Coordination and response

Coordination: is the way all the organs and systems of the body are made to
work efficiently together.
Nervous control in humans
The brain and spinal cord together form the central nervous system CNS.
Nerves carry electrical impulses from the central nervous system to all parts
of the body, making muscles contract or stimulating glands to produce
enzymes or hormones.
Electrical impulses are electrical signals that pass along nerve cells
(neuros).
Gland and muscles are called effectors because they act when they receive
nerve impulses or hormones.

effectors Action
Biceps muscle Flexes the arm
Salivary gland Saliva secretion

The nerves also carry impulses back to the central nervous system from
receptors in the sense organs of the body. Nerve impulses from the sense
organs are called sensory impulses.

Sense organs
Eyes
Ears
Skin

The nerves that connect the body to the central nervous system make up
the peripheral nervous system PNS.
Nerve cells (neurons)
The Central Nervous System CNS and the Peripheral Nervous System PNS
are made up of nerve cells called neurons.

Types of Neurons Function

MOTOR NEURON Carry impulse from the central CNS

Also called effector nervous system to muscles and
neurones gland
SENSORY NEURONES Carry impulse from the sense organs PNS
to the central nervous system.
RELAY NEURONES They make connections to other
Also called connector or neurons inside the central nervous
multipolar neurones system

Junctions where neurones connect with each other are called synapses.
Neurone Cell
Neurone cell has a cell body consisting of a nucleus surrounded by
cytoplasm.
Dendrites are fibres which branch from the cell body to contact other
neurons
Nerve fibre is a long filament of cytoplasm surrounded by an insulating
sheath which runs from the cell body of the neurone.
Cell bodies of the neurones are mostly found in the brain or in the spinal
cord.
The nerve fibres run in the nerves.
Nerves contain a mixture of sensory and motor fibres, so a nerve can carry
many different impulses.
The cell bodies of the nerve fibres are found in the spinal cord.
Some of the nerve fibres are very long (1m).

Synapses
The regions where impulses can cross from one neurone to the next are
called synapses.
How a synapse transmits an electrical impulse?
When an impulse arrives at the synapse, vesicles in the cytoplasm are
stimulated to release a tiny amount of the neurotransmitter molecules.
The molecules rapidly diffuse across the synaptic gap and bind with
neurotransmitter receptor proteins in the membrane of the neurone on the
other side of the synapse.
Impulse only travels in one direction.

The reflex arc

One of the simplest situations where impulses cross synapses to produce
action is in the reflex arc.
A reflex action is a rapid and automatic response to a stimulus. It is
automatic.
The nervous pathway for reflexes is called a reflex arc.
A Stimulus is a change in the external or internal environment of an
organism.
Example
The receptor sends off impulses in a sensory fibre. These sensory impulses
traves in the nerve to the spinal cord.
In the central region of the spinal cord, the sensory fibre passes the impulse
across a synapse to a motor neurone. Thiward.s conducts the impulse down
the fibre, back to the thigh muscle (the effector). When the impulses reach
the muscle, they make it contract and jerk the lower part of the limb
forward.
The special property of sensory cells and sense organs is that they can
convert one form of energy to another.

ORGAN TRANSFER IN TRANSFER INTO

EYES LIGHT ENERGY ELECTRICAL ENERGY
EARS SOUND VIBRATIONS ELECTRICAL ENERGY

SENSE ORGANS
Sense organs are group of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli
such as light, sound, touch, temperature, and chemicals.
The eye
The structure of the eye
The sclera is the tough, white outer coating (capa exterior blanca y
resistente).
Part of sclera:
a) Cornea: is the front p
b) art of the sclera, is clear and allows light to enter the eye.
c) Conjunctiva: is a thin epithelium, which lines the inside of the eyelids
and the front o the sclera.
The eye contains a clear liquid, which puts pressure on the sclera, keeping
the spherical shape of the eyeball. The liquid behind the lens is jelly – like
and called vitreous humour. The aqueous humour in front of the lens is
watery.
The lens is a transparent structure held in place by a ring of fibres called
the suspensory ligaments.
The iris is a disc of tissue in front of the lens. (da el color de los ojos) . The
iris control shows much light enters the pupil.
The pupil is the Centre of the iris.
The choroid layer lies between the retina and the sclera and contains
many blood vessels.
The ciliary body produces aqueous humour and contains ciliary muscles,
which control the thickness of the lens.
The retina is the internal lining at the back of the eye. It consists of many
thousands of cells that respond to light.
The blind spot is the part of the retina lying directly in front of the optic
nerve. It contains no light sensitive cells, so no information reaches the
brain about the part of the image that falls here.

