
allow the full formation of a diagonal crack without inter-
tion in force that can be sustained by the FRP in the anchor- cepting a strip. In addition, Equation 28 is based on the
age regions. The Neubauer and Rostasy anchorage model, as approximation that the FRP contribution to the shear
described in Section 6.3, assumes a parabolic variation of resistance is distributed across the whole crack, rather than
stress with distance (see Figure 26). The force corresponding in discrete locations, which becomes invalid at large strip
to the area under the stress curve in the anchorage region is spacings. For these reasons, if strips are used, their centre-to-
therefore only 2/3 of the maximum stress multiplied by the centre should not exceed the least of:
anchorage length. This reduction in the FRP contribution can
be modelled by subtracting (n/3)lt,max from the effective (i) 0.8df
depth, as in Equation 28. The adjustment is made at the top (ii) df – (n/3)lt,max
for U-wrapped beams (n=1) and at the top and bottom for
(iii) bf + df /4
beams with FRP bonded only to the sides (n=2). No adjust-
ment is necessary for fully wrapped beams (n=0).
where the variables are as defined after Equation 28.
E fd = 230GPa
0.25
ε fd = 0.015 t f = 0.5mm Alternatively, the contribution of FRP strips to shear capa-
f ctm = 3MPa city may be evaluated with a rigorous analysis, accounting
0.2
for the critical location for a shear crack and the effect of
Parabolic Curve anchorage of the FRP strips. If this approach is used, the
0.15
t f = 1mm
limits on strip spacing in (i) to (iii) need not apply.
0.1
t f = 1.5mm
0.05
7.4 ADDITIONAL AXIAL FRP

0 Using the truss analogy it can be shown that beam and

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 column elements subjected to a shear force will experience
Bonded Length (mm) axial tensile forces, additional to those due to bending.
Additional axial reinforcement may therefore be required
Figure 26: Typical variation in ultimate strain capacity with
when strengthening for shear.
bonded length (after Neubauer and Rostasy(111)).

49
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

The standard method is to simply extend the axial FRP Clearly these approaches are not relevant when no axial FRP
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reinforcement a distance of half the effective depth beyond is present for bending. In this case, the ultimate bending
the point at which it is no longer required for bending. capacity of the member should be re-evaluated assuming the
area of each axial reinforcing bar between the tension face
If there is insufficient FRP to sustain the additional axial and the mid-depth of the section is reduced by an amount
tensile forces then extra axial FRP, Afa, should be provided. equal to:
The amount of additional FRP required can be determined Vs
from: (Equation 30)
2ne f y γ ms
Afa = Vs / 2ff (Equation 29) where
ne = total number of effective axial reinforcing bars
where between the tension face and the mid-depth of the
Vs = shear force due to ultimate loads section.
ff = stress in the FRP at the same location determined
Any shortfall in bending capacity should be compensated for
from a flexural analysis. by providing axial FRP reinforcement.

50
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51
Shear strengthening
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52
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
 8 STRENGTHENING AXIALLY
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LOADED MEMBERS

8.1 INTRODUCTION crete. As noted in Section 4.2.2, this process is significantly

more efficient with circular than with square or rectangular
Concrete columns in existing structures such as bridges and columns. This is because, with the latter, the confining action
buildings may require upgrading to enhance the following is mostly concentrated at the corners. Measures for, and limi-
properties: tations of, strengthening columns of non-circular cross-section
are discussed in Section 8.6. It should be noted that for the
• axial load capacity case of concentrically loaded columns, the bond is not
• flexural capacity critical since the composite does not need to transfer forces
• shear capacity along the FRP–concrete interface. However, bond becomes
• ductility. important when moment is also applied to the column and
anchorage of the localised confining hoop FRP is required.
Increased axial load capacity, for example, may be needed
for compression required to carry higher loads than origi- Column strengthening is normally carried out using fabric,
nally envisaged or where the loading requirements have which may be applied dry or be preimpregnated with an
changed. Enhanced flexural strength may be required for epoxy resin. The use of preformed shells made from a range
bridge supports that: of fibre types, including glass and carbon, is another option.
However, at present, most of the studies that have been
• are not capable of fully sustaining design loads from carried out using FRP shells have concentrated on their
heavy vehicle impact potential for new construction, where the FRP acts both as
• have insufficient lap lengths permanent formwork to the wet concrete and as external
• have incorrect termination of longitudinal reinforcement. reinforcement, rather than in repair or strengthening work.

Some columns designed to older codes may be incapable of The following sections deal with the design of circular
withstanding the large horizontal displacement that occurs columns for enhanced compressive strength, flexural strength,
between member ends during an earthquake. They may there- shear strength and ductility. A feature common to the design
fore require ductility enhancement in order to hold the cover procedures discussed is the stress–strain model for FRP-
concrete in place and prevent buckling of longitudinal rein- confined concrete, which is examined next.
forcement under axial load. Shear strength must also be
considered in any proposed column upgrading. It should be noted that the basic principles of strengthening
columns given in this Chapter are applicable also to
Where a deficiency exists, upgrading can be achieved by strengthening with shells. However, this is a more complex
bonding layers of axial and/or hoop FRP to the column design process that includes aspects such as the performance
perimeter. of the grout annulus and is beyond the scope of this Report.

Generally, bonding axial FRP to the column surface enhances 8.2 STRESS–STRAIN MODEL FOR FRP-
the flexural strength of the member. Hoop wrapping will also CONFINED CONCRETE
be necessary and should be placed over the axial FRP. The
hoop wrapping increases the concrete compressive strain Concrete in circular columns confined by hoop FRP displays
capacity, which can significantly improve the efficiency of an approximately bilinear stress–strain response, as shown in
the strengthening design. It also prevents buckling of the Figure 28. Initially, the behaviour is similar to that of plain
axial fibres, potentially enabling them to contribute in concrete since the FRP exerts a limited confining pressure on
compression. However, this contribution will be small and is the concrete. As the axial stress increases, however, the rate
therefore generally neglected. of lateral deformation of the concrete also increases, which
results in a concomitant reduction in stiffness of the con-
Bonding hoop FRP to the column surface enhances axial crete. Once the concrete reaches the ultimate strain limit of
load capacity and ductility of columns. The hoop FRP resists unconfined concrete, typically 0.0035, the material becomes
lateral deformations due to the axial loading, resulting in a highly fissured and the confinement provided by the FRP is
confining stress to the concrete core, delaying rupture of the fully activated. At this stage, the stress–strain response
concrete and thereby enhancing both the ultimate compres- becomes approximately linear with a slope dependent upon
sive strength and the ultimate compressive strain of the con- the stiffness of the hoop FRP.

53
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

A large number of researchers have developed theoretical

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stress–strain models validated by experimental testing(136–139).

While these models are reported to show quite good agree-
ment with test results(140), they are in some instances rather
complex and can be unconservative. There is also a need to
accurately predict ultimate stress and strain conditions. A
recent model developed by Lam and Teng(141) captures the
main aspects of the behaviour of FRP-confined circular
concrete columns in a simple form. The model has been
calibrated against all the currently available test data.

The model is made up of two parts, an initially parabolic

Figure 28: Idealised stress–strain curve for FRP-confined section, similar to that of unconfined concrete, followed by
concrete. a straight line section, the slope of which is dependent upon
the level of confinement. The initial slope of the parabolic
Several authors have proposed models that attempt to predict section is the same as that for unconfined concrete. The
the compressive stress–strain behaviour of confined concrete. parabola and straight line meet at the same slope and the
A large body of this work actually relates to steel rather than projection of the linear portion intercepts the stress axis at
FRP-confined concrete, with most of the formulations being the unconfined strength, fc0, as shown in Figure 29. The
founded on the pioneering work of Richart et al.(135) on
model converges to a stress–strain model similar to that in
triaxially confined concrete. Based on tests on cylindrical
BS 8110 for the unconfined case. The model is defined as
specimens subjected to constant hydrostatic pressure, these
follows:
authors showed that both axial strength and ductility of the
concrete increases with increasing confinement pressure.
fcc = Ecεcc – (Ec – E2)2εcc2/4fc0 for 0 <
– εcc <– εt
Further analysis of their data revealed that the compressive
strength increase could be predicted using the expression: (Equation 32)

fccd = fc0 + 4.1 fr (Equation 31) and

fcc = fc0 + E2 εcc for εt <

– εcc <– εccu
where
(Equation 33)
fccd = confined concrete compressive strength
fc0 = unconfined concrete compressive strength where
= 0.67 fcu / γmc εt = position of transition region between parabola and
fr = confinement pressure straight line
= 2fc0 /(Ec – E2) (Equation 34)
Later work on the behaviour of steel-confined concrete E2 = slope of linear portion of confined stress–strain
tended to confirm the validity of Equation 31. This is some- curve
what surprising considering the differences between the two = (fccd – fc0)/ εccu (Equation 35)
modes of confinement actually used. Richart’s test speci-
Ec = initial modulus of elasticity of concrete
mens were subjected to active confinement due to the hydro-
static pressure, which remained constant throughout the test. = 5.5√(fcu/γmc) (kN/mm2)
However, lateral steel reinforcement provides passive con- εcc = confined concrete axial strain
finement since the confining stresses only develop as a result fcc = confined concrete axial compressive stress
of the lateral expansion of the concrete. In this case, the εccu = confined concrete ultimate axial strain, given by
confining stress is neither uniform nor constant. Equation 40
fccd = confined concrete ultimate strength, given by
Over recent years, certain disadvantages of steel confine-
Equation 39.
ment have emerged, such as corrosion, incompatibilities
between the modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of steel
It is clearly evident that in order use this model, the ultimate
and concrete, and aesthetics, which have led researchers to
design failure stress, fccd, and ultimate compressive failure
consider FRP composites as an alternative confinement
medium. Strength models for FRP-confined columns, similar strain, εccu, of the concrete must be defined. Suitable models
to Equation 31, have been proposed by a number of are given in Section 8.3.2.
researchers. While these models may be adequate for pre-
dicting ultimate strength, they grossly underestimate ultimate It should be noted that the proposed model is only suitable if
strain. Consequently, there are large discrepancies between the strength of the confined concrete increases with
the actual and predicted stress–strain responses. increasing strain. For low levels of confinement, following
the initial parabolic increase, the stress may decrease with a

54
 Strengthening axially loaded members

further increase in strain and, therefore, the ultimate strength • Compliance with relevant serviceability limit states, such
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may be lower than the peak strength. It is therefore recom- as axial shortening, lateral deformation, loss of strength-
mended that this stress–strain model only be used when the ening effectiveness, fatigue and creep rupture, should be
following condition, based upon the work of Xiao and investigated.
Wu(142), is met:
8.3.2 Tensile rupture of FRP
2tf Efd (mm2/N)
> 0.183 (Equation 36)
Df c02 Generally it has been assumed that compression members
strengthened by hoop wrapping will fail if the circum-
where ferential stress in the composite exceeds its design tensile
tf = thickness of FRP (mm) stress capacity. On this basis, various equations have been
proposed for predicting the strength of FRP-confined
Efd = design modulus of elasticity of FRP (N/mm2)
columns. A number of these equations are actually based on
D = diameter of column (mm) the failure stress criterion for hydrostatic pressure proposed
by Richart et al.(135), given in Equation 31, and take the
If the condition is not met then no strength enhancement
following form:
should be assumed and the stress–strain model in BS 8110 or
BS 5400 for unconfined concrete should be assumed.
fccd = fc0 + k fr (Equation 37)
fcc
where the confining pressure, fr, is given by:
fccd
Confined concrete
E2 fr = 2ffd tf / D (Equation 38)
1
fc0 Unconfined concrete and
k = confinement effectiveness factor.

Ec Various values and expressions have been suggested by

researchers for the value of the effectiveness factor k
εt 0.0035 εccu εcc (typically less than the value of 4.1 given in Equation 31),
based on experimental results(137,139).
Figure 29: Stress–strain model.
While such equations are reported to give good correlation
It should also be noted that Equations 32 and 33 are both
with experimental results, they do not satisfy lateral strain
calibrated against test results obtained by subjecting
compatibility requirements and are therefore deemed unsuit-
cylindrical specimens to substantially concentric compres-
able. According to Lillistone and Jolly(143) this problem
sion. In most practical situations, columns are subject to both
would be overcome if the failure criterion were based on the
axial load and flexure, either due to load eccentricity or
confining stiffness rather than the confinement pressure.
applied moments. In particular, columns in bridge structures
Such an approach would offer the following advantages:
can be loaded horizontally as a result of vehicle impact. In
this case, the column must sustain a combination of axial
The failure criterion does not require prior knowledge of the
load and bending moment. Methods for analysing sections
lateral expansion of the concrete core. Unlike tensile strength,
under combined axial and flexural loads are detailed in
the elastic modulus of fibres is not reduced by mechanical
Section 8.4.
abrasion during manufacturing processes.
8.3 COMPRESSION On this basis, they recommended that the design strength of
concrete-filled filament-wound glass FRP circular tubes, fccd,
8.3.1 Introduction
should be estimated using:
As previously mentioned, providing hoop FRP around the
fccd = fc0 + 0.05(2tf/D) Efd (Equation 39)
perimeter of the column can increase the compressive strength
of circular columns. All members strengthened in compres-
sion should meet the following conditions: Comparative studies by Lillistone(140) show good agreement
with the results presented by Samaan et al.(137) for concrete-
• Tensile rupture of the FRP should be considered. filled E-glass-fibre filament-wound tubes, Howie and
• Failure of the FRP jacket at lap joints should be Karbhari(136) and Picher et al.(138) for carbon-fibre-wrapped
examined. concrete cylinders, and Saafi et al.(139) for concrete-filled E-
• The shear capacity of the column should be checked. glass and carbon-fibre filament-wound tubes.

55
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

In view of the above, it is recommended that Equation 39 be

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used to calculate the axial failure stress of FRP-confined

concrete. It is worth noting that this equation is also based on
the characteristic unconfined cube strength of concrete and
that a partial safety factor for concrete of 1.5 is assumed. Lap to be
column column
determined

The corresponding strain at rupture is required for deve-

loping the stress–strain curve in Section 8.2. Studies have
shown that the behaviour of confined concrete depends not
only on the confining pressure but also the stiffness of the Figure 30: Laps in columns.
confining FRP(137). As a result, ultimate strains are different
for different confining FRP materials, even when the con- 8.3.4 Shear
fining pressure is the same. Lam and Teng(141) have shown
that correlation with experimental results is poor if stiffness The presence of hoop FRP can increase the shear strength of
of the confining FRP is neglected in the model of ultimate concrete columns. Guidance on shear-strengthening of
strain. Based on experimental results, Lam and Teng have square or rectangular beams and columns is included in
developed an empirical equation for ultimate concrete strain Chapter 7. The guidelines included in this Section relate to
that takes into account the stiffness of the FRP as follows: circular columns.

