Lecture 2

Fluid Mechanics
(Getting started. II)
Mahmoud N. Abdelmoez
Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department
Assiut University, Egypt

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Outline
• Recap on previous lecture
• Density, specific weight, and specific gravity
• Viscosity
• Vapor pressure

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Recap on previous lecture
• In the previous lecture, we learnt about :
• different applications of fluid mechanics.

• dimensions, units, and the importance of ensuring their homogeneity.

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Density
• The density of a fluid (𝜌), is defined as its mass per unit volume (kg/m3).
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• The reciprocal of density is called: specific volume, 𝜈 =
𝜌
• The density of the fluid can be influenced by variations in the pressure and the
temperature.
• This influence is more evident in gases than in liquids.

water Air

%change= %change=
[(1000-950)/1000]*100 [(1.29-0.94)/1.29]*100
=5% =27%
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Specific weight & Specific gravity
Specific weight Specific gravity
The specific weight of a fluid (𝛾), The specific gravity of a fluid (SG),
is defined as its weight per unit is defined as the ratio of the density
volume. of the fluid to the density of water at
4 °C.
It is related to density through:

Since it is the ratio of densities, the

value of SG does not depend on the
Its units in SI system is: N/m3 system of units used
NOTE:
• Density, specific weight, and specific gravity described the “heaviness” of the fluid.
• Properties to describe “fluidity” of the fluid, i.e., viscosity, will be discussed later. 5
Density, specific weight & specific gravity
• Example 4
The information on a bottle of juice indicates that the bottle contains 355 mL.
The mass of a full bottle of juice is 0.369 kg while an empty bottle weighs 0.153
N.
Determine the density, specific weight, and specific gravity of the juice. Express
your results in SI units

(to be solved on board)

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Viscosity
• Density and specific gravity are measures of how “heavy” the fluid is.
• Although many oils are lighter than water (  900 kg/m3) however, they are
more sluggish than water because they are much more viscous.

• Viscosity is a measure of the “fluidity” of the fluid (i.e. how easily can this fluid
flow).
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 Viscosity | Why fluids “flow”
F

F
F
x
• Solids has densely spaced molecules with large
intermolecular cohesive forces that allow the solid to
L
δ𝛽 maintain its shape, and to not be easily deformed.

F • When solids are acted on by a shearing stress, they will

initially deform (usually a very small deformation), but they
𝐹 Δ𝑥 will not deform continuously (flow).
𝜏= δ𝛽 =
𝐴 𝐿
(shear stress) (shear strain) δ𝑎
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• The shear strain,δ𝛽 = 8
𝑏
Viscosity | Why fluids “flow”
• Conversely, as the intermolecular forces in fluids (gases and
liquids) are weaker than that in solids, molecules in fluids have
more freedom of movement.
• Thus, fluids deforms continuously (flow) when acted on by
shearing stresses of any magnitude.

• We note that the fluid in contact with the fixed boundary (at
bottom) has zero velocity.
• This is called: no-slip boundary condition
• The velocity of the fluid increases in the vertical direction and
equals the velocity of the top plate.

𝑑𝑢
• In other words, a velocity gradient develops in the fluid
𝑑𝑦
upon the application of a shear stress, .
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Viscosity
δ𝑎
• Definiting shear strain in fluids as δ𝛽 = , as we did for solids, we note that δ𝛽 is
𝑏
Uδt
function of time (as δ𝑎 = Uδt). Thus, δ𝛽 =
𝑏
δ𝛽 𝑑𝑢
• Consequently, we can define rate of shear strain 𝛾ሶ = lim =
δt→0 δt 𝑑𝑦
• Intuitively, we realize a proportionality between the applied shear stress, 𝜏, and
the rate of shear strain 𝛾ሶ (the higher the shear you apply, the higher is the velocity
gradient)

𝑑𝑢
𝜏∝
𝑑𝑦
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Viscosity
𝑑𝑢
• When 𝜏 and are linearly related, we can express the previous
𝑑𝑦
relation as
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
The constant of proportionality 𝜇 is called:
absolute viscosity, dynamic viscosity, or just viscosity