PART FUNCTION
CORNEA REFRACTS THE LIGHT ENTERING
AND HELPS TO FOCUS IT
IRIS CHANGES THE SIZE OF THE PUPIL,
CONTROLLING HOW MUCH LIGHT
ENTERS THE PUPIL
LENS REFRACTS LIGHT TO FOCUS IT ON
THE RETINA
RETINA DETECT LIGHT OF LOW INTENSITY,
AND CONES, WHICH DETECT
DIFERENT COLOURS
OPTIC NERVE TRANSMITS ELECTRICAL IMPULSES
FROM THE RETINA TO THE BRAIN
CILIARY MUSCLES AND TOGETHER, THE MUSCLES AND
SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS LIGAMENTS CONTROL THE SHAPE
OF THE LENS.
FOVEA A CENTRAL PART OF THE RETINA
WHERE COME CELLS ARE MOST
CONCENTRATED TO DETECT
COLOURES LIGHT
HORMONES
A hormone is defined as a chemical substance, produced by a gland, and
carried by the blood, which alters the activity of one or more specific
target organs.
The endocrine system depends on chemicals, called hormones, which are
released into the bloodstream from special glands called endocrine
glands.
After being secreted, hormones only remain temporarily in the blood.
Insulin, for example, may stay in the bloodstream for 4-8 hours before being
broken down.
Endocrine and nervous control compared.

ENDOCRINE NERVOUS
Transmission of chemicals Transmission of electrical impulses
Transmission through blood Transmission in nerves
Slow transmission Rapid transmission
Hormones dispersed throughout Impulse sent directly to target
body organ
Long term effects Short term effects

Digestive glands deliver their secretions through ducts. However, endocrine

glands do not do this. For this reason, they re sometimes called ductless
glands. The hormones pass directly from glands where they are made, into
the blood circulation.
Serious deficiencies or excesses of hormones production can cause
illnesses.
Endocrine Gland
1- Duodenum
2- Pancreas
3- Adrenal gland
4- Ovary or testis
Adrenal Glands
Adrenal glands are attached to the back of the abdominal cavity, one above
each kidney and produce the hormone adrenaline.
Adrenaline effects:
In response to a stressful situation nerve impulses are sent from the brain to
the adrenal gland, which releases adrenaline into de blood.
a- Its presences cause breathing to become faster and deeper.
b- The heart beats faster
c- The pupils of our eyes dilate, making them look much blacker.
The extra adrenaline in our bodies just makes us feel tense and anxious.
Adrenaline has an important role in the control of metabolic activity.
Increased levels of glucose available to cells enable them to respire faster,
making more energy available.

The Pancreas
The Pancreas is a digestive gland that secretes enzymes into the
duodenum through the pancreatic duct.
Most of the pancreas cells produce digestive enzymes, but some of them
produce hormones. One of the hormones is the insulin.
Insulin controls the levels of glucose in the blood by instructing the liver to
remove the sugars and store them.
Pancreas also produces another hormone called glucagon.
Reproductive Organs
The ovaries and testes produce hormones as well as gametes (sperm and
ova).
One of the hormones from the ovary, oestrogen, prepares the uterus for
the implantation of the embryo.
The hormones testosterone (from the testes) and oestrogen (from the
Ovaries) play a part in the development of the secondary sexual
characteristics.

Unidad 2
Plan Nutrition
Photosynthesis: is the process by which plants synthesize
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.
All living things need food and energy.
Animals take in food, digest it and use the digested products to build their
tissues or to release energy.
Plants do not take in food. The most likely source of their raw materials
seems to be the soil.
A hypothesis or theory to explain the source of food in a plant is that it
makes it from air, water and soil salts.
Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The carbon and
oxygen could be supplied by carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air. The
Hydrogen could come from the water (H2O) in the soil. The nitrogen and
sulfur needed for making protein.
Synthesis: is the process by which simpler substances are transformed to
build complex food molecules. It needs enzymes and energy to made it
happen.
The energy for the first stages in the synthesis comes from sunlight.
The process is called photosynthesis. The green substance, chlorophyll, in
the chloroplasts of plant cells is involved in photosynthesis. The function
of chlorophyll is to convert light energy to chemical energy.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

LIGHT + CHLOROPHYLL

6 CO2 + 6 H2O
C6H12O6+ 6O2
6 CARBON DIOXIDE MOLECULES + 6 WATER MOLECULES GLUCOSE + 6
OXIGEN MOLECULES

The process of photosynthesis

The process takes place mainly in the cells of the leaves.

In land plants, water is absorbed from the soil by the roots.

It is carried in the water vessels of the veins, xylem, up the stem to the leaf.

Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the air through the stomata (pores in the
leaf).

In the leaf cells, the carbon dioxide and water are joined to make sugar.
The energy for this reaction comes from sunlight, which has been absorbed
by the green pigment chlorophyll in the chloroplasts of the leaf cells.
Chloroplasts are small green structures present in the cytoplasm of the leaf
cells.
The energy from light has been transferred into energy in chemicals as they
are made.