1.45 The maximum shear strength of the section should be

ε ccu ⎛ 2E t ⎞⎛ 0.6ε fd ⎞
= 1.75 + 12⎜⎜ fd f ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (Equation 40) determined in accordance with Section 7.2.1. This capacity
ε c0 ⎝ E0 D ⎠⎝ ε c0 ⎠ gives the upper limit on the degree of strengthening that can
be achieved.
where
E0 = secant modulus of concrete = 0.67fcu/(γmc εc0) The ultimate shear capacity of an FRP strengthened column
εc0 = axial strain in unconfined concrete at peak stress = can be expressed as:
2.4×10–4√(fcu/γmc)
Vu = Vc + Vs + Vf (Equation 41)
εfd = design ultimate strain of FRP.
where
It should be noted, however, that at concrete compressive
Vc = contribution from the concrete to the shear capacity
strains of over approximately 0.01, the concrete will have
been crushed and have lost all cohesion. It is therefore Vf = contribution from the FRP to the shear capacity
recommended that if the ultimate strain, εccu, is greater than Vs = contribution from the steel to the shear capacity
0.01, then the failure stress should be taken as the value for Vu = ultimate shear capacity of FRP strengthened section.
fccd corresponding to the value of εcc=0.01 from the
stress–strain curve, rather than the failure stress at rupture of As described in Section 7.2.2, Vc and Vs can be determined
the FRP. from conventional design standards with account taken of
the material partial safety factors appropriate to the original
8.3.3 Lap joint failure date of construction. Additional guidance on evaluating the
capacity of circular columns is given by Clarke and
Failure of the FRP jacket can occur at lap joints due to Birjandi(144).
debonding, if the lap length is inadequate. This type of
failure is brittle and can be avoided simply by providing an As discussed in Section 7, for rectangular or square sections
adequate lap length. The actual length of overlap required is it is important to take account of debonding of the FRP in the
likely to vary between strengthening systems and so it is design of shear strengthening, even if the member is fully
recommended that individual manufacturers are consulted. wrapped. However, for circular members, the significance of
Where necessary, independent testing should be carried out. debonding is reduced because the development of tensile
stresses in the hoop FRP tends to improve the bond behaviour
When two or more plies of FRP are applied to a column, the by providing a lateral confining pressure.
lap joints should be arranged so they are staggered evenly
around the column perimeter, as shown in Figure 30. The For continuous hoop FRP wrapped around a circular column
minimum overlap for fabric materials, in the direction of the with fibres aligned perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
fibres, should be in accordance with the manufacturer’s the member, Vf is given by:
recommendations, but not less than 200mm.
Vf = (π/2) tf d Efd εfse (Equation 42)

56
 Strengthening axially loaded members

where the effective strain in the FRP, εfse, should be taken as 8.4 FLEXURE
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the lesser of:

8.4.1 Introduction
(i) εfd / 2
or Bonding axial FRP over-wrapped with hoop FRP to column
(ii) 0.004 surfaces can enhance the flexural strength of columns. The
main benefit of the axial FRP is to increase the flexural
and strength of the member, and the problem in design is to deter-
εfd = design ultimate strain capacity of FRP mine the thickness of axial FRP fibre required to resist the
d = effective depth (distance from the extreme compres- combined design axial load and moment. The hoop wrap-
sion fibre to the centroid of the tension reinforce- ping confines the concrete, increasing its compressive
ment) strength and strain to failure. This can significantly improve
Efd = design tensile modulus of the FRP the efficiency of the strengthening design by increasing the
tf = thickness of the FRP. strain that can develop in the FRP. Hoop wrapping also
enhances the shear capacity of columns and prevents buck-
ling of the axial fibres, enabling them to contribute in
As discussed in Section 7.4, additional axial reinforcement compression. This contribution will be small since FRP
may be required when strengthening for shear. Section 7.4 materials are weaker in compression than tension.
also outlines how this area of reinforcement can be deter-
mined. To calculate the required thickness of axial FRP, the effect of
hoop wrapping on compressive strength and strain to failure
8.3.5 Serviceability of the concrete must be known. As discussed in Section 8.2,
the stress–strain behaviour of confined concrete is rather
Axial shortening/lateral deformation and loss of strength- different to that of unconfined concrete. It is perhaps worth
ening effectiveness comparing the stress–strain response of the two types of
behaviour.
Axial shortening due to projected load increases will give
rise to lateral deformation of compression members. This For unconfined concrete BS 8110 approximates the behaviour
deformation, if excessive, may cause problems of appear-
as a parabola reaching a plateau at a value of 0.67fcu/γmc with
ance, damage to brittle finishes and/or loss of structural
strain terminating at 0.0035. However, while the initial
efficiency. Also, at service loads the maximum compressive
parabolic behaviour is reasonable, tests show that this is
strain in the concrete should not be excessive otherwise loss
normally followed by a descending stress–strain response,
of confining pressure due to accidental damage, fire,
shown by the solid line in Figure 31. The model in BS 8110
vandalism, etc., may result in brittle collapse, because the
is a convenient approximation used for design purposes. For
concrete is fissured. To prevent the possibility of either
confined concrete, the stress–stain behaviour is again initially
problem arising, it is recommended that the axial compres-
parabolic, until sufficient concrete dilation occurs for the
sive strain of the concrete should not exceed 0.0035 under
hoop reinforcement to start confining the concrete. Provided
working loads.
sufficiently stiff hoop FRP is used (i.e. the condition in
Equation 36 from Section 8.2 is met), this results in an
Fatigue
approximately linear ascending stress–strain branch, shown
by the dashed line in Figure 31. The additional confinement
For bridges, the designer should consider the effect of
also greatly increases the maximum achievable concrete
repeated live loading on the fatigue strength of the FRP.
strain to failure (this can be taken conservatively as 0.01 and
Checks for fatigue should be carried out in accordance with
is usually limited by rupture of the FRP). Equations 32 and
the recommendations in BS 5400: Part 4. The stress range in
33 approximate this stress–strain behaviour, while Equations
the FRP should be limited to the appropriate values given in
39 and 40 correspond to the ultimate confined compressive
Table 8 of this Report.
stress and strain, respectively, of the concrete. For a lightly
confined section (i.e. low stiffness hoop wrapping) the initial
Stress rupture
parabolic stress–strain response may be followed by a branch
that initially descends, as shown by the dotted line in Figure
Rupture of the FRP may occur at service loads due to the
31. It is evident from Figure 31 that the three types of
sustained stresses that exist in the material. This type of
behaviour are quite different. While it is not unreasonable to
failure can be avoided simply by limiting the stress level in
assume a rectangular stress block approximation for uncon-
the FRP. It is therefore recommended that the stress in the
fined concrete since the centre of pressure remains in approxi-
FRP should not exceed the values given in Table 9 of this
mately the same place, for the confined concrete this would
Report.
be conservative since, depending on the exact shape of the
stress–strain curve to failure, the centre of pressure of the
stress block may move considerably to the right, compared
with the relative shape of the unconfined stress block.

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
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fcc
fcc fccd
Fully confined
Fully confined for
x > D/2 E2
1
Partially confined fc0
Extended unconfined for
x < D/2 (i.e. E2 = 0)

Unconfined Ec
εt 0.01 εccu εcc
εcc
Figure 32: Recommended stress–strain curves for combined
Figure 31: Stress–strain behaviour of variably confined flexure and axial load.
concrete.
It should be noted that flexural enhancement can only be
In axially loaded columns subject to moment, the confine- achieved within the span of the column. It cannot be achieved
ment of the concrete varies. Rather than full mobilisation of at connections to beams or footings.
the confining hoop FRP due to dilation of the full cross-
section, as would occur under concentric loading, when 8.4.2 Moment capacity with axial load
moment is applied the dilation varies around the section in
proportion to the axial strain at any given point. Therefore, To calculate the maximum moment and coexistent axial load
the achievable level of confinement will vary. Fam et al.(145) capacity of an FRP-strengthened column of circular cross-
have proposed a variable confinement method where the section, the following assumptions can be made:
fully confined stress–strain relationship is reduced in
accordance with the eccentricity of the load (where the axial • Sections that are plane before bending remain plane after
force, N, and the moment, M, are related by the eccentricity, bending.
e, i.e. e=M/N). While the general method seems rational, • Slip does not take place between the FRP and the concrete.
although conservative, the procedure is rather complicated. • Axial fibres are placed in a layer of even thickness all
However, based upon their test results, there is little diffe- round the column.
rence between using the fully confined stress–strain model • The stress–strain response for unconfined concrete
and a reduced confinement model provided that the position, follows the idealised curve for concrete presented in
x, of the neutral axis from the outermost compression fibre is current codes and standards, with γmc=1.5
greater than the radius of the column (i.e. the area of • The maximum allowable compressive strain in the con-
concrete in compression is no less than half the total cross- crete is 0.01 or εccu, whichever is less.
sectional area of the column): • The stress–strain response for steel reinforcement
follows the idealised curves presented in current codes
x > D/2 (Equation 43) and standards, with γms=1.15. (As indicated in Section
6.2.3, many of the structures that require strengthening
If this condition is not met then a reduced stress–strain curve will have been built before the 1997 edition of BS 8110.
should be used, referring to Fam et al.(145), or, conserva- Hence it would seem appropriate to use the earlier partial
tively, the unconfined concrete stress–strain model of BS safety factor of 1.15 rather than the value of 1.05 now
8110 or similar may be assumed. However, it is permissible recommended.)
to extend the curve to a maximum ultimate strain of 0.01, as • FRP has a linear elastic response to failure in tension.
shown in Figure 32. This is effectively the stress–strain • The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
relationship of Equations 32 and 33 but with the slope of the • Confinement provided by any existing hoop steel is
linear part equal to zero, i.e. E2=0. It should be noted that ignored.
this relationship is only applicable to columns of circular • FRP in compression is conservatively neglected.
cross-section.
The procedure outlined below for calculating the required
Generally, the design of compression members strengthened thickness of axial FRP is based on the Highways Agency BD
in flexure should consider the following: 84(10), Strengthening concrete bridge supports using fibre
reinforced plastics. The overall approach is, in principle, the
• at critical points the combination of maximum moment same as that used in conventional reinforced concrete column
and coexistent axial load design. However, because at the outset it is not clear whether
• the risk of debonding it is the (confined) compressive strain in the concrete or the
• the risk of anchorage failure tensile strain in the FRP that is critical, the design procedure is
• the shear capacity of the column (see Section 8.3.4). slightly more complex. The actual steps involved are given
below.

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 Strengthening axially loaded members

1. Select a thickness of axial FRP. Use of this procedure to determine the thickness of axial
2. Using Equation 40, find the ultimate failure strain, εccu.
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FRP required to strengthen columns in flexure is very

Set the strain in the outermost compression fibre of the tedious. For convenience, therefore, design charts have been
concrete to this value or 0.01 (to prevent excessive con- developed by Denton et al.(146). The design charts form part
crete crushing), whichever is less. of the Highway Agency Design Document BD 84(10), in
3. Assuming a linear strain distribution, perform sectional which their application is explained and examples are
analyses to determine by trial and error the depth, x, of presented. They are based on the BS 5400: Part 4 models for
the neutral axis from the outermost compression fibre concrete and steel reinforcement. Also, any contribution to
when the axial load equals the applied ultimate load. If x the flexural strength of the column by the FRP in com-
> D/2 then the force in the concrete in compression is pression has been neglected. Note that the confined concrete
modelled using the fully confined stress–strain model of stress–strain model assumptions are not the same as those
Equations 32 and 33. If x < D/2 then the extended described in the above procedure, but are conservative.
unconfined stress–strain model should be used (Equations
32 and 33 with E2=0). The forces due to both the concrete 8.4.3 Debonding
and FRP are most easily found using a layer-by-layer
approach, i.e. by subdividing the section into a number of The work by Cuninghame et al.(147) appears to show that,
horizontal layers, parallel to the axis of bending, and providing the number of axial layers is not excessive, the
calculating the compressive force contribution of the provision of hoop wrapping over the axial fibres can prevent
concrete (dependent on the average strain, and hence debonding failure. However, debonding failure may occur in
average stress in the layer, from the stress–strain model) wrapped columns (below the load capacity expected on the
and tensile force contribution of the FRP appropriately basis of the area of FRP) and it is important therefore that a
for each layer. Tensile and compressive forces due to degree of caution is exercised until there is more reliable
existing steel reinforcement can be added separately. information on this aspect of design.
4. Calculate the corresponding ultimate moment capacity.
5. If the ultimate moment capacity is less than the design 8.4.4 Anchorage
moment, M, increase the thickness of axial FRP and
repeat from Step 3 until the bending moment capacity The axial FRP can fail at the base and/or top of columns and
equals or exceeds M. at cut-off points. Anchoring the FRP by extending beyond
6. Evaluate the tensile strain in the FRP. If it is less than the the point at which it is theoretically no longer required can
ultimate design strain then the axial FRP thickness is prevent this. The anchorage length can be determined using
adequate. However, if the strain in the FRP exceeds the the principles described in Section 6.3. In most situations,
ultimate strain capacity, the FRP will fail before M is for example where a column is built into a rigid base, it is not
reached. This implies that it is the strain in the FRP and feasible to provide sufficient anchorage length. In such
not the concrete, as assumed in Step 2, that is critical. situations, the axial wrapping may be enclosed within a
Therefore, repeat Steps 3 to 5 but this time limit the strain collar constructed of steel or concrete.
in the FRP to its ultimate design value. Obviously, the
maximum strain in the concrete will be less than εccu but 8.5 DUCTILITY
the same stress–strain model may be used.
7. In order to ensure ductility, check the maximum com- Lack of ductility is largely an issue for compression
pressive strain in the concrete. Provided it is not less than members that are located in seismic regions. Upgrading
0.0035, the axial FRP thickness is adequate. Otherwise, normally involves confining the concrete at column ends
increase the strain in the outermost compression fibre of (where bending moments are greatest) with hoop FRP. To
the concrete to 0.0035 and proceed to step 8. ensure that column bar buckling does not control the flexural
8. Increase the axial fibre thickness and determine by trial failure mode, additional checks on the transverse reinforce-
and error the depth of the neutral axis when the axial load ment ratio need to be performed, particularly for slender
equals the applied ultimate load. Determine the corres- columns where M/VD > 4, in which M and V are the
ponding ultimate moment capacity. maximum column moment and shear, respectively (see
9. Evaluate the tensile strain in the FRP. If it exceeds the ulti- Priestley et al.(101)). Ductility enhancement may increase the
mate capacity, repeat step 8 until the tensile strain in the risk of shear failure both at column ends and column centres,
axial FRP is equal to or less than its ultimate strain limit. and the risk of flexural failure due to lap splice debonding at
the junction between the footing and column base(102).
This design procedure has been set up so that the strain in the
concrete does not fall below 0.0035 in order to ensure As noted in Section 5.7.2, seismic loading is not a major
ductility under dynamic loading. However, lower concrete loading case for most UK structures and will therefore not be
strains may be acceptable where flexural strengthening is discussed further.
required for reasons other than dynamic loading.

