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MECE3104: STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

UNIT I STRESSES AND STRAINS

UNIT II SIMPLE BENDING

UNIT III DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

UNIT IV TORSION AND COLUMNS

UNIT V BI-AXIAL STRESS SYSTEM

UNIT I STRESSES AND STRAINS

INTRODUCTION

Engineering science is usually subdivided into number of topics such as Solid Mechanics,
Fluid Mechanics, Heat Transfer, Properties of materials and there are close links between
them in terms of the physical principles involved and methods of analysis employed.

The solid mechanics as a subject may be defined as a branch of applied mechanics that deals
with behaviours of solid bodies subjected to various types of loadings. This is usually
subdivided into further two streams i.e Mechanics of rigid bodies or simply Mechanics and
Mechanics of deformable solids.

The mechanics of deformable solids which is branch of applied mechanics is known by several
names i.e. strength of materials, mechanics of materials etc.

The mechanics of rigid bodies is primarily concerned with the static and dynamic behaviour
under external forces of engineering components and systems which are treated as infinitely
strong and undeformable.

Primarily we deal here with the forces and motions associated with particles and rigid bodies.

The mechanics of deformable solids is more concerned with the internal forces and
associated changes in the geometry of the components involved. The subject of mechanics
of materials or strength of materials is central to the whole activity of engineering design.
Usually the objectives in analysis here will be the determination of the stresses, strains, and
deflections produced by loads. Theoretical analyses and experimental results have an equal
roles in this field.
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I.1. Concept of stress

Let us introduce the concept of stress as we know that the main problem of engineering
mechanics of material is the investigation of the internal resistance of the body, i.e. the
nature of forces set up within a body to balance the effect of the externally applied forces.

The externally applied forces are termed as loads. These externally applied forces may be due
to any one of the reasons.

(i) service conditions;

(ii) environment in which the component works;

(iii) through contact with other members;

(iv) due to fluid pressures;

(v) due to gravity or inertia forces.

The equilibrium analysis of a rigid body is concerned primarily with the calculation of
external reactions (forces that act external to a body) and internal reactions (forces that act
at internal connections). In mechanics of materials, we must extend this analysis to
determine internal forces—that is, forces that act on cross sections that are internal to the
body itself. In addition, we must investigate the manner in which these internal forces are
distributed within the body. The deformations produced by these internal forces are shown
in Fig. 1.1.

Fig 1.1 Deformations produced by the components of internal forces and couples

As we know that in mechanics of deformable solids, externally applied forces act on a body
and body suffers a deformation. From equilibrium point of view, this action should be

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opposed or reacted by internal forces which are set up within the particles of material due
to cohesion. These internal forces give rise to a concept of stress.

Let us consider a rectangular bar of some cross – sectional area and subjected to some load
or force (in Newtons)

Fig. 2

Let us imagine that the same rectangular bar is assumed to be cut into two halves at section
𝑋𝑋. Each portion of this rectangular bar is in equilibrium under the action of load 𝑃 and the
internal forces acting at the section 𝑋𝑋 has been shown in figure 2.

Stress is defined as the force intensity or force per unit area. Here we use a symbol 𝝈 to
represent the stress.

𝑷
𝝈= 1.1
𝑨

Where 𝐴 is the area of the 𝑋 – section.

Here we are using an assumption that the total force or total load carried by the rectangular
bar is uniformly distributed over its cross – section. But the stress distributions may be for
from uniform, with local regions of high stress known as stress concentrations. If the force
carried by a component is not uniformly distributed over its cross – sectional area, 𝐴, we
must consider a small area, 𝛿𝐴 which carries a small load 𝛿𝑃, of the total force 𝑃, Then
definition of stress is :

𝜹𝑷
𝝈= 1.2
𝜹𝑨

As a particular stress generally holds true only at a point, therefore it is defined

mathematically as

𝜹𝑷
𝝈 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 1.3
𝜹𝑨→∞ 𝜹𝑨

The basic units of stress in S.I (International System) units are N/m2 (or Pa). Sometimes
N/mm2 units are also used, because this is an equivalent to MPa.

I.1.1 TYPES OF STRESSES

Only two basic stresses exist: normal stress and shear stress. Other stresses either are similar
to these basic stresses or are a combination of these. e.g. bending stress is a combination
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tensile, compressive and shear stresses. Torsional stress, as encountered in twisting of a shaft
is a shearing stress.

a. Normal stresses

We have defined stress as force per unit area. If the stresses are normal to the areas
concerned, then these are termed as normal stresses. The normal stresses are generally
denoted by a Greek letter 𝝈.