The plant´s use of photosynthetic products

Starch
The glucose produce during the process of photosynthesis is quickly
changed to sucrose for transport around the plant.
Sugar that is not needed for respiration is turned into starch and stored or
changed into other molecules.
Starch molecules are added to the growing starch granules in the
chloroplast. Some plants store it as starch grains in the cells of their stem or
roots. Other plants, like potato have special storage organs tubers, called
tubers.
Sugar is stored in the fruits of same plants.
SUCROSE
The starch is steadily broken down to sucrose which is soluble.
The sucrose is transported out of the cell into the phloem. These are the
food carrying cells of the leaf veins. These veins will pass the sucrose to all
part of the plant.

Cellulose
Plant cell walls are made of cellulose. Cellulose molecules are long chains of
glucose.

Respiration
The sugar can be used to provide energy. The process of respiration oxidises
the glucose, the products are carbon dioxide and water. Energy is also
produced. This energy released is used for other chemical reaction, like the
building up the proteins.

Nectar
Nectar in the flower is made of mixture of sugar. These include glucose,
fructose and sucrose.

Mineral Requirements
Plants need a supply of nitrate ions for making amino acids. Amino acids are
important because they are joined to make proteins. These are needed to
make the enzymes and cytoplasm of the cell. Nitrates are absorbed from the
soil by the roots.
Plants also need magnesium ions to make chlorophyll. The plant gets
magnesium in salts from the soil.
 Leaf Structure

Part of the leaf and their functions

Part of leaf Functions

Epidermis The epidermis helps to keep the

leaf´s shape. The closely fitting
cells reduce evaporation from
the leaf and prevent bacteria
and fungi from getting in
Stomata and guard cell There are structures in the leaf
epidermis called stomata.
Stomata are only present in the
lower epidermis. The stomata
can open (daylight) or close (in
the dark) allowing carbon dioxide
and oxygen to be exchanged
with the air outside.

Mesophyll The tissue between the upper

and lower epidermis is called
mesophyll.
It is made of two areas:
1- palisade (contain
chloroplasts) its job is to
make food by
photosynthesis.
2- Spongy, they contain less
chloroplast.

Air Spaces The air spaces make it easy for

the carbon dioxide to diffuse.
Water vapor goes into the air
spaces, evaporated from the
surface of the cells around them
(transpiration)
Vascular bundles (veins)
Vascular bundles are made of
two different types of tissues,
called xylem and phloem.
The xylem carries water and
 salts to cells in the leaf.
Phloem cells carry the sugars
and other food substances like
amino acids away from the leaf
and into the stem to other parts
of the plant ( a process called
translocation.)
Distribution of chloroplasts There are more chloroplast in the
upper (palisade mesophyll) cells
than in the lower (spongy
mesophyll) cells.
Photosynthesis takes place
mainly in the leaves but any part
of the plant that contains
chloroplast for example. Green
stem, can photosynthesise.
 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

Xylem and phloem in leaf, stem, and root.

Leaf
Xylem and phloem are present in the midrib of the leaf, as well as in the
veins.
Stem

Epidermis
Life the leaf Epidermis, this is a single layer of cells that help to keep the
shape of the stem and cuts down the loss of water vapour. There are
stomata in the epidermis, which allow the tissues inside to take up oxygen
and get rid of carbon dioxide.
Vascular bundles
The vascular bundles in the roots, stern, leaf stalks and leaf vein all join to
form a transport system through the whole plant. The two main tissues in
the vascular bundles are called xylem and phloem. Food substances
(sucrose and amino acids) travel in the phloem; water and mineral ions
travel mainly in the xylem.
The cells in the xylem that carry water become vessels.
Sieve tubes.
The conducting cells in the phloem remain alive and form sieve tubes. Like
vessels, they are formed by vertical columns of cells. Perforations appear in
the end walls, allowing substances to pass from cell to cell, but the cell walls
are not lignified.
Cortex
The tissue between the vascular bundles and the epidermis is called the
cortex.
Its cells often store starch.
ROOT
The vascular bundle is made up of groups of specialized cells in the center
of the root. They conduct water, dissolved salts and food. This is different
from the stem, where the vascular bundles form a cylinder in the cortex.
Outer Layer
There is no distinct epidermis in a root. At the root tip there are several
layers of cells forming the root cap.
 WATER UPTAKE

In a region above the root tip, where the root has just stopped growing, the
cells of the outer layer produce tiny, tube-like outgrowths called root hairs.
The root hair provides a large surface area to take up water from the soil by
osmosis and to absorb mineral ions by active transport.
The root hair cells only live for a short time.

UPTEKE AND TRANSPORT OF WATER AND IONS

The water enters the root hair cells and is them passed on to cells in the
root cortex. It enters the xylem vessels and moves up the stem and into the
leaves.

TRANSPIRATION

Transpiration can be defined as the loss of water vapour from

leaves.
The main force that draws water from the soil and through the plant is
caused by a process called transpiration.
Water evaporating from the leaves causes suction, which pulls water up the
stem. Water travels up the xylem vessels in the vascular bundles and this
flow of water is called the transpiration stream.