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

8.6 STRENGTHENING COLUMNS WITH • Loading is essentially concentric.

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NON-CIRCULAR CROSS-SECTION • The smaller edge dimension is no greater than about

200mm.
Confining square columns is generally acknowledged to be • The aspect ratio is no greater than 1:1.5.
less efficient than confining circular columns. This is largely • The corners can be provided with a radius of at least
attributable to the fact that, with square columns, confine- 15mm to avoid stress concentrations.
ment is concentrated at the corners rather than over the entire
perimeter. Current research on small columns has shown that Of the various models suggested, that by Lam and Teng(148)
the maximum achievable increase in compressive stress for predicts the observed behaviour most accurately. However,
FRP-confined square columns with reasonable levels of while their model suggests that the initial slopes of the
rounding of corners is about 50%, compared with up to parabolas should be the same as the slope of the diagonal
200% for circular columns. For larger columns, found more lines between the column corners, a more common assump-
often in practice, the level of increase may be less than this. tion(149) is that the initial slopes of parabolas start at 45° to
The efficiency decreases further with columns of rectangular the face of the column, as shown in Figure 33. Although this
cross-section and/or large side dimensions. (The difference assumption may be conservative, it is recommended that
in confinement performance between circular and rectangular such an assumption be made in calculating the confined area.
columns is similar to the difference between the use of hoops Thus, the ratio of the effective area of confinement
and stirrups (without cross-ties) in conventional steel- (contained within the parabolas) and the total cross-sectional
reinforced column design). area of the column is given by:

Several models of the strength enhancement of rectangular

=
[ 2 2
]
Ae 1 − (h − 2 Rc ) + (b − 2 Rc ) − 3 Aol / (3 Ag )− ρ sc
(Equation 44)
columns have been proposed and compared with the limited Ag 1 − ρ sc
number of experimental results available. However, it should
be noted that most models are semi-empirical in nature and
have been calibrated with small-scale test specimens. where
Typically these specimens are 150mm x 150mm for square ρsc = is the ratio of longitudinal steel to the cross-section
columns and up to 150 mm x 225mm (i.e. an aspect ratio of b = length of short side
1.5) for rectangular columns. As rectangular columns get h = length of long side
larger in size the length of the unconfined regions along the Rc = radius of corner
sides of the column increases creating a size effect, which is Ae = effectively confined area
not evident for circular columns. It should also be noted that Ag = total cross-sectional area
the confinement model is based upon concentrically loaded
= bh –(4-π)Rc2
column behaviour. It is likely that if there is significant load
eccentricity then the stress distribution will be such that the Aol = area of overlap of the parabolas
effectively unconfined areas will be more highly stressed = 0 if 2b >
– (h – 2Rc)
than assumed in the model. Caution should be used in such
4lol3
a situation. = + lol (2b − (h − 2 Rc ) ) if 2b < (h – 2Rc)
3(h − 2 Rc )
The generally accepted theoretical approach is to develop an where
area of effective confinement defined by four parabolas lol = length of overlapping region
within which the concrete is fully confined and outside of
which negligible confinement occurs. The shape of the para- (h − 2 Rc ) 2 b(h − 2 Rc )
= −
bolas and the resulting effective confinement area is a func- 4 2
tion of the dimensions of the column and the radius of the
corners. From this effective area a shape factor can be defined.
An effective confining pressure must be calculated based
upon the same thickness FRP wrap confining an equivalent effectively
confined
circular column of diameter D. The effective strength of the region, Ae
b
confined concrete is then given by the unconfined strength
plus the product of the shape factor, the effective confining
pressure and an effectiveness coefficient, which is derived Rc

empirically and conservatively taken as 2.0. The various 45o

models differ mainly in the calculation of the effective area h

and the diameter of the equivalent circular column. Use of
any current state-of-the-art explicit method for analysing
strengthened square or rectangular columns is not Figure 33: Assumed confined region for FRP-wrapped
recommended unless the following conditions are met: rectangular column.

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 Strengthening axially loaded members

Subtraction of the area Aol is required since, as the aspect ratio Confinement efficiency can be improved by rounding the
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of the cross-section increases such that the limit 2b < (h – 2Rc) corners of the column or by casting circular or oval concrete
is reached, the larger parabolas corresponding to the longer rings around the column perimeter. However, it should be
edge will overlap in the middle of the section, as shown in noted that the confined strength of oval columns reduces as
Figure 34. This resulting area is not confined and therefore the aspect ratio increases. Teng and Lam(150) suggest using
must be subtracted from the total area enclosed by the Equation 47 but with an empirically derived shape factor:
parabolas. 2
⎛c⎞ (Equation 48)
gs = ⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠
lol effectively
confined where a and c are the major and minor dimensions,
b region, Ae respectively.

Aol
45o The equivalent circular column is defined as one with the
h same volumetric FRP ratio as the elliptical column and, there-
fore, the equivalent lateral confining pressure is given by:

Figure 34: Overlapping parabolas in confined region.

fr =
[1.5(a + c) − ]
ac f fd tf
(Equation 49)
2ac
Thus, a shape factor is defined as:
b Ae Again, this model should be used with caution, since it is
gs = (Equation 45)
h Ag calibrated against a small number of concentrically loaded
specimens. The greatest aspect ratio tested was 5/2.
The aspect ratio in this equation is necessary in order to reflect
properly the reduction in confinement as the aspect ratio Rectangular carbon fibre jackets are also reported to provide
increases. The shape factor relates the effective confining sufficient confinement and bar buckling restraint to achieve
pressure to that provided by an FRP wrap of the same high flexural displacement ductility levels(102). Perhaps an
thickness to an equivalent circular column of diameter D. alternative approach may be to use preformed circular FRP
The diameter of the equivalent circular column is defined by shells and fill the intervening space with grout. Other methods
Lam and Teng as the diagonal distance across the section, i.e. may also be employed in order to improve the efficiency of
D=√(b2+h2). Thus, using Equation 38, the equivalent confined rectangular columns. Where it is difficult to shape
confining pressure is given by: corners to a radius of at least 15mm significant stress
concentrations may occur resulting in premature failure of
2 f fd tf (Equation 46) the FRP. In such situations it has been suggested that addi-
fr =
b2 + h2 tional localised wrap reinforcement be provided at the corners
prior to the application of the continuous layers, thus redu-
Given the equivalent confining pressure and the shape cing corner stresses(151). It has been suggested that internal
factor, the strength of the confined rectangular column is FRP ties can be used through the width of the section to
given by: increase confinement where side lengths are large(152). It
may be beneficial to incorporate additional longitudinal FRP
f cc = f c0 + 2.0 g s f r (Equation 47) in a wrapping scheme to reduce the likelihood of bursting
failures. The design of strengthening schemes that use any of
where these systems should be verified by independent testing.
fc0 = 0.67 fcu / γmc
To summarise the information currently available:
Again, it should be emphasised that this model has only been
calibrated against small-scale concentrically loaded columns • A significant increase in the axial load capacity of square
and caution should be taken if applied to columns not typical or rectangular columns by wrapping with FRP may be
of those tested in the literature due to the size effect of the difficult to achieve in practice.
unconfined sides resulting in premature failure. • An increase in the flexural strength of square columns by
wrapping with axial and hoop FRP should be feasible,
Shear strengthening of rectangular columns should be but any proposed design should be verified by indepen-
carried out according the methods outlined in Chapter 7, in dent testing.
the same way as for beams. • Ductility enhancement of square columns may prove
difficult.
• FRP can be used to increase the shear capacity of square
and rectangular columns.

61
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62
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
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63
Strengthening axially loaded members
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64
Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials
 9 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
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9.1 EMERGING STRENGTHENING It has also been suggested that the use of prestressed FRP
TECHNOLOGIES ALREADY USED IN composites can increase shear capacity by a confining effect
on the concrete(153), although this has not been investigated
PRACTICE
in great detail.
9.1.1 Prestressing using FRP composites
FRP composites generally exhibit superior durability and
fatigue properties to those of steel. A number of types of FRP
The use of prestressed FRP composites for flexural strength-
composite can be used to post-tension existing concrete
ening of concrete structures has been developing over recent
structures: bonded or unbonded FRP composite plates or
years, and a number of proprietary FRP systems are now
sheets, bonded FRP NSM reinforcement and external FRP
available commercially. However, design guidance in this
composite tendons.
area is still developing, and as such it is advisable to seek
specialist advice for the design of prestressed FRP composite
Prestressing allows a greater proportion of the FRP compo-
strengthening systems.
site tensile strength to be utilised, and can therefore be more
efficient than unstressed solutions. Carbon FRP composite is
There are many reasons for strengthening of concrete struc-
generally the most suitable type for prestressing applications
tures using prestressed FRP composites:
due to its superior creep and stress rupture properties
compared with those of glass FRP and aramid FRP
• increasing live load capacity
composite. It is advisable not to use glass FRP composites
• reducing dead load deflections (i.e. mobilising locked in
for prestressing, unless the prestressing force being applied
stresses)
is quite low, where stress rupture will not be an issue.
• reducing crack widths and delaying the onset of cracking
Aramid FRP composites can be used instead of carbon FRP
• reducing serviceability problems such as excessive deflec-
composites, their lower tensile elastic modulus being an
tion, cracking of the concrete and tensile steel stresses at
advantage in achieving greater control of elongations in the
serviceability
prestressing process. However, as with glass FRP, aramid
• improving fatigue strength by reducing tensile steel
FRP can be susceptible to stress rupture, and therefore the
stresses
prestress levels should be limited.
• regaining prestressed conditions in the concrete that may
be lost by damage to the original prestressing tendons or
The basic principle of strengthening concrete structures by
other effects.
post-tensioning with FRP composites is similar to that for
conventional post-tensioned concrete structures. A portion or
However, if the concrete stress at the serviceability limit state
all of the existing dead load in the concrete member is
is high, prestressing with FRP composites will not provide a
transferred to the FRP composite by creating a tensile force
significant increase in the serviceability load.
in the FRP prior to application, bonding and/or anchoring the
FRP to the concrete substrate, and then releasing the pre-
For some prestressing systems, no reliance on an adhesive
stress load. The bonded joint or mechanical anchors at the
bond is required, which can be advantageous where very low
ends of the plate then transfer the prestress into the concrete
or very high service temperatures are present (or there is a
member. The prestressed FRP composite carries both a
significant fire risk) and could significantly reduce the per-
portion of dead load, and also live load, in comparison to
formance of the adhesive, or where the surface quality of the
unstressed FRP strengthening where the FRP composite
concrete is inadequate for adhesive bonding.
carries only a portion of live load.
The use of prestressed FRP composite strengthening systems
The method of prestressing the FRP composite is crucial to the
may not be appropriate, or at least will require more detailed
feasibility of a practical FRP prestressed strengthening appli-
planning and risk assessment, where there are limited avail-
cation. The method can be described in a number of stages:
able installation periods (for example within railway posses-
sions or in structures where there is a continuous industrial
1. application of tensile force to FRP composite
process), significant risk of vandalism, or exposure to a highly
2. anchorage/bonding of FRP composite to concrete substrate
aggressive environment that would affect the long-term
3. release of prestress into concrete member and redistribu-
properties of the FRP composite.
tion of forces throughout section.

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

The method of jacking out the dead-load deflection of a • elastic shortening of the concrete member
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concrete member, or physically removing existing dead load • creep effects in adhesive for prestress of systems with no
temporarily, prior to the application of unstressed FRP mechanical anchorage
composite is also essentially a prestressing solution as the • ‘drawing in’ within the anchorage system (if a mecha-
FRP composite carries a portion of the dead load in addition nical anchorage is used).
to live load.
The relaxation loss for prestressed FRP composite in com-
The ROBUST project demonstrated the benefits of pre- parison to high strength steel is generally small.
stressing the FRP prior to bonding to the concrete, on 1.0m
and 4.5m beams in the laboratory, and with 18.0m beams in The losses in prestress in the long term are essentially the
the field. Specially developed glass FRP end tabs were same as those for post-tensioning with low-relaxation steel,
developed to enable the carbon FRP plate to be pulled, prior due to the reduction in elastic modulus of the concrete and
to anchoring the tabs into the concrete using resin shrinkage in the long term.
anchors(29).
The ultimate load capacity of concrete members post-
Anchorage of the prestressed FRP composite is a critical tensioned with FRP composites can be analysed based on
aspect of the application. Large shear stresses are present conventional theory for reinforced-concrete structures(29,155),
within the adhesive bond when the prestress in the FRP but only if flexural failure is the dominant failure mode. The
composite is released and transferred into the concrete failure mode may be either concrete crushing or FRP
member. Therefore, in most cases a mechanical anchorage at composite rupture, depending on the degree of prestress
the ends of the FRP composite is required, although applied to the FRP.
techniques are under development to avoid the need for
bulky end anchorages. Design checks are also required at the serviceability limit
state. The level of prestress should be such that the following
A number of anchorage types have been developed, conditions are acceptable:
generally based on jacking the FRP composite plate through
a steel anchorage and bolting through the plate (which is • tensile stress and cracking at the concrete edge away
locally strengthened with steel or glass FRP end tabs to from the prestressed FRP composite under dead and
avoid failures due to stress concentrations around the bolt superimposed dead load, after transfer of the prestress
holes) into the anchorage and the concrete substrate. The • compressive stress in the concrete and dead, super-
plate is then cut and the transfer of prestress occurs via the imposed dead and live loading
bolted anchorage. • tensile stress in the FRP composite under dead and super-
imposed dead loads (for durability and stress rupture),
In Switzerland, a system has been developed whereby a and live load (for fatigue).
carbon FRP plate is stretched over a set distance between
two large wheels(154). The entire mechanical system is then The achievable prestress levels vary depending on the type
lifted up to the soffit of the concrete and the laminate is of FRP composite used, based on their susceptibility to stress
bonded to the structure. This method overcomes many of the rupture. Carbon FRP composite is not susceptible to stress
problems associated with successfully gripping the plate. rupture and therefore the greatest degree of prestress can be
Furthermore, this method also allows the problem of high achieved, followed by aramid FRP composite and glass FRP
longitudinal shear stress at the concrete–plate interface to be composite, which both exhibit stress rupture. As an indi-
overcome. The longitudinal shear stresses originally led to cation, carbon FRP composite can typically be stressed up to
anchorage failures in laboratory tests. However, a gradually- 50% of the design tensile stress, aramid FRP composite up
anchored system was devised to reduce the longitudinal to 30% of the design tensile stress and glass FRP composite
shear stresses and delay the onset of anchorage failure. to only 15–20% of the design tensile stress. For prestressing
Using this method, the plate is bonded to the concrete from systems where the adhesive bond is relied upon to transfer
the centre and then moved outwards in stages. As each prestress forces, the permanent stress in the adhesive should
portion of the plate is bonded to the concrete at successive be limited to 25% of the design strength to avoid creep and
stages, the prestressing force is slightly reduced to a nominal durability problems, as stated in Section 5.6.8.
value at the end of the plate. In order to speed up the curing
process, so that the step-wise technique is economic and A number of commercial prestressing systems are currently
practical, heating devices within each portion of the plate are available, using the following methods of prestressing:
used to reduce the adhesive bond curing time.
• Stressing and anchoring of carbon FRP plates in a steel
On transfer of the prestress to the concrete member, some anchorage, placed in a recess in the concrete, containing
losses occur in a similar manner to those for conventional a base plate for force transfer (bonded and bolted to the
prestressed post-tensioned structures. The losses in prestress concrete), tensioning plate for the hydraulic jack and
in the short term are due to: levelling aids: the stressing process is undertaken in two
stages with temporary and permanent anchorages.

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 Emerging technologies

• Stressing and anchoring in a steel and carbon FRP

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composite anchor block, placed in a recess in the con-

crete substrate: the steel anchorage is bonded and bolted
to the concrete substrate; the prestressing operation is
carried out in a single stage.

Some prestressing systems are designed such that plate

failure would always occur prior to anchorage failure.