This is also known as uniaxial state of stress, because the stresses act only in one direction
however, such a state rarely exists, therefore we have biaxial and triaxial state of stresses where
either the two mutually perpendicular normal stresses acts or three mutually perpendicular
normal stresses acts as shown in the figures below:

(Uniaxial state of stress)

b. Tensile or compressive stresses

The normal stresses can be either tensile or compressive whether the stresses act out of the
area or into the area.

c. Bearing Stress

If two bodies are pressed against each other, compressive forces are developed on the area
of contact. The pressure caused by these surface loads is called bearing stress. Examples of
bearing stress are the soil pressure beneath a pier and the contact pressure between a rivet
and the side of its hole. If the bearing stress is large enough, it can locally crush the material,
which in turn can lead to more serious problems. To reduce bearing stresses, engineers

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sometimes employ bearing plates, the purpose of which is to distribute the contact forces
over a larger area.

d. Shear stresses

Let us consider now the situation, where the cross – sectional area of a block of material is
subject to a distribution of forces which are parallel, rather than normal, to the area
concerned. Such forces are associated with a shearing of the material, and are referred to as
shear forces. The resulting force interistes are known as shear stresses.

The resulting force intensities are known as shear stresses, the mean shear stress being equal
to :

𝑷
𝝉= 1.4
𝑨

Where 𝑃 is the total force and 𝐴 the area over which it acts.

As we know that the particular stress generally holds good only at a point therefore we can
define shear stress at a point as

𝜹𝑷
𝝉 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 1.5
𝜹𝑨→𝟎 𝜹𝑨

I.1.2 ANALYSIS OF STRESSES

a) State of stress at a point

Up to this point, we have been concerned only with the resultant of the internal force
system. However, in design, the manner in which the internal forces are distributed is equally

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important. This consideration leads us to introduce the force intensity at a point, called
stress, which plays a central role in the design of load-bearing members.

Figure 1.2(a) shows a small area element ∆𝑨 of the cross section located at the arbitrary
point O. We assume that ∆𝑹 is that part of the resultant force that is transmitted across ∆𝑨,
with its normal and shear components being ∆𝑷 and ∆𝑽, respectively. The stress vector
acting on the cross section at point O is defined as

1.6

Its normal component 𝝈 and shear component 𝝉 shown in Fig. 1.2(b), are

1.7

Fig. 1.2 Normal and shear stresses acting on the cross section at point O

If the stresses are uniformly distributed, Eq. (1.7) gives

1.8

where 𝑨 is the area of the cross section. If the stress distribution is not uniform, then Eqs.
(1.8) should be viewed as the average stress acting on the cross section.

b) Stresses on oblique plane

Till now we have dealt with either pure normal direct stress or pure shear stress. In many
instances, however both direct and shear stresses acts and the resultant stress across any
section will be neither normal nor tangential to the plane. A plane state of stress is a 2
dimensional state of stress in a sense that the stress components in one direction are all zero.

The stress acting at a point is represented by the stresses acting on the faces of the element
enclosing the point. The stresses change with the inclination of the planes passing through

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that point i.e. the stress on the faces of the element vary as the angular position of the
element changes.

When a bar of cross-sectional area 𝑨 is subjected to an axial load 𝑷, the normal stress 𝑷/𝑨
acts on the cross section of the bar. Let us now consider the stresses that act on plane 𝑎 − 𝑎
that is inclined at the angle 𝜽 to the cross section, as shown in Fig. 1.3(a).

FIG. 1..3 Determining the stresses acting on an inclined section of a bar

𝑨
Note that the area of the inclined plane is . To investigate the forces that act on this
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
plane, we consider the free-body diagram of the segment of the bar shown in Fig. 1.3(b).
Because the segment is a two-force body, the resultant internal force acting on the inclined
plane must be the axial force 𝑃, which can be resolved into the normal component 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
and the shear component 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Therefore, the corresponding stresses, shown in Fig. 1.3(c),
are :
1.9

1.10

From these equations we see that the maximum normal stress is 𝑃/𝐴, and it acts on the
cross section of the bar (that is, on the plane 𝜃 = 0). The shear stress is zero when 𝜃 = 0, as
would be expected. The maximum shear stress is 𝑃/2𝐴, which acts on the planes inclined at
𝜃 = 45o to the cross section.

In summary, an axial load causes not only normal stress but also shear stress. The magnitudes
of both stresses depend on the orientation of the plane on which they act.

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By replacing 𝜃 with 𝜃 + 90 in Eqs. (1.9), (1.10), we obtain the stresses acting on plane 𝑎′ −
𝑎′, which is perpendicular to 𝑎 − 𝑎, as illustrated in Fig. 1.4(a)

FIG. 1.4 Stresses acting on two mutually perpendicular

inclined sections of a bar.