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Viscosity | Newtonian vs. non-Newtonian fluids

Fluids obeying the above

relation are called: Newtonian
fluids (e.g. water, oil, gasoline, air)

𝑑𝑢
When 𝜏 and are NOT
𝑑𝑦
linearly related, then the fluid
is: NON-Newtonian fluid
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Viscosity | Newtonian vs. non-Newtonian fluids
• Shear thinning and shear thickening fluids

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Viscosity |
dynamics, kinematic and their units
• The viscosity is measured by
• SI units: Pa.s (or kg/m.s)
• British units: 1 Poise = 1 gm/cm.s = 0.1 Pa.s
• 1 centi Poise (cP)=0.001 Pa.s

• The kinematic viscosity ()= dynamic viscosity/density

 = µ/ = kg/m.s x m3/kg = m2/s

• Units of kinematic viscosity ():

• SI units: m2/s
• British units: 1 Stokes (St) = cm2/s = 10-4 m2/s
• 1 cSt = 10-6 m2/s

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Viscosity | variation vs. temperature
• Temperature has an influence on viscosity of
fluids.
• In liquids, viscosity decreases with the increase
of temperature

• In gases, the viscosity increases with the

increase of temperature.

(can you explain why, using an atomistic point of view)

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Viscosity |
Viscometers/Rheometers (measuring the viscosity)
• Viscometers/rheometers are devices used to
measure viscosity of liquids.

• Viscometers are used with Newtonian fluids.

Rheometers can be used with non-Newtonian
fluids.

• The concept behind them is to subject the

fluid to shear stress, within certain standard
geometry (e.g. between rotating disks,
concentric cylinders, etc.), substitute in the
suitable equation to estimate the viscosity.

Rotational rheometer
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Viscosity
• Example 1 (to be solved on board)

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Viscosity
• Example 2

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Viscosity
• Example 2 (theory)

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Viscosity
• Example 2 (solution)

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Vapor pressure
• The vapor pressure Pv of a pure substance is defined as the
pressure exerted by its vapor in equilibrium with its liquid at a
given temperature. For example, the vapor pressure of water at
20°C is 2.34 kPa.
• Therefore, a bucket of water at 20°C left in a room with dry air
at 1 atm will continue evaporating until one of two things
happens:
• The water evaporates away (there is not enough water to
establish phase equilibrium in the room)
• The evaporation stops when the partial pressure of the
water vapor in the room rises to 2.34 kPa at which point
phase equilibrium is established.

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Vapor pressure & cavitation
• If the pressure of a flowing liquid decreases until it equals its vapor pressure, the liquid
will start boiling.
• Liquid pressure can decrease due to increase in velocity or due to increase in
elevation (height)
• This phenomenon is called Cavitation, because the vapor bubbles form “cavities” within
the liquid.
• Once these bubbles move away from the low pressure region, they collapse and produce
pressure waves that can damage solid objects in touch with the liquid.

An impeller of a pump
damaged by cavitation

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Vapor pressure & saturation pressure

• Pv is a property of the pure substance,

and turns out to be identical to the

saturation pressure Psat of the liquid.

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Summary
• In today’s lecture, we learnt about :
• Density, specific weight, and specific gravity, and how we can obtain
them from each other.

• Viscosity and viscometers

• Vapor pressure and the cavitation phenomena.

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References
• Content of this lecture is compiled from:
• Sections 1.4, 1.5, 1.8 in the textbook
• Example 2-5 in “Cenqel, Y. A., and J. M. Cimbala. Fluid-Mechanics-
fundamentals-and-applications-4th-edition."
• Lec#2 of Prof.Abdelgawad slides
• https://iopscience.iop.org/chapter/978-1-6817-4692-0/bk978-1-6817-
4692-0ch4.pdf
• Wikipedia.
• images.google.com

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