A number of reinforced concrete and conventionally pre-

stressed and post-tensioned concrete structures throughout
Europe, particularly in Germany and Switzerland, have been
strengthened using prestressed FRP composites. The first
full-scale application of a FRP composite prestressing system Figure 36: Prestressing system used on Lauterbridge,
in the field was on Lauterbridge, Gomadingen, Germany in Gomadingen.
October 1998. In this particular case, the prestressing system
was installed to reduce crack widths, and increase the Another well-founded laboratory technique to anchor wet
flexural strength and rigidity. lay-up FRP laminates is to cut a transverse groove in the
concrete, insert the end portion of the fabric into the groove
A number of existing concrete bridges have been strength- and anchor into place (through resin) an FRP NSM bar(127).
ened using carbon FRP prestressing tendons or aramid FRP Again, this technique has also been used in practice, parti-
ropes(156,157). FRP tendons were chosen due to easy handling cularly where sufficient anchorage length for the FRP cannot
on site, small-diameter bundles allowing simple deviator be provided by bond alone. Examples where this technique
detailing, and corrosion resistance. Anchorage systems for is particularly useful include anchorage of U-wrap laminates
FRP tendons have been developed that allow full design for shear strengthening of T-beams(114) and anchorage of
strength of the tendon to be assumed, under both static and longitudinal laminates for flexural strengthening of members,
cyclic loading conditions(158). Furthermore, research has which vary in cross-section near supports(54).
shown that external FRP tendon prestressing systems allow
substantial rotation to occur over supports in continuous 9.1.3 Bolted plate anchors
spans near the ultimate limit state. Based on this research, it
is possible for full moment redistribution to be assumed(159). Nurchi et al.(162) have assessed the enhancement of anchor-
age provided by bolting the ends of an FRP plate to concrete,
Examples of commercial prestressing systems are shown in in addition to adhesive. The primary use of the bolts is to
Figures 35 and 36. prevent or delay the onset of debonding and concrete cover
failure. However, the use of bolts requires multi-directional
9.1.2 Unstressed FRP anchorage techniques FRP in order to prevent longitudinal splitting failure of the
FRP, and in order to provide sufficient bearing stiffness at
The use of transverse FRP U-wraps around the soffit of a the position of the bolts. The bolts, about 200mm in length,
beam is a common laboratory technique to anchor longitu- are fixed into predrilled holes using epoxy adhesive. An
dinal FRP laminates(160). This technique has also been carried additional FRP reinforcement layer is added at the ends of
out in practice on many occasions, with satisfactory results the FRP plates to increase strength at these positions.
being achieved(161).

Figure 35: Dead-end prestressing system (left) and stressing anchorage (right).

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

The results of their tests indicate that the use of bolts within resistance of concrete beams considerably. In particular, de
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the shear span of the beam significantly postpones debonding. Lorenzis and Nanni(166) have shown that, in the case of
Following debonding, they are still capable of anchoring the strengthening T-beams in shear, if it is possible to anchor the
ends of the FRP so that it acts as an unbonded tension member, NSM bars into the compression flange, shear resistance is
resulting in a less brittle mode of failure at the ultimate enhanced greatly. They have also shown that angling the
condition. The load capacity of the beam following debonding NSM bars at approximately 45° (rather than placing them
is reported to be at least equal to the capacity of the beam vertically) is advantageous. While such angled reinforce-
with the bond intact, although greater deflections occur. ment is problematic for plates or sheets, it is relatively
straightforward for the NSM case.
9.1.4 Concrete masonry walls
9.2.3 FRP anchor systems
FRP composite systems can provide solutions for the strength-
ening of masonry. The dynamic properties of the existing In situations where FRP laminates need to be mechanically
structure remain unchanged because there is minimal anchored, due to insufficient bond length being available,
addition of weight, and stiffness changes may be engineered there are various options already available. For instance,
case by case. bolted steel plate anchor systems, as described in Section
9.1.3, may be used for FRP plates. Alternatively, FRP NSM
FRP composites used for flexural and/or shear strengthening bars may be used to anchor wet lay-up FRP laminates within
of masonry structures are similar to those used for strength- slots(127), as described in Section 9.1.2.
ening of concrete elements. A number of research projects
have demonstrated the effectiveness of FRP composites to Another anchorage system in the process of development
improve the structural performance of masonry walls, parti- has proved to be very effective in preliminary tests at the
cularly in situations of high slenderness(163). Available University of Missouri-Rolla(114). The anchors themselves
literature shows that walls strengthened with FRP in the consist of many glass fibres of overall length 150mm. They
laboratory usually fail due to debonding of the laminates. are dipped into resin to a depth of 75mm, and the resulting
glass FRP portion (of approximate diameter 12mm) is allowed
An alternative to FRP laminates is the use of NSM FRP bars. to cure. Holes 75mm deep and 200mm apart are drilled into
In this way, FRP bars have been used successfully to increase the soffit of the concrete structure to be strengthened, and
the flexural strength of concrete masonry walls. FRP systems resin is inserted into each hole. The first layer of wet lay-up
can also be used to improve the performance (strength or sheet is adhered to the surface of the concrete, following
pseudo-ductility) of masonry walls subject to in-plane standard procedures. At each hole location, the glass FRP
loads(164). Strengthening by FRP structural repointing (inser- end of each anchor is inserted into the hole through the sheet
tion of small diameter FRP bars in the bed joints) can also (by locally realigning the sheet fibres to skirt around the
increase shear capacity and provide pseudo-ductility to walls. anchor). The ‘dry’ end of each anchor is then fanned out over
the surface of the first layer of sheet and fixed into place with
9.2 EMERGING STRENGTHENING resin. Subsequent layers of sheet are added above the fanned
TECHNOLOGIES AT THE RESEARCH anchors so that, after curing, the fan anchor is located within
the thickness of the FRP laminate. This enhances anchorage
STAGE
and bond behaviour.
9.2.1 Prestressed NSM bars
9.2.4 Steel-reinforced polymers
One way in which the problem of high shear stress at the
ends of prestressed FRP plates might be overcome is to use The use of steel-reinforced polymer (SRP) materials has
NSM bars instead. This is because they are bonded over recently been considered in the USA(167). Part of the moti-
most of their perimeter, leading to a spreading of longitu- vation for use of this novel material is that discarded tyres
dinal shear stress in comparison with the one-side-bonded contain significant quantities of ‘Hardwire’ steel strand,
laminate case. Research conducted in Sweden and in the which can be used to make the SRP. This clearly has
USA has confirmed their suitability(165). Naturally, the main environmental benefits, which is advantageous. However,
concern is how to prestress the NSM bars prior to insertion the thin steel strands are susceptible to corrosion. Various
into the grooves. At present, this is being considered in some matrix materials have been looked at to protect and bind the
detail because of the potential for this form of strengthening. steel strands. A cementitious grout presently appears to offer
a good compromise between structural strength and a
9.2.2 NSM bars for shear strengthening durable composite.

Because NSM bars offer potentially superior bond perfor- A parking garage in Indiana, USA, was recently condemned.
mance over plates or sheets, their use for shear strengthening Prior to its demolition, parts of it were strengthened using
has been attempted, with success. It has been found that the SRP, with encouraging results. The strengthened sections
use of either glass or carbon FRP NSM bars increases shear showed distinct improvement over the original sections in

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 Emerging technologies

terms of capacity and ductility. Failure occurred by SRP Research carried out in the USA has shown the feasibility of
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peeling, in much the same way that might be expected to using such a technique. Originally intended for extremely
occur in the FRP situation. rapid strengthening of civilian concrete bridges to allow heavy
military vehicles to pass, the technique is to mechanically
9.2.5 Deep embedded bar for shear strengthening fasten a precured FRP laminate to the concrete soffit using
power-driven bolts. No surface preparation of the soffit is
Particularly when working on concrete bridges, it is desir- required. The FRP is bidirectional in nature, to prevent
able that any strengthening be carried out rapidly, with as little longitudinal splitting. Preliminary tests carried out in
disruption as possible. In order to expedite shear strength- Madison, Wisconsin, have shown the potential for this rapid
ening, it is possible that vertical holes could be drilled into form of construction(170), although integrity of the cover
the bridge from soffit level, and FRP bars fixed into the holes concrete following the power-driving activities has been
with resin to provide additional shear resistance(168). shown to be crucial to successful implementation.

Although similar in concept to the use of stainless steel 9.2.8 Strengthening for torsion
threaded bar for such applications, the FRP alternative
requires access only from the soffit (rather than from top and Limited tests have been conducted on torsional strength-
bottom), and the possibility of corrosion of reinforcement in ening of concrete structures using FRP materials. Published
close proximity to the stainless steel bars is eliminated. This results show that such strengthening is possible and that FRP
technique has the further benefits that no surface preparation can contribute substantial torsional resistance(171). Prelimi-
of beam webs is required in beam-and-slab situations and the nary indications are that the wrapping of the torsion element
webs need not be accessible. This is very useful in situations should be as full as possible, as the confinement that is
where precast beams are closely spaced. created in this way is particularly beneficial in resisting
torsion in a controlled, ductile manner.
This shear strengthening technique has been shown to be
feasible, preventing shear failure in laboratory tests and 9.2.9 Life expectancy modelling
instead forcing a ductile flexural failure to occur.
Research carried out in Italy is attempting to rationalise the
9.2.6 Prestressed carbon FRP straps for shear life expectancy of FRP-strengthened concrete schemes(172).
strengthening In order to do this, a series of degradation states has been
defined, each component relating to a particular intervention.
As it is difficult to anchor U-wraps around T-beam webs, These interventions are, in order of least to most severe:
slots could be drilled in the flange at regular intervals, and
full strap-wrapping of the equivalent rectangular section • inspection
carried out. Since local overstrain in bonded FRP at crack • cleaning
locations can lead to local failure, it would be best not to • repair
bond these straps to the concrete. Furthermore, in order to • partial substitution
resist shear crack openings (and hence enhance aggregate • total substitution.
interlock effects), the straps should be prestressed.
A database is being developed on a range of FRP-strength-
Such a system has been developed for commercial use(169). ening schemes throughout the world. By categorising perfor-
The straps consist of five or ten individual carbon FRP tapes, mance levels and long-term mechanical properties of the
heat-welded together in order to create continuity. The straps constituent materials, it is hoped that this research will lead
are prestressed using a patented system, and accurately- to a rational approach to life-expectancy predictions, one of
machined wedges are inserted between strap and concrete in the most important pieces of information in any design.
order to maintain the prestress. Results from tests show that
shear strength is enhanced considerably through making use 9.2.10 Inorganic adhesives
of a debonded, prestressed system.
Because of concerns over the performance of organic
9.2.7 Mechanical fastening techniques adhesives at elevated temperatures, there are moves to
develop inorganic adhesives, more akin to cement-based
Some of the limitations associated with FRP strengthening materials. Toutanji and Deng(173) have reported tests on beams
of concrete structures are the modest longitudinal shear strengthened using ‘Geopolymer’ adhesives consisting of
strength of adhesives, the time taken to prepare the concrete alumino-silicate with a water-based activator. These perform
surface and the brittle form of failure, which occurs when the significantly better at high temperatures and, being water-
FRP peels off under severe overload. The use of a mecha- based, are somewhat easier to use on site.
nical bonding system might be an approach to addressing
these problems.

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 10 WORKMANSHIP AND
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INSTALLATION

10.1 INTRODUCTION • The contractor should provide a safe means of access to

the work location and maintain an environment suitable
The design guidance in Chapters 5 to 8 is only valid if the for the successful use of structural adhesives.
component materials used are in accordance with the speci- • Procedures should be in place to minimise the risks to the
fication and the installation is carried out correctly. This workforce and to any other persons (especially children)
Chapter is not intended to be a specification for strength- who may be affected by the work.
ening with composites but gives background information on
the standards of workmanship and the installation proce- The following sections give general guidance on the
dures required. Further information on the requirements for installation of plate and fabric materials, which are bonded
inspection during the installation process, along with advice to the surface of the concrete, and of NSM material. The
on the necessary records that need to be maintained, is given installation of shells around columns, which are generally
in Chapter 4 of TR57(5), which should be read in parallel bonded to the concrete by means of a secondary process such
with this Chapter. as grout injection, should be in accordance with the
manufacturer’s requirements and are not covered here. For
The Client should be satisfied as to the competency of the all materials and processes, quality assurance procedures
contractor. All installations should comply with the require- should ensure that each stage is approved before starting the
ments of the Health and Safety at Work etc Act(174), the next stage. It is vitally important that the manufacturer’s
recommendations are followed throughout.
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations(27)
and the Construction (Design and Management) Regula-
The sequence of the subsections in this Chapter follows the
tions(26). In addition, all materials must be used in accor-
step-by-step procedures that would be followed on site by a
dance with the manufacturer’s requirements.
competent contractor.
Only limited post-application inspection is possible, so the
success of the application relies heavily on the quality of the 10.2 EVALUATION OF CONCRETE
workmanship. It is therefore crucial to the success of the CONDITION
installation that an experienced contractor, with suitably
trained and supervised staff experienced in the technique, is An investigation of the condition of the structure(7) should be
appointed. The contractor should have quality assurance carried out prior to the decision to undertake strengthening.
procedures in place, accredited and audited in accordance This will identify any deterioration processes (e.g. rein-
with ISO 9002(175). In the UK, the contractor should have a forcement corrosion due to the presence of chlorides) likely
proven track record in the installation of composites and to affect the performance of the structure within its residual
preferably be a member of the Concrete Repair Association. design life. The investigation should also include a thorough
The contractor must be able to demonstrate competency and inspection of the concrete surfaces on which the bonding is
be approved for the application of the system. This approval to be carried out, a visual inspection, an assessment of the
may be obtained by providing evidence of the training of the concrete strength (see Figure 37) to assess whether it is suffi-
operatives who will undertake the work and by documentary cient for strengthening to be carried out (see Section 2.2),
evidence of experience on similar projects. chemical analysis and a sounding survey to identify defect.

It is strongly recommended that the following issues be If defects are identified, repairs should be carried out using
taken into account when selecting a contractor: an appropriate concrete repair system in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations. Cementitious repairs
• The contractor should provide a full method statement should be cured for at least 28 days before undertaking
and risk assessment for the works. bonding work. As indicated in Section 2.2, the cause of any
• Operatives should be trained and qualified in application deterioration should, as far as possible, be eliminated before
techniques by the manufacturer of the system. the structure is strengthened.
• Personnel should be supplied with the correct personal
protection equipment for use when handling the materials.

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

• steam cleaning alone or in conjunction with detergents

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• for smaller areas, mechanical wire brushing or surface

grinding (see Figure 38).

Mechanical impact methods such as needle gunning and

bush hammering are very effective but are often too aggres-
sive and produce a deeper texture in originally smooth
concrete. In addition they may shatter aggregate particles
causing micro-cracks.

Mechanical methods may be effective in removing deeply

penetrated greases, oils and paints, but may remove an un-
acceptable depth of concrete. Washing techniques may be
ineffective and can simply spread the contaminant further. In
such instances the use of solvent-based and sodium
hydroxide-based products in the form of a gel or poultice can
be effective in drawing out the contaminants. Such products
must be used with great care; if they are not thoroughly
Figure 37: Use of pull-out test to determine concrete strength.
removed, debonding of the strengthening system may occur.

Wet grit-blasting or vacuum dry-blasting are commonly used

10.3 CONCRETE PREPARATION
because they reduce the dust created by ‘open’ dry-blasting
which is unacceptable for health, safety and environmental
10.3.1 Concrete surface for plates and fabric
reasons. However, wet techniques may create a water disposal
problem and the concrete surface needs to be allowed to dry
Good preparation of the concrete surface is of paramount
out to a degree that is suited to the intended adhesive.
importance to the long-term success of the bonding and
strengthening operation, though this is less crucial for fully
Whichever method is adopted it is always advisable to carry
wrapped systems. Before adhesive is applied the concrete
out trials to select and optimise the technique in conjunction
surface must be cleaned so that it is free of laitance, loose
with the material supplier.
material, fungal or mould growth, oil or grease, corrosion
products, previous coatings and, in the case of new concrete,
The preparation of the surface should be to a standard such
mould release agents and curing membranes.
that the adhesive layer is of uniform thickness when the
strengthening material is in place. Any steps in the surface
It is important that the preparation process selected is such
should be removed and hollows filled with a suitable quick-
that it removes the surface layer to expose small particles of
setting repair mortar (see Figure 39). Generally the flatness
aggregate without causing micro-cracks or other damage in
of the surface should be such that the gap under a 1m
the substrate. The surface should not be polished or rough-
straight-edge does not exceed 5mm. The thickness of the
ened excessively. Sharp edges, shutter marks or other irregu-
adhesive layer is commonly between 1 and 5mm depending
larities should be removed to achieve a flat surface.
on the material, though thickening to 10mm may be accept-
able to accommodate local defects such as dislodged
aggregate.

Figure 38: Surface grinding.

Effective preparation techniques include:

• wet-, dry- and vacuum-abrasive blasting

• high-pressure washing, with or without emulsifying
detergents, and using biocides (where necessary) Figure 39: Filling imperfections with quick-setting repair
mortar.

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 Workmanship and installation

When fabric is to be wrapped round corners, e.g. round a 10.4 MATERIAL CONFORMITY
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square column or round the bottom of a beam, the corners

should be rounded to a minimum radius of 15mm, or as The design process will involve certain assumptions about
recommended by the supplier, to avoid local damage to the the properties of the FRP. It is therefore important that all
fibres. materials are in accordance with the specification. FRP
plates, rolls of fabric, etc., should carry identification labels
Minor imperfections in the concrete surface can be treated at to indicate their type and grade. To ensure that materials are
this stage with epoxy materials which can be applied in thin compatible, they are generally specified as part of a system,
layers and whose rapid strength gain permits over-bonding e.g. pultruded plate and adhesive. Other materials should not
to be carried out after a short time. Some bonding systems be substituted without the approval of the specifier.
require the use of a primer on completion of the surface Guidance on the approaches for ensuring conformity and on
preparation. This primer, which seals the surface, should be acceptance tests are given in TR57(5), which includes a
applied in strict accordance with the manufacturer’s proforma for recording details of the materials used. The
instructions. Report also includes guidance on permissible tolerances in
pultruded plate geometry.
The final assessment for surface quality can take the form of
a series of pull-off tests. (If a surface primer is used, the tests 10.5 STORAGE OF MATERIALS
should be carried out on the primed surface.) Figure 40
shows a ‘dolly’ after being pulled off, with the concrete still
Thick fibre composite plates and NSM reinforcement are
adhering to it. A minimum of three tests per representative
usually delivered to site in the lengths required for installa-
area should be carried out, as described in BS 1881: Part
tion. Thinner plates and fabrics are delivered in the form of
207(176), to give an indication of the tensile strength of the a long roll, which can be cut easily to the required lengths at
substrate and the quality of the surface preparation. The con- site. Materials should be stored at site in such a way that
crete surface should be dry for normal applications. Where damage or contamination is avoided.
this is not possible, because of the nature of the structure,
special consideration should be given to the adhesive to be Adhesives should be stored in dry conditions in accordance
employed. with the manufacturer’s instructions, paying particular
attention to the specified maximum and minimum storage
temperatures. Adhesive and material delivery dates should
be recorded and these items should be used in rotation.

10.6 SITE CONDITIONS

Temperature, relative humidity and surface moisture at the

time of installation can affect the performance of the FRP
system. It is therefore necessary to maintain the appropriate
environment in the work area during surface preparation,
application of the adhesive and the subsequent curing period.
Environmental control during surface preparation generally
consists of a system to extract dust from the work area and
the exclusion of any material that might contaminate the
prepared surface. A clear access path should be maintained
Figure 40: Pull-off specimen after removal from concrete
from the area where the adhesive is applied on the plates to
surface. the location of the concrete surface to which the plates are to
be applied. This is to minimise the risk of contamination of
10.3.2 Slots in concrete surface for NSM material the adhesive surface while the plate is being handled.

Before starting to form slots for NSM reinforcement, a During the curing period it is necessary to maintain the tem-
covermeter survey should be carried out to check the posi- perature in the adhesive at an appropriate value and within
tion and depth of the existing steel reinforcement in the area specified limits. Exceeding the maximum specified tempera-
to be strengthened, to avoid damaging it. Slots are formed by ture may result in a joint with poor long-term properties.
making parallel cuts in the surface to the required depth, at Curing temperatures below the specified minimum may result
an appropriate distance apart, and removing the intervening in an adhesive with a low strength. Of equal importance is
concrete using a chisel or similar. The slots should be cleaned, keeping the work dry.
using a vacuum cleaner or high-pressure air, to remove any
loose material but otherwise should not require any further
preparation to ensure that the adhesive has adequate bond.

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

10.7 MIXING AND APPLICATION OF 10.7.2 Application to substrate prior to plate installation
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ADHESIVE
Where the concrete surface is to be strengthened using FRP
10.7.1 General plates, the mixed adhesive is applied to the bonding area by
hand, using plastering techniques (see Figure 42). The thick-
All equipment used for the mixing and application of the ness of the adhesive should be maintained at 1–2mm.
adhesive and materials should be kept clean and maintained
in good operating condition. All operatives should be suitably
trained in the use of such equipment.

The mixing and application of the adhesive should be strictly

in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. (Figure
41 shows adhesive being mixed using a power tool with a
suitable attachment.) In particular, the amounts of materials
mixed at any one time should not exceed the specified
amounts, as larger volumes will lead to higher temperatures
being generated, which will reduce the pot life. Resin and
hardener have to be mixed together in defined proportions or
the properties of the cured adhesive will be impaired. Hence
prebatched quantities of resins and hardeners should be used.
Figure 42: Application of adhesive to concrete surface.

10.7.3 Application to FRP plates

Before installation, FRP plates should be checked visually

for signs of damage, such as cracks or delamination. The
surface of the plate should be prepared immediately before
application of the adhesive, in accordance with the manu-
facturer’s recommendations. This may involve light abrasion
and cleaning with a solvent. Some materials are manu-
factured with an additional peel ply, which, on removal,
exposes a clean surface with the appropriate roughness. This
is the preferred approach since no additional treatment at site
is required.

The adhesive layer should be applied to the plates to form a

slightly convex profile across the plate. The extra thickness
along the centre-line helps to reduce the risk of void
formation. A method of application is shown in Figure 43.

Figure 41: Mixing adhesive.

The components should be thoroughly mixed together. Some

adhesives are supplied with resin and hardener of different
colours. This makes it easier to check that thorough mixing
has been achieved.

The volume of adhesive mixed at one time must be such that

it may be applied and the surfaces brought together within
the pot life of the adhesive. Any adhesive remaining at the
end of the specified pot life must be discarded. Figure 43: Application of adhesive layer on to fibre
composite plate.

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 Workmanship and installation

10.7.4 Application to substrate prior to fabric installation

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Where the concrete surface is to be strengthened using FRP

fabric, the bonding adhesive is applied using a hand-held
foam roller or brush. This should be evenly applied to
saturate the concrete surface and promote adhesion of the
fabric material.

10.7.5 Application to FRP fabrics

Fabric can be readily cut to size using simple tools (see

Figure 44). Dry fabric can be directly applied to the resin-
saturated concrete surface without adhesive being applied to
the fabric. For wet fabric, the resin is applied to the fabric
before it is installed. This resin can be applied to the fabric
using hand-held foam rollers (see Figure 45), brushes or im-
pregnation machines (see Figure 46). Alternatively, vacuum-
assisted resin infusion can be used to form the composite in
situ. The fibres are applied to the structure dry. The area is
sealed with a rubber sheet and a vacuum used to draw in the
resin. Figure 46: Impregnation of fabric.

10.7.6 Inserting adhesive into slots for NSM

reinforcement

When NSM reinforcement is installed on the top surface on

a member, adhesive is simply poured into the slot to a depth
equal to approximately the eventual mid-section of the NSM
rod or strip. The adhesive needs to be sufficiently fluid to
flow into the slot without entrapping air. For installation over-
head or on vertical surfaces, a stiffer adhesive is required
which will not ‘slump’ significantly. Installation will be by
means of an adhesive ‘gun’.

10.8 ASSEMBLY AND VISUAL

INSPECTION

10.8.1 Installation of FRP plates

Figure 44: Cutting fabric. Immediately after application of the adhesive the fibre
composite plate should be brought into contact with the
concrete substrate. There is sufficient ‘grab’ in the adhesive
to hold the fibre composite material in position, and no other
temporary support is usually needed.

Even pressure is applied by roller (as shown in Figure 47)

starting at one end along the longitudinal centre-line and
working outwards to expel excess adhesive at the edges and
to produce an even glue line. A final adhesive thickness of
1.5–2mm is ideal in most cases. Excess adhesive is removed
using scrapers, cloths and solvents.

Figure 45: Applying resin using roller.

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

If required, a second and further layers of fabric can be applied

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in a similar fashion, making sure that each successive layer

is fully saturated with resin. Finally, a layer of epoxy adhe-
sive may be applied to encapsulate and protect the composite
material. Alternatively, the fabric can be impregnated with
resin, i.e. wet fabric, and then wrapped around the member.
As before, the surface should be rolled to remove wrinkles
and to expel air.

Figure 47: Installing FRP plates, using a roller to apply

pressure.

Where plates are lapped, the minimum overlap, in the

direction of the fibres, should be in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations, but not less than 200mm.
Chapter 6 gives more detailed information on lap lengths.
The spacing of FRP plates on the soffit or top surface of a
slab should not exceed 0.2 x span or 5 x slab thickness.

Immediately after assembly, the joint should be inspected.

The aim is to check that a continuous and uniform layer of
adhesive is visible. In some situations the soundness of the
installed adhesive layer can be checked by tapping the
composite with a small object such as the edge of a coin.
Voids or gaps give a characteristic sound. Further informa-
tion is given in Section 4.3 of TR57(5). If defects are found
techniques such as vacuum filling with a suitable resin or
plate overlapping could be used as a repair. Further informa-
tion is given in Section 6.2 of TR57.

10.8.2 Installation of FRP fabrics Figure 49: Wrapping fabric round column.

The dry fabric is wrapped tightly over the concrete substrate,

avoiding any wrinkles. Figure 48 shows fabric being wrapped
round an arched member and Figure 49 shows the wrapping
of a column. After application, the fabric is rolled to force
the adhesive through the fibres and to expel any air (see
Figure 50).

Figure 50: Rolling fabric to consolidate layers.

The minimum overlap for fabric materials, in the direction of

the fibres, should be in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations, but should not be less than 200mm. The
FIB guide(90) suggests a maximum of five layers in a given
direction. However, some suppliers suggest that more layers
Figure 48: Wrapping fabric round an arched member. may be used. Caltrans (the California Department of Trans-
portation) permits up to 14 layers. Advice should be sought
from the supplier.

76
 Workmanship and installation

10.8.3 Installation of NSM reinforcement can guarantee the soundness of an application. Full details of
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

available tests are given in TR57(5). The most common is

The NSM reinforcement is placed in the slot and pressed into acoustic sounding (hammer tapping). Thermography may be
the adhesive, which partly fills the slot, to the correct depth. used to survey large areas. Other methods, such as ultrasonic
The remaining void in the slot is then filled with more testing, are being developed. However, there are currently no
adhesive (taking care to avoid trapping air) and finished non-destructive methods that are capable of detecting poor
flush with the concrete surface. adhesion, which might lead to failure of the joint in the long
term. To provide assurance about long-term performance,
10.9 CONTROL SAMPLES additional pull-off dollies could be installed at the time of
strengthening. Pull-off tests could be performed on these at
Tests should be carried out on samples obtained from each various times in the future to monitor the adhesion between
batch of adhesive and on the composite materials for testing the adhesive and the substrate. Similarly, additional double-
by an independent laboratory to confirm the properties of the lap shear test specimens could be prepared at the time of
materials used. These tests should be in accordance with strengthening, placed securely on site, and tested at various
agreed national or international standards, as detailed in times in the future to monitor the adhesion between the FRP
Appendix B of TR57(5). material and the adhesive.

Figure 51 shows a double-lap shear test, which is closely Some documents, such as TR57(5) and ACI 440.2(2), suggest
related to the actual site use of fibre composite plates. As the the extent of delamination that may be acceptable. However,
embedded studs may cause premature failure of the concrete the acceptable extent will be very dependent on the type of
blocks, alternative methods are being developed for loading strengthening and the location in the structure. For example,
the specimens, for example by the University of Glamor- an area of delamination in the wrapping of a column will
gan(177). The test can be carried out using a standard universal probably have a limited effect on the performance while
testing machine and can be carried out, relatively easily, at delamination of a plate on the soffit of a beam, particularly
different temperatures. Compatibility of fibre, or composite, at points of high shear, will have a significant effect.
and adhesive can be tested, as well as adhesion to concrete.
Additionally, pull-off tests can be performed to check the Currently there are no techniques for inspecting NSM strength-
adhesion of the adhesive to the substrate. ening systems after installation, apart from a visual check for
major voids.

For major structures, it may be appropriate to install instru-

mentation prior to the strengthening. Measurements of the
difference in the response of the structure under a load test
before and after strengthening can be compared with predic-
tions and the instrumentation used to monitor changes with
time.

10.11 APPLICATION OF OVER-COATINGS

When over-coatings are to be applied, these should be com-

patible with the underlying composite material and approved
for use by the manufacturer. These over-coatings may be
applied for the following reasons:

• Fire protection. Regulations may require the application

of an over-coat layer, which has been tested on the fully-
Figure 51: Double-lap shear test. cured composite system.
• Protection against vandalism. Where the FRP material
BS EN 1504(17) will be a product standard for materials for may be vulnerable to damage, it may be encapsulated in
the repair and protection of concrete. (Currently some parts a cementitious or epoxy mortar either spray- or hand-
have yet to be published as British Standards.) It will detail applied.
the required properties of the materials and the tests that are • Appearance. A cosmetic over-coating can be applied to
required to demonstrate conformity. the composite material to match the existing structure.
• Protection against ultraviolet radiation. The manufac-
10.10 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS turer should be consulted for advice on the UV resistance
of the FRP. If the manufacturer recommends UV protec-
tion, a cementitious, or other, over-coating can be applied.
Various non-destructive tests may be used to inspect a
completed and cured bond for surface-bonded materials.
However, there is no regime of non-destructive testing that

77
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

• Reducing solar gain. In exposed situations the FRP

Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

could be painted white or shrouded to reduce solar gain

and the consequent temperature rise.
• Other reasons. In certain circumstances the FRP mate-
rial may be encapsulated by other structural finishes or,
on bridge decks, covered by the waterproofing.

Figure 52 shows a sprayed mortar over-coat being applied to

FRP plates on the soffit of Dudley Port Bridge.

Figure 52: Spray application of mortar over-coating.

10.12 IDENTIFICATION/WARNING SIGNS

There may be a risk that the fibre composite will be damaged

by other work carried out on the structure. For example,
holes drilled though to take the fixings for a false ceiling
would seriously affect the capacity of the fibre composite;
because of stress-concentrations around the hole, drilling
will lead to a loss in strength equivalent to a reduction in
section of two- or three-hole diameters. When FRP is bonded
to the upper surface of a member and covered by a surfacing
with a limited life, removal of the surfacing may lead to
damage of the FRP. In such cases suitable identifi-
cation/warning plates or other markings should be fixed on
or adjacent to the composite (see Figures 53 and 54). Where
an over-coating layer is applied, the plates should, where
possible, be placed on the exposed surface.

Figure 54: Examples of proposed warning plates fixed to

structure adjacent to strengthened area.

10.13 RECORDS

Detailed records should be kept of the work carried out, as

required under the CDM Regulations(26), and added to the
Health and Safety File, which should include details of any
future inspection and testing regime that is considered appro-
priate. Details of the records that should be kept, along with
suggested proformas and check lists, are given in TR57(5).
Figure 53: Example of warning printed on carbon fibre plate.

78
 11 LONG-TERM INSPECTION,
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE

11.1 INSPECTION AND MONITORING indicate a lower bound to the performance of the composites
REGIME bonded to the main structure. Details should be included in
the Health and Safety File along with recommendations for
Full details on the requirements for inspecting and moni- the frequency of testing.
toring structures strengthened with FRP are given in TR57(5),
Finally, the Health and Safety File should include details of
which includes checklists for the aspects to be considered at
any instrumentation that was installed as part of the strength-
various stages and a standard proforma for recording inspec-
ening exercise, along with any data obtained before and after
tion data. The following Sections summarise the information
strengthening.
in TR57, which should be read in parallel with this document.

As with all structural elements there will be a need to check 11.2 FREQUENCY OF INSPECTIONS
the fibre composite strengthening system as part of the regular
inspection and monitoring of the structure. Such inspections The intervals between inspections recommended below,
are already carried out for bridges, with general (visual) taken from Chapter 1 of TR57(5), should be taken only as a
inspections annually and detailed inspections every six years guide. Structures in aggressive environments will require
or so. However, buildings are rarely inspected on a regular more frequent inspection. Special structures may require a
basis, inspections often being carried out only when there is special inspection regime, the frequency and extent of which
a change of use or of ownership. It is strongly recommended being determined by a risk assessment.
that all building owners should instigate a regular inspection
regime for strengthened elements. Routine, visual inspection

Information on the materials used in the strengthening should The recommended intervals for routine visual inspection are
be included in the Health and Safety File for the structure. as follows:
This File should also include details of any initial faults in
the fibre composite strengthening, such as minor areas of Bridges Every year
delamination, and should indicate those regions of the Buildings Every year
strength-ening that are critical, such as anchorage zones. The Other structures Depends on the use of the structure
structural engineer responsible for designing the strength- but ideally every year.
ening should indicate the action to be taken in the event of
any likely forms of damage to the composite material. An Detailed inspection with testing
example of this might be damage to fibre composite material
on the soffit of a bridge following impact by an over-height In the absence of other guidance, detailed inspections should
vehicle. The action to be taken will be specific to the parti- be carried out at intervals as follows:
cular structure as it will depend on the amount of damage
and the extent to which the structure has been strengthened. Bridges At least every six years
Hence no general guidance can be given in this Report. Buildings At change of occupancy or change
of use, when structural work or
It is strongly recommended that additional samples of the refurbishment is carried out on the
fibre composite material should be bonded to the structure building, but at intervals not excee-
away from the region to be strengthened. (This approach has ding ten years
been adopted on a number of structures including the Barnes Other structures Depending on the use of the struc-
Bridge in Manchester and the John Hart Bridge in British ture but at least every ten years.
Columbia (see Section 4.3).) Additionally, or alternatively,
FRP can be bonded to concrete samples, such as short Detailed inspections should be carried out more frequently
beams, which can be stored on or adjacent to the structure. in the first few years after installation, to give the owner of
Samples can be inspected and tested as part of the inspection the structure confidence that the strengthening has been
regime. To aid inspection, some or all of the samples should carried out satisfactorily.
not be covered with any protective layer. They should thus

79
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

11.3 ROUTINE VISUAL INSPECTION Instrumentation may have been installed as part of the
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

assessment process, for example to measure strains due to

Information on routine visual inspection is given in Section live loading on the structure. In addition, instrumentation
5.2 of TR57. The surface of the fibre composite should be may have been installed on the structure at the time of
inspected for signs of crazing, cracking or delamination, strengthening, to enable the response to be compared with
which would indicate some level of overall deterioration. that predicted. Such instrumentation can be used to indicate
The composite should be inspected for local damage, for changes in the response. If significant changes are observed,
example caused by impact or abrasion. In addition, of course, it will be necessary to identify whether they are due to
the inspection should look for signs of the deterioration of changes in the strengthening system (such as delamination)
the concrete structure itself, such as additional cracking or or due to overall changes in the concrete structure (such as
corrosion. additional cracking or corrosion) so that appropriate action
can be taken. It will be necessary for the structure to be re-
Where the composite has been covered with over-coating, it analysed by a structural engineer to determine what remedial
will not be possible to directly inspect the composite. action may be required.
Damage to the protective layer will suggest the possibility of
damage of the composite. In general, it will not be appro- When local areas of damaged composite are identified, they
priate to remove the protective layer as this may cause damage may be repaired by techniques such as vacuum filling with a
to the fibre composite. Thus any inspection of the composite suitable resin (taking care not to further damage the mate-
will have to be limited to the control samples. rial) or plate overlapping. When major damage is identified,
such as peeling and debonding of large areas, it may be
Identification/warning labels (see Section 10.12 and Figures necessary to remove the defective material and adhesive.
54 and 55) should be checked and missing ones should be The defective material should be removed over a sufficiently
replaced. This is particularly important where there is the large area such that material on the periphery is fully bonded.
likelihood of future work that could damage the fibre compo- The concrete surface should then be prepared again and
site material, such as the installation of fixings for services. further FRP installed. It will be necessary to provide an
adequate overlap between the new and old material at the
The fibre composite may have been covered by paint or periphery of the repaired area. Where these repair techniques
other form of protective layer, e.g. for protection from ultra- are used, it is crucial to check the compatibility of the repair
violet light, which will have a limited life. It will be necessary material with the materials already in place. In addition to
to check the condition of this layer and to replace it when compatibility, the repair material must have similar charac-
required, in accordance with the supplier’s recommendations, teristics to the material in place. Such characteristics include
with a material that is compatible with the fibre composite. fibre orientation, volume fraction, strength, stiffness and over-
all thickness. Some additional information on repair is given
11.4 DETAILED INSPECTION in Section 6.2 of TR57.

Information on detailed inspection and testing is given in 11.5 MAINTENANCE

Section 5.3 of TR57. Debonding of the fibre composite
material from the concrete may be determined by tapping or The nature of FRP materials means that they should need
thermography, as indicated in Section 10.10. However, there little or no maintenance while in service. However, as indi-
are currently no simple, non-destructive tests that can be cated in Section 2.3 of TR57, moisture is one of the most
used to assess the condition of the adhesive. This is best damaging elements and so all gutters, drains, etc., must be
determined by carrying out pull-off tests on the control kept clear of debris, so that rainwater is carried off the
specimens at regular intervals. These tests should be carried structure and away from the FRP. If any cleaning is carried
out as part of the detailed inspection, though there may be a out near the FRP, it must be checked that any solvents used
requirement to test samples more frequently, at least during will not cause damage. Cleaning techniques such as water-
the early period after the strengthening. jetting or grit-blasting are not appropriate as they are likely
to cause damage to the FRP.

80
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175. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN ISO 177. UNIVERSITY OF GLAMORGAN. Design of

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9002, Quality systems: Model for quality assurance in bespoke testing equipment to evaluate lap shear test
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rials, Philadelphia, USA.

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 APPENDIX A
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

GLOSSARY OF TERMS Glass transition temperature (Tg) – The approximate mid-

point of the temperature range over which a polymeric adhe-
As many readers of this Report may be unfamiliar with fibre sive changes from a relatively stiff and brittle material to a
composites and with adhesive technology, many of the terms viscous material.
used are defined below. A more extensive glossary of adhe- Hand lay-up – A process in which resin and reinforcement
sive terms is given in BS EN 923(178) and ASTM D 907(179). are applied either to a mould or to a working surface and
successive layers built up by hand.
Adhesive – A polymeric material which is capable of holding Hardener – The curing agent or catalyst, which promotes
two materials together by surface attachment. chemical cross-linking with the resin in two-component
Aramid – A manufactured fibre in which the fibre- forming adhesive systems.
substance consists of a long-chain synthetic aromatic poly- Laminate – A layer of fibre composite, either preformed or
amide. formed in situ.
Bond – The adhesion of one surface to another, with the use NSM – Near-surface-mounted reinforcement.
of an adhesive or bonding agent.
Peel ply – The outside layer of a reinforced plastic material,
Carbon fibre – Fibres produced by the pyrolysis of organic which is removed to aid bonding.
precursor fibres such as rayon, polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or
Plate – Preformed prismatic FRP plate, formed by pultru-
pitch in an inert atmosphere. The term is often used inter-
sion or manufacturing process, generally with all the fibres
changeably with graphite. However, carbon fibres and gra-
arranged in the longitudinal direction.
phite fibres differ in the temperature at which the fibres are
made and heat-treated, and the carbon content. Polymeric – Adjective describing a material (most com-
monly organic) composed of molecules characterised by the
Composite or composite material – A combination of high-
repetition of one or more types of monomeric units.
modulus, high-strength and high-aspect-ratio fibre reinfor-
cing material encapsulated by and acting in concert with a Pot life – The period of time during which a multi-part adhe-
polymeric matrix. sive can be used after mixing the components. (Note: The
pot life varies with the volume and temperature of the mixed
Cure – To change the properties of an adhesive irreversibly
adhesive and the ambient temperature. The term ‘pot life’ is
by chemical reaction into a more stable condition and to
also used for the application of hot-melt adhesives for the
develop the desired properties.
period for which an adhesive, ready for use, remains usable
Epoxy resins – Resins which may be of widely different when kept at normal operating temperature.)
structures but which are characterised by the reaction of the
Prepreg – Reinforcing fibres in sheet or roll form impreg-
epoxy group to form a cross-linked hard resin.
nated with resin and stored for use.
Fabric – Non-woven – A textile structure produced by
Primer – Material used to protect a surface prior to the
bonding or interlocking of fibres, or both, accomplished by
application of the adhesive, improve adhesion and/or
mechanical, chemical, thermal or solvent means and combi-
improve the durability or to stabilise/protect the substrate.
nations thereof.
Pultrusion – A continuous process for the manufacture of
Fabric – Woven – A generic material construction con-
composite profiles by pulling layers of fibres, impregnated
sisting of interlaced yarns or fibres, usually a planar structure.
with a thermoset resin, through a heated die, thus forming
Filament winding – A reinforced plastics process that em- the ultimate shape of the profile.
ploys a series of continuous resin-impregnated fibres applied
Resin – The reactive polymer base in adhesive and prepreg
to a mandrel in a predetermined geometrical relationship
matrix systems.
under controlled tension.
Substrate – The material of the adherend adjacent to the
Filler – A relatively inert substance added to an adhesive to
adhesive layer.
alter its physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical or other
properties or to lower the cost. Thermoset – A resin that is substantially infusible and
insoluble after being cured.
FRP – Fibre-Reinforced Plastics (or Polymers)
UHM – Ultra high modulus.
Glass fibre – A fibre spun from an inorganic product of fusion
which has cooled to a rigid condition without crystallising. Wet lay-up – A method of making a reinforced product by
applying a liquid resin system while the reinforcement is put
in place, layer by layer.

89
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society
 APPENDIX B
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

SYSTEMS AVAILABLE IN THE UK facturer. As test methods vary, the information should detail
the basis for the information (e.g. frequency of testing,
The following Tables give information on some of the standard deviation).
strengthening systems currently available in the UK from
supporters of the Project. The properties given are taken In addition, strengthening materials are available from other
from manufacturers’ and suppliers’ data sheets and are manufacturers and suppliers, who should be contacted for
thought to be correct at the time of publication. For design the appropriate information.
purposes, actual properties must be obtained from the manu-

Table B1: Suppliers of strengthening materials.

Supplier Trade name Type of material

Exchem Selfix Carbofibe Carbon FRP plates
Carbon fibre rods
Carbon fibre sheet
Aramid fibre sheet
Glass fibre sheet
Degussa MBrace Carbon fibre sheet
(formerly MBT Feb) MBrace Carbon FRP plates
MBrace Ultra high modulus carbon plates
MBrace Glass fibre sheet
Kevlar* Aramid fibre tape and sheet
MBar Carbon fibre rods
Fyfe Tyfo Fibrwrap Systems Carbon fibre sheet
Carbon FRP plates
Carbon/aramid hybrid fibre sheet
Carbon bi-directional fibre sheet
Glass fibre sheet
Glass FRP plates
Glass/aramid hybrid fibre sheet
Glass bi-directional fibre sheet
Aramid fibre sheet
FRP anchors
Sika Sika CarboDur Carbon FRP plates
Sika CarboDur DML UHM bespoke carbon fibre plates
SikaWrap Hex 230C Carbon fibre sheet
SikaWrap Hex 100G Glass fibre sheet
weber building solutions Enforce Carbon FRP plates
Carbon fibre sheet
Glass fibre sheet
Aramid fibre sheet
Ultra high modulus carbon FRP plates
Toray Europe Ltd. Torayca UT70 Carbon fibre sheet
* In association with Du Pont.

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

Table B2: Properties of fibre composite sheet materials.

Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

Trade name Fibre Strength Modulus Areal weight Effective Width

(N/mm2) (kN/mm2) (g/m2) thickness† (mm) (mm)
Enforce Carbon 3800 240 200 0.117 300
Carbon 2650 640 400 0.190 300
Glass 1700 65 350 0.135 680
Aramid 2400 120 290, 420, 650, 0.2, 0.29, 0.45, 300
850 0.59
MBrace C130 Carbon 3550 235 300 0.11, 0.165 300, 500
MBrace C530 Carbon 3000 390 300 0.165 300, 500
MBrace* Carbon 3800 240 200 0.117 300
MBrace* Carbon 2650 640 400 0.190 300
MBrace AR55 Glass 1550 74 915 0.118 500, 1000
MBrace Kevlar Aramid 2100 120 320, 450, 650 0.193, 0.286, 100, 300, 500
AK40, 60, 90 0.430
Selfix Carbofibe E Glass 3450 73 432 0.167 150, 300
& bespoke
Selfix Carbofibe C Carbon 4900 230 300 0.167 150, 300
& bespoke
Selfix Carbofibe AR Aramid 2900 100 240 0.167 150, 300
& bespoke
SikaWrap 230C Carbon 4100 230 220 0.12 300, 600
SikaWrap 103C Carbon 3900 230 610 0.34 600
SikaWrap 100G Glass 2300 76 935 0.36 600
SikaWrap 450A Aramid 2880 100 450 0.31 300
SikaWrap 300A Aramid 2880 100 300 0.21 300
Torayca UT70-20 Carbon 4090 230 200 0.111 100, 250, 500,
1000
Torayca UT70-30 Carbon 4220 235 300 0.167 100, 250, 500,
1000
Tyfo SEH -51 Glass/Aramid 3238 72 915 0.36 1372
hybrid
Tyfo SEH-51A Glass 3238 72 915 0.36 1372
Tyfo SEH-25A Glass 3238 72 505 0.19 1372
Tyfo WEB Bidirectional 3238 72 295 0.116 1270
glass
Tyfo BC Bidirectional 3238 72 813 0.32 1372
±45° glass
Tyfo SCH-41 Carbon 3789 230 644 0.28 610
Tyfo SCH-41s Carbon/Aramid 3789 230 644 0.28 610
glass
Tyfo SCH-11UP Carbon 3789 230 298 0.127 610
Tyfo SCH-7UP Carbon 3789 230 200 0.08 610
Tyfo CWEB Bidirectional 3445 228 162 0.116 1270
carbon
Tyfo WAB Aramid 3098 114 176 0.116 1270
Tyfo SAH-41 Aramid 3098 114 650 0.36 300
Notes: The properties are for dry fibres. The values should be treated as indicative only. See also note to Table B3.
*Available in Europe and the Middle East; not available in the UK.
†The effective thickness is the total cross-sectional area of the fibres divided by the width of the sheet or tape.

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 Appendix B

Table B3: Properties of composite plate materials.

Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

Trade name Fibre Strength Modulus Thickness Width

(N/mm2) (kN/mm2) (mm) (mm)
2800–3000 165 1.2, 1.4 10, 50, 80, 90, 100, 120
Enforce Carbon 2400–2600 210 1.2, 1.4 50, 80, 90, 100, 120
Bespoke plates >300 Bespoke up to 50mm Bespoke up to 1m
MBrace LM Carbon 1800 140 1.2, 1.4 50, 80, 100, 120
MBrace MM Carbon 3100 170 1.4 50, 80, 100, 120, 150
MBrace HM Carbon 2400 250 1.2, 1.4 50, 80, 100, 120, 150
MBrace UHM Carbon 4500 150 Bespoke up to 48mm 50, 100, 150, 200
MBrace 150* Carbon 2800–3000 165 1.2, 1.4 10, 50, 80, 100, 120
MBrace 200* Carbon 2400–2600 210 1.2, 1.4 10, 50, 80, 100, 120
Selfix Carbofibe S Carbon 2800 150 1.2, 1.4 & bespoke 50, 80, 120
Selfix Carbofibe M Carbon 3200 200 1.2, 1.4 & bespoke 50, 80, 120
Selfix Carbofibe H Carbon 1600 280 1.2, 1.4 & bespoke 50, 80, 120
Sika CarboDur S Carbon 3100 165 1.2, 1.4 50, 60, 80, 90, 100, 120, 150
Sika CarboDur M Carbon 3100 210 1.4 50, 60, 90, 100
Sika CarboDur DML Carbon 1110 360 Bespoke Bespoke
Tyfo UC Carbon 2790 230 1.2, 1.4, bespoke 50, 100, bespoke
Tyfo UG E-glass 890 41 1.2, 1.4, bespoke 50, 100, bespoke
Note: These properties are taken from manufacturers’ data sheets and are thought to be correct at the time of publication
(2004). For design purposes, actual properties must be obtained from the manufacturer. As test methods vary, the information
should detail the basis for the information (e.g. frequency of testing, standard deviation).
*Available in Europe and the Middle East; not available in the UK.

Table B4: Properties of NSM rods and strips.

Supplier Trade name Dimensions Strength Stiffness

(mm) N/mm2 kN/mm2
Degussa Mbar Galileo 7.5 dia. 2300 130
Mbar Leonardo 7.5 dia. 2000 200
Hughes Brothers Aslan 2 x 16 2070 130
weber building solutions Enforce 1.4 x 10 2800 165

93
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

Table B5: Properties of epoxy adhesives.

Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

Property Supplier and trade name

Degussa Exchem Fyfe weber building Sika
solutions
MBrace Resifix 31 Selfix Tyfo WS Tyfo TC Epoxy Plus SikaDur
laminate Carbofibe
adhesive Adhesive
Tensile strength (N/mm2) 32 24 23 51 47 19 30
Flexural strength (N/mm2) >35 55 50 86 80 35
Shear strength (N/mm2) 22 Currently 18 15
under test
Flexural modulus (kN/mm2) 10 6.5 Currently 2.2 2.1 9.8 12.8
under test
Shear modulus (kN/mm2) 3.8 Currently
under test
Glass transition temperature, Tg, (°C) 65 60 Currently 93 82 60, 120 82
under test
Notes: See note to Table B3.

Table B6: Properties of laminating resins.

Property Supplier
MBT weber Fyfe Tyfo S Exchem SikaDur SikaDur
building 330 300
solutions
Tensile strength (N/mm2) 50 17 72 60 30 45
Flexural strength (N/mm2) 120 28 123 100
Flexural modulus (kN/mm2) 3 5 3 3 3.8 3
Glass transition temperature, Tg, (°C) 55 60, 120 93 64 53 60

Notes: See note to Table B3.

94
 APPENDIX C
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

QUALITY CONTROL OF MATERIALS • Samples of unidirectional fabric sheet may be made into
laminates, using the appropriate specified resin and the
This section is concerned with the quality control of the laminate tested to determine the properties.
materials used for strengthening. It is not intended to be a • Where appropriate, properties should be determined in the
specification, but covers some of the significant points that transverse direction as well as in the longitudinal direction.
should be included in a specification. The manufacturer • All sheets and tapes should be supplied with a certificate
should supply characteristic values of the mechanical of conformity.
properties to be used for design purposes (e.g. strength, • All individual rolls of material should be appropriately
elastic modulus) which should be taken as the mean value labelled.
minus 2 standard deviations. Sufficient tests should be
carried out at regular intervals to ensure that this is Pultruded plates
statistically valid.
• For pultrusion, the supply of fibres to the pultrusion line
Strengthening materials should be monitored on a regular basis; this should be at
least once per hour.
General • All resins, hardeners, etc., should be used strictly in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
• All materials should be produced under an approved • The speed of processing, processing temperature, etc.,
quality scheme, such as ISO 9000. should be maintained within agreed limits and should be
• All fibres, resins, composites and other materials should checked and recorded regularly.
be in accordance with the relevant ISO specifications, • The properties of the plate should be checked by testing
Euronorms or other equivalent international standard. samples.
• Traceability of all materials should be ensured; all mate- • The frequency of testing should be stated in the Quality
rials should be supplied with a certificate of conformity. Plan. A minimum of one sample should be taken at the
• All external or independent testing should be carried out start and finish of each production run.
in Approved Laboratories in accordance with international • The samples should also be checked for dimensional
standards or by the manufacturer under an approved accuracy.
quality scheme. • Plates should be marked with a unique batch number at
• All testing should be carried out in accordance with the regular intervals.
relevant ISO Standard, Euronorm or other internationally • All pultruded plates should be supplied with a certificate
accepted standard. Where no such standards exist, an of conformity.
industry or company standard or method with a recog-
nised history should be used. Prepreg plates
• Testing should consist of visual checks on the basic
materials (though this will provide limited information) • Cure schedules should be monitored and recorded.
and, where appropriate, physical tests on the finished Records should be maintained to demonstrate compliance
elements as detailed below. with the required procedure.
• The finished product should be checked visually for
Fabric materials defects.
• The finished product should be checked dimensionally
• The properties of a specified width of finished material and by mass to ensure compliance.
should be checked by testing samples. • Plates should be marked with a unique batch number.
• The frequency of testing should be stated in the Quality • All plates should be supplied with a certificate of
Plan. A minimum of one sample should be taken at the conformity.
start and finish of each production run.
• The sample should be weighed to determine the weight Shells
per square metre.
• The elastic modulus and tensile strength should be • Shells may be fabricated by filament winding or by hand
determined directly by testing the sample. lay-up (or similar process) against a positive or negative
mould.

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

• The finished product should be checked visually for • All materials should be accompanied by a certificate of
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

defects such as pin-holes and blisters. conformity.

• The dimensions of the finished product should be checked. • All materials, adhesives, laminating resins, etc., should be
• The thickness should be measured at agreed locations. stored and used strictly in accordance with the manu-
• Trial pieces should be made and tested. These may be facturer’s instructions.
either sacrificial parts of the unit that can be removed for • Accurate records should be maintained of all materials
testing or specially prepared samples made at the same used (e.g. delivery notes, batch numbers) and, where
time and by the same process. In the latter case, the required, the ambient conditions (e.g. temperature,
samples may be formed on a flat surface to aid testing. In relative humidity).
both cases care must be taken to ensure that the sample is • Any independent testing that is required by the Client
representative of the material in the finished unit. should be carried out in Approved Laboratories in accor-
• The frequency of testing should be stated in the Quality dance with international standards or by the manufacturer
Plan. under his approved quality scheme.
• The samples should be weighed to check the density of
the product. Plates
• The samples should be tested in direct tension, in the
appropriate direction, to determine the elastic modulus • Visual checks should be carried out on the plate to ensure
and the tensile strength. that the plate material is as specified.
• The plate should be checked for local damage.
Specials (shear straps, etc.) • When bonded, the plate should be checked by tapping or
other means to ensure continuous adhesion.
• Specials may be fabricated by any appropriate method.
• Testing should be in line with the recommendations for Wet lay-up laminates
shells.
• Testing should be carried out on complete elements by an • Visual checks should be carried out on mats, unidirec-
appropriate method to determine the tensile strength and tional tapes/fabrics, woven rovings and multi-axial fabrics
elastic modulus. to ensure uniformity and conformity.
• The frequency of testing should be stated in the Quality • The completed laminate should be checked visually for
Plan. defects.
• When required by the contract, trial pieces should be
Site requirements made at the same time and by the same process. Care
should be taken to ensure that the trial pieces are repre-
As detailed in Chapter 10 and TR57, some site testing will sentative of the material in the finished unit.
be required. The following points should be included in any • The frequency of testing should be as agreed with the
specification. Client.
• The samples should be tested to determine the elastic
• All work should be carried out in accordance with an modulus and the tensile strength.
agreed Quality Plan, in accordance with ISO 9000 or
similar.

96
 APPENDIX D
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

SPECIALIST SUPPLIERS, CONTRACTORS, CONSULTANTS, UNIVERSITIES AND

OWNERS

This Appendix gives contact details of the organisations involved with the preparation of this Report. It is believed to be correct
at the time of going to press, but readers should check the information at the time of use.

Specialist suppliers Fyfe Asia Pte. Ltd Specialist contractors

10 Toh Guan Road #03-10 T.T.
Degussa (formerly MBT Feb) International Tradepark Concrete Repair Association
Albany House 608838 Singapore (Secretary Mr J Fairley)
Swinton Hall Road Tel: +65 95 898 5248 Association House
Swinton Fax: +65 95 898 5181 99 West Street
Manchester M27 4DT e-mail: [email protected] Farnham
Tel: +44(0)161 727 2731 Surrey GU9 7EN
Fax: +44(0)161 794 0944 Sika Tel: +44(0)1252 739145
www.mbtfeb.co.uk Watchmead Fax: +44(0)1252 739140
Welwyn Garden City e-mail: [email protected]
Exchem Mining and Construction Herts AL7 1BQ www.concreterepair.org.uk
Ventura Works Tel: +44(0)1707 394444
P O Box 7 www.sika.co.uk Concrete Repairs Limited
Alfreton Cathite House
Derbyshire DE55 7RE Toray Europe Ltd 23a Willow Lane
Tel: +44(0)1773 540440 3rd Floor Mitcham
Fax: +44(0)1773 607638 7 Old Park Lane Surrey CR4 4TU
e-mail: [email protected] London W1Y 4AD Tel: +44(0)20 8288 4848
www.exchem.com Tel: +44(0)20 7663 7779 Fax: +44(0)20 8288 4847
Fax: +44(0)20 7663 7777 Email: [email protected]
Fyfe Company LLC www.concrete-repairs.co.uk
“The Fibrwrap® Company” weber building solutions
Nancy Ridge Technology Center Saint-Gobain Weber Specialist consultants
6310 Nancy Ridge Drive Suite 103 Dickens House
San Diego Enterprise Way Arup Research & Development
CA 92121-3209 Flitwick 13 Fitzroy Street
USA Bedford MK45 5BY London W1T 4BQ
Tel: +1(1) 858 642 0694 Tel: +44(0)8703 330070 Tel: +44(0)20 7636 1531
Fax: +1(1) 858 642 0947 Fax: +44(0)1525 718988 Fax: +44(0)20 7755 3669
e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: Email: [email protected]
www.fyfeco.com [email protected] www.arup.com
www.weberbuildingsolutions.co.uk
Fyfe Europe Ltd Mouchel Parkman
28 Aristippou Street West Hall
Glyfada 16674 Parvis Road
Athens, Greece West Byfleet KT14 6EX
Tel & Fax: +(30) 210 064 3402 Tel: +44(0)1932 337000
e-mail: [email protected] Fax: +44(0)1932 356122
www.mouchelparkman.com

97
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

Parsons Brinckerhoff Ltd University of Bristol Health & Safety Executive

Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

Queen Victoria House Dept of Civil Engineering Nuclear Safety Directorate

Redland Hill Queen’s Building Room 304, Balliol Road
Bristol BS6 6US University Walk Bootle
Tel: +44(0)117 933 9300 Bristol BS8 1TR Merseyside L20 3JZ
e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44(0)117 928 7707
www.pbworld.com Fax: +44(0)177 928 7783 Highways Agency
www.cen.bris.ac.uk Safety Standards & Research Division
Tony Gee and Partners Room 201, Heron House
TGP House University of Glamorgan 49/53 Goldington Road
45-47 High Street School of Technology Bedford MK40 3LL
Cobham Division of Built Environment Tel: +44(0)1234 796107
Surrey KT11 3DP Pontypridd CF37 1DL Fax: +44(0)1234 796060
Tel: +44(0)1932 868277 Tel: +44(0)1443 482121
e-mail: [email protected] Fax: +44(0)1443 482169 London Underground Ltd
www.tgp.co.uk e.mail: [email protected] 84 Eccleston Square
www.glam.ac.uk/sot London SW1V 1PX
Universities Tel: +44(0)20 7027 9510
Owners
University of Bath Network Rail
Department of Architecture & Civil British Energy plc Civil Engineering
Engineering Civil Design Group – Engineering 40 Melton Street
Bath BA2 7AY Division London NW1 2EE
Tel: +44(0)1225 386908/6 3 Redwood Crescent Tel: +44(0)20 7557 8000
Fax: +44(0)1255 386691 Peel Park Fax: +44(0)20 7557 9000
email: [email protected] or East Kilbride G74 5PR www.networkrail.co.uk
[email protected] Tel: +44(0)1355 262000
www.bath.ac.uk/ace Oxfordshire County Council
Speedwell House
Speedwell Street
Oxford OX1 1NE
Tel: +44(0)1865 815 641

98
 INDEX
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

A B C
adhesives 12-13, 69 beam-column connections 7, 12, 18, 58, 59 car parks 1, 7, 17, 18
curing 28, 41-2, 66, 73 beams and slabs carbon fibre, definition 89
definition 89 application examples 16-17, 18-20 carbon fibres and composites 9-10, 14
delamination 41 bridges 8, 18-20, 69 application examples 7-8, 16-22, 28
design considerations 28 buildings 16-17 costs 14, 18, 19
design life 7 deep embedded bars 69 durability 26, 27
electrical currents and 10 flexural strengthening 31-46 fabrics 18, 19, 20
flexural strengthening 31, 41-2 FRP advantages/disadvantages 5 health and safety 13
health and safety 12, 13 NSM bars 68 jackets 61
NSM reinforcement 37, 38, 73, 75, 77 shear strengthening 12, 17, 47-52, 67-8 mats 19, 28
prestressed FRP composites and 65, 66 wrapping 67, 73 NSM reinforcement 11, 17, 19, 37, 68
properties 26, 28, 94 see also moment capacity; shear capacity partial safety factors 27
storage and site conditions 73 bending moment capacity see moment plates 11, 16-22, 66, 67
surface preparation 72, 73 capacity preformed shells 53
temperature 10, 12, 28, 65, 73 blast protection 14, 18, 29 prestressed 65, 66, 69
testing 77, 80 bolted plate anchors 66, 67-8 rectangular columns 61
thickness 72, 74, 75 see also mechanical fastening shear strengthening 17, 19, 20, 47, 68
workmanship and installation 12, 74-5, bond, definition 89 sheets 16-22
76 bonding, electrical 10 stability 25
alkali-resistant glass fibre 9, 27 bonds stress rupture 65, 66
anchorages columns 53 strips 17, 18, 20
axial FRP 59 delamination 41 tapes 21, 69
flexural strengthening 34, 36, 37, 67 maximum anchorage capacity 47 chemical resistance, fibres 9
material selection 13 non-destructive tests 77 chimneys 21
maximum capacity 34, 47, 49 NSM reinforcement 37, 73 see also towers
NSM reinforcement 37, 38-9, 41 prestressed FRP composites 65, 66 circular columns 17-18, 21, 29, 53-9, 62-4
prestressed FRP composites 65, 66-7 surface preparation 72-3 classification, material properties 6
specials 12 thick plates 39 coastal structures see marine structures
tendons and U-wraps 67 see also adhesives; anchorages; coatings see over-coatings
wet lay-up laminates 67 debonding; separation failure collars 5, 59
see also bolted plate anchors; glass fibre bridges columns 5, 53-64
anchorages; mechanical fastening application examples 7-8, 15-16, 18-21, application examples 17-18, 20-1, 22
aramid fibre, definition 89 22, 28 preformed shells 11-12, 53
aramid fibres and composites 9-10 appraisal 24 see also beam-column connections;
application examples 17, 18, 20, 21, 22 beams and slabs 8, 18-20, 69 circular columns; moment capacity;
blast protection 18 deflection 40 rectangular columns; shear capacity
health and safety 13 deformation 40 compressive strengths 10, 53, 55-7
impact loading 29 design life 7 see also stress-strain model
NSM reinforcement 21 fatigue 41, 57 concave surfaces, separation failures 34-5
partial safety factors 27 flexural strengthening 8, 41, 53 concrete confinement 5, 17, 53-64
prestressing 65 FRP advantages/disadvantages 5, 6 earthquake damage protection 14
ropes 67 joints 21 preformed shells 11-12
shear strengthening 47 partial safety factors 24 torsional strengthening 69
stress rupture 65, 66 plates 8, 21 see also wrapping
suitability 14 prestressed FRP composites 67 concrete preparation 72-3
assessment, structures 3-4, 24, 31-2, 71 shear strengthening 7-8, 69 concrete properties 25, 26
axial FRP 49-50, 53, 57-9, 61 stress-strain model 55 concrete splitting failure 37-8
axial shortening 57 wrapping 21 concrete strength see concrete properties;
axially loaded members 53-64 see also impact damage structural assessment
brittle failure 25, 31, 56, 57, 68, 69 conformity see quality control
buildings 7, 15, 16-18, 40 connections
see also beam-column connections; preformed shells 12
beams and slabs; columns; structural see also beam-column connections; joints
assessment; walls

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 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

consultants 97-8 epoxy resins bridges 8, 41, 53

contractors 71, 97 definition 89 columns 53, 57-9, 61
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

control samples see samples see also resins materials 13

corrosion 1, 4, 17, 21, 80 extreme loadings 28-9 walls 68
costs 4, 7-8 see also NSM (near-surface-mounted)
carbon systems 14, 18, 19 F reinforcement
NSM reinforcement 1, 14, 37 fabrics 10 full wrapping 47, 49, 69, 72
preformed shells 12 adhesive application 75, 76
cracks and cracking advantages 1 G
application examples 18, 19, 21, 67 application examples 18, 19, 20-1 glass fibre, definition 89
crack widths 25, 28, 40, 67 column strengthening 53 glass fibre anchorages 68
design considerations 28 concrete preparation 72-3 glass fibres and composites 9-10
flexural strengthening 40 installation 76 application examples 18, 20, 21
inspection 80 lap joints 56 durability 26, 27
NSM reinforcement 37, 38 properties 25 fabrics 20, 21
prestressed carbon FRP straps 69 quality control 95 health and safety 13
separation failure 34, 38 surface regularity and 35 NSM reinforcement 37, 68
shear strengthening 49 see also multi-layer plates and fabrics; partial safety factors 27
curing woven fabrics plates 21
adhesives 28, 41-2, 66, 73 failure preformed shells 18, 21, 53
see also temperature design consideration 8 prestressing 65
concrete repairs 71 ductility enhancement and 59 shear strengthening 47, 68
definition 89 FRP response 26 stress rupture 65, 66
NSM reinforcement 37-8 suitability 14
D post-tensioning systems 66 see also filament winding
debonding thick and multi-layer plates 39 glass transition temperature (Tg) 12, 28, 89
application example 17 see also brittle failure; deflection; glossary 89
bolted plate anchors and 67, 68 deformation; fatigue; fire protection; grooves see slots
flexural strengthening 31, 39 lap joints; separation failure; shear grouts 12, 21, 37, 68
inspection for 80 stress; splitting failure; stress rupture;
lap joints 56, 59 tensile rupture; vandalism H
NSM reinforcement 37 fan anchors 68 hand lay-up 11, 27, 89
shear strengthening 49, 56 fatigue 25, 41, 57, 65 health and safety 10, 12, 13, 28, 71, 72
surface preparation 72 fibre composites records 78, 79
wall strengthening 68 advantages/disadvantages 1, 5-7, 41 see also environmental aspects; fire
wrapped columns 59 definition 89 protection
deep embedded bars 69 health and safety 13 HM (high modulus) carbon systems 9, 14
deflection 17, 25, 28, 40-1 partial safety factors 27 hoop wrapping
deformation 25, 27, 29, 40, 53, 57 post-tensioning 65 application examples 20
delamination 41, 77, 80 prestressed 65-7, 68, 69 columns 53, 55, 56-7, 58, 59, 61
design life 7 properties 5, 9, 25, 92 earthquake damage protection 14
design modulus of elasticity 26-7 shear strengthening 47 rectangular columns 29
see also stiffness sheets 7, 8, 13, 27, 65, 92
design resistance moment, beams 32 strips 17, 18, 20, 49
design strain 27, 35 tapes 21, 27, 69 I
design strength 26, 27, 55 tendons 65, 67 identification 73, 78, 80
docks see marine structures wet lay-up systems 13 impact damage 6, 19, 26, 29
double-lap shear test 77 see also aramid fibres and composites; impact resistance 10, 20, 55
ductility 25, 40, 54 carbon fibres and composites; glass inorganic adhesives 69
ductility enhancement 53, 54, 59, 61, 68 fibres and composites; NSM (near- inorganic resins 9
durability 6-7, 26, 27, 65 surface-mounted) reinforcement inspection 2, 7, 29, 71, 77, 79-80
see also corrosion fibres 9-10, 13 see also maintenance; visual inspection
filament winding 11, 27, 55, 89 installation 5-6, 71-8
fire damage 17 costs 7-8
E NSM reinforcement 1, 37, 77
earthquake damage fire protection
adhesive selection 12 prestressed FRP composites and 65
application examples 17, 18, 21, 22 surface regularity 34-5
protection against 14, 20, 28-9, 53 design considerations 10, 25, 26, 28
FRP advantages/disadvantages 6 see also quality control; workmanship
repair 18 instrumentation 77, 79, 80
economics see costs over-coatings 77
electrical hazards 10, 14 flexural strengthening 31-46
electricity transmission poles 22 anchorages 67 J
environmental aspects 6, 13, 73-4 application examples 16, 17, 18, 20, 21 jetties see marine structures
see also health and safety axial FRP 57-9, 61 joints
epoxy adhesives see adhesives beam-column connections 58 bridges 21
see also connections; lap joints

100
 Index

L O redistribution, moment 31, 40, 67

reinforcement 19, 25, 27-8, 73
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

laminating resins see resins oval columns 61

lap joints 5-6, 41, 56, 59, 76, 80 over-coatings 10, 12, 25, 77-8, 80 see also corrosion; NSM (near-surface-
lateral deformation 53, 57 overlaps see lap joints mounted reinforcement); SRP (steel-
life-cycle costing see whole-life costing reinforced polymer) materials;
life expectancy 69 strengthening
P repair
lighthouses 21 paints see over-coatings
limit state design 24-5 before strengthening 4, 40, 71
partial safety factors 26-7, 28
see also ultimate limit states by FRP composites 17, 18, 19, 21
existing sections 24, 25, 32
live loads, strengthening under 41-2 of FRP composites 80
stress-strain 58
whole-life costing 8
tensile rupture 56
resin, definition 89
M peel ply 19, 39, 74, 89
resins 9, 12-13
maintenance 7, 8, 80 piers see marine structures
properties 26, 94
see also inspection plates 5, 9, 11
pultrusion process 11
marine structures 1, 21-2 application examples 8, 16-22
sunlight and 10
masonry see walls definition 89
workmanship and installation 74, 75
materials 9-14 fatigue 41
see also adhesives
compatibility 80 flexural strengthening 39-40
design values 26-8 lap splices 41
properties 6, 9, 25-6, 92-4 partial safety factors 27 S
quality control 73, 95-6 post-tensioning 65 safety see health and safety; partial safety
storage 73 prestressed FRP composites 66-7, 68 factors
suppliers 91 properties 11, 25, 38, 93 samples 7, 25, 28, 77, 79, 80
testing 77 quality control 13, 95, 96 see also testing
see also adhesives; concrete; fibre resins 11 seismic loading see earthquake damage
composites; fibres; resins; SRP (steel- stacking 39-40 separation failure 31, 33-6, 38, 45-6, 47
reinforced polymer) materials suitability 1, 13 serviceability 40-2, 57
mechanical fastening 34, 66, 68, 69 surface irregularities 35 serviceability limit states 24-5, 26, 42, 65,
moment capacity 3, 31-3, 58-9 tolerances 73 66
see also beams and slabs; columns workmanship and installation 6, 13, 72-3, shape factor 60-1
moment redistribution 31, 40, 67 74, 75-6 shear capacity 31, 34, 47-8, 56, 65
monitoring 2, 7, 29, 79-80 see also separation failure; specials; see also beams and slabs; columns; shear
mortars see grouts warning plates strengthening; shear stress
multi-layer plates and fabrics 39-40, 76 polyester/polyurethane adhesives 12 shear-crack-induced FRP separation 34, 38
post-tensioning 65-6 shear strengthening 3, 5, 47-52
preformed shells 11-12, 18, 21 application examples 17, 18, 19, 20, 21
N axial FRP 49-50, 57
non-destructive tests 77 columns 11-12, 53, 61
installation 71 beams and slabs 12, 17, 47-52, 67-8
non-woven fabrics 10, 89
partial safety factors 27 bridges 7-8, 69
NSM (near-surface-mounted) reinforcement
quality control 95-6 carbon fibre and composites 17, 19, 20,
1, 36-9
prepreg, definition 89 47, 68
adhesives 37, 38, 73, 75, 77
prepreg fabric 10, 21, 53 circular columns 53-9
anchorages 37, 38-9, 41
prepreg plates 11, 27, 95 debonding 49, 56
application examples 17, 19, 21
prestressed FRP composites 65-7, 68, 69 deep embedded bars 69
aramid fibres and composites 21
prestressed structures 42 glass fibres and composites 47, 68
beams and slabs 68
protective coatings see over-coatings NSM reinforcement 68
carbon fibre and composites 11, 17, 19,
pull-off tests see testing prestressed carbon FRP straps 69
37, 68
pultrusion 11, 89 rectangular columns 47-52, 61
costs 1, 14, 37
see also plates specials 12
glass fibres and composites 37, 68
ultimate limit states 48-9, 50, 56-7
inspection 77
walls 68
installation 1, 37, 77 Q wet lay-up systems 13
post-tensioning 65 quality control 13, 25, 71, 73, 95-6
wrapping 13, 47, 49, 56, 57, 67
prestressed 68
shear stress 35-6, 47-8
shear strengthening 68 R bond failure 34
sizes and properties 11, 93 railway structures 7, 10, 14, 19, 21, 22 NSM reinforcement 38
slots for 13, 38, 73, 77 see also tunnels prestressed FRP composites 66, 68
suitability 13-14 records 71, 73, 78, 79, 96 thick and multi-layer laminates 39
vandalism and 29 rectangular columns 53, 60-1 wet lay-up systems 13
wall strengthening 68 application examples 17, 18 see also shear capacity
wet lay-up laminates 67 impact loading 29 shells see preformed shells
see also deep embedded bars shear strengthening 47-52, 61 side-only wrapping 47, 49
nuclear structures 7, 18, 28 wrapping 29, 73 site requirements 73-4, 96

101
 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials

slabs see beams and slabs structural assessment 3-4, 24, 31-2, 71 V
slots structural design 23-9, 71
Licensed copy: crowat, Crouch Waterfall and Partners, 10/12/2008, Uncontrolled Copy, ®The Concrete Society

vandalism 6, 26, 29, 65, 77

useful perimeter 38 substrate, definition 89 vinyl ester adhesives 12
wet lay-up systems 67 substrates 13, 31, 72-3, 74, 75 visual inspection 71, 74, 75-7, 79, 80, 96
workmanship 13, 37, 73, 75, 77 see also cracks and cracking; surface
see also NSM (near-surface-mounted) irregularity-induced separation;
reinforcement surface preparation; surface regularity W
solar gain 78 suppliers 97 walls 18, 29, 68
spacing surface irregularity-induced separation warning plates 29, 78, 80
plates 76 34-5, 38 water-cured glass fabric 21
strips 49 surface preparation 1, 12, 37, 72-3 wet lay-up, definition 89
specials 12, 96 surface regularity 34-5 wet lay-up systems
splitting failure 37-8, 67 symbols 23-4 anchorages 67, 68
square columns see rectangular columns concrete durability 40
SRP (steel-reinforced polymer) materials partial safety factors 27
T
68-9 quality control 96
tapes 21, 27, 69
stacking, plates 39-40 suitability 13
see also straps; strips
steel reinforcement see reinforcement testing 25
temperature, adhesives 10, 12, 28, 65, 73
steel stress 27-8 wrapping 13, 76
tendons 65, 67
stiffness whole-life costing 4, 8
tensile rupture 55-6
carbon systems 14, 26 see also costs
testing 7, 77, 79, 80
design considerations 25, 26, 39, 55, 56 workmanship 6, 12, 35, 40, 71-8
quality control 95
fibres 10, 26 see also installation; quality control
surface quality 73
plates 11, 38 worst credible strength 24, 25, 26
wet lay-up systems 25
preformed shells 12 woven fabrics 10, 19, 26, 89
see also samples
woven fabrics 10 wrapping 3, 9
thick plates 39-40
storage, materials 73 application examples 17, 18, 20-1, 22
torsional strengthening 69
strain 26-7 beams and slabs 67, 73
towers 8, 21, 22
flexural strengthening 31, 32, 33, 35 bridges 21
tunnels 6, 12, 21, 28
NSM separation failure 38 impact loading 29
shear strengthening 48-9 rectangular columns 29, 73
tensile rupture 56 U shear strengthening 13, 47, 49, 56, 57,
see also stress-strain model U-wrapping 13, 47, 49, 67 67
straps 12, 69 UHM (ultra high modulus) carbon systems torsional strengthening 69
see also strips 9 wet lay-up systems 13, 76
strengthening 1-8, 15-22 ultimate limit states 24-5, 26, 27 see also columns; concrete confinement;
see also flexural strengthening; shear flexural strengthening 31-2 fabrics; filament winding; full
strengthening; torsional strengthening NSM reinforcement 37 wrapping; hoop wrapping; U-
strengthening systems 91-4 post-tensioning 66 wrapping
stress rupture 12, 25, 41, 57, 65, 66 separation failure 34, 35, 38
stress-strain model 26, 32, 53-5, 56, 57-8, shear strengthening 48-9, 50, 56-7
59 stress-strain model 54, 56
strips 17, 18, 20, 49 tensile rupture 56
see also straps; tapes ultraviolet radiation 10, 12, 25, 77
underpasses 18

102