1.11

where we used the identities cos(𝜃 + 90) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛2(𝜃 + 90) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃. Because
the stresses in Eqs. (1.9), (1.10) and (1.11) act on mutually perpendicular, or
‘‘complementary’’ planes, they are called complementary stresses. The traditional way to
visualize complementary stresses is to draw them on a small (infinitesimal) element of the
material, the sides of which are parallel to the complementary planes, as in Fig. 1.4(b). When
labeling the stresses, we made use of the following important result that follows from Eqs.
(1.9), (1.10) and (1.11) :

1.12

In other words, The shear stresses that act on complementary planes have the same
magnitude but opposite sense. Although Eq. (1.12) was derived for axial loading, it also
applies to more complex loading.

I.2. Concept of strain

In general terms, strain is a geometric quantity that measures the deformation of a body.
There are two types of strain: normal strain, which characterizes dimensional changes, and
shear strain, which describes distortion (changes in angles). Stress and strain are two
fundamental concepts of mechanics of materials. Their relationship to each other defines
the mechanical properties of a material, the knowledge of which is of the utmost importance
in design.

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I.2.1 Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram

The strength of a material is not the only criterion that must be considered when designing
machine parts or structures. The stiffness of a material is often equally important, as are
mechanical properties such as hardness, toughness, and ductility. These properties are
determined by laboratory tests. Many materials, particularly metals, have established
standards that describe the test procedures in detail. We will confine our attention to only
one of the tests—the tensile test of steel—and use its results to illustrate several important
concepts of material behavior.

a) Normal (axial) strain

Before describing the tensile test, we must formalize the definition of normal (axial) strain.
We begin by considering the elongation of the prismatic bar of length 𝐿 in Fig. 2.1. The
elongation 𝒅 may be caused by an applied axial force, or an expansion due to an increase in
temperature, or even a force and a temperature increase acting simultaneously. Strain
describes the geometry of deformation, independent of what actually causes the
deformation. The normal strain (lowercase Greek epsilon) is defined as the elongation per
unit length. Therefore, the normal strain in the bar in the axial direction, also known as the
axial strain, is a dimensionless quantity. However, ‘‘units’’ such as in./in. or mm/mm are
frequently used for normal strain.

(2.1)

FIG. 2.1 Deformation of a prismatic bar.

If the deformation is not uniform, we must define strain at a point. In Fig. 2.1, we let 𝑂 be
a point in the bar located at the distance 𝑥 from the fixed end. To determine the axial strain
at point 𝑂, we consider the deformation of an imaginary line element (fiber) 𝑂𝐴 of length
∆𝑥 that is embedded in the bar at 𝑂. Denoting the elongation of 𝑂𝐴 by ∆𝛿, we define the
axial strain at point 𝑂 as

(2.2)

Observe that normal strain, like normal stress, is defined at a point in a given direction.

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We note that if the distribution of the axial strain is known, the elongation of the bar can
be computed from

(2.3)

For uniform strain distribution (the axial strain is the same at all points), Eq. (2.3) yields
𝜹 = 𝝐𝑳, which agrees with Eq. (2.1).

b) Tension test

In the standard tension test, the specimen shown in Fig. 2.2 is placed in the grips of a testing
machine. The grips are designed so that the load 𝑃 applied by the machine is axial. Two gage
marks are scribed on the specimen to define the gage length 𝑳. These marks are located away
from the ends to avoid the local effects caused by the grips and to ensure that the stress and
strain are uniform in the material between the marks.

The testing machine elongates the specimen at a slow, constant rate until the specimen
zéruptures. During the test, continuous readings are taken of the applied load and the
elongation of the gage length. These data are then converted to stress and strain. The stress
is obtained from 𝝈 = 𝑷/𝑨, where 𝑃 is the load and 𝐴 represents the original cross-sectional
area of the specimen. The strain is computed from 𝝐 = 𝜹/𝑳, where 𝛿 is the elongation
between the gage marks and 𝐿 is the original gage length. These results, which are based on
the original area and the original gage length, are referred to as nominal stress and nominal
strain.

As the bar is being stretched, its cross-sectional area becomes smaller and the length
between the gage marks increases. Dividing the load by the actual (current) area of the
specimen, we get the true stress. Similarly, the true strain is obtained by dividing the
elongation 𝜹 by the current gage length. The nominal and true measures are essentially the
same in the working range of metals. They differ only for very large strains, such as occur in
rubber-like materials or in ductile metals just before rupture. With only a few exceptions,
engineering applications use nominal stress and strain.

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Plotting axial stress versus axial strain results in a stress-strain diagram. If the test is carried
out properly, the stress-strain diagram for a given material is independent of the dimensions
of the test specimen. That is, the characteristics of the diagram are determined solely by the
mechanical properties of the material. A stress-strain diagram for structural steel is shown
in Fig. 2.3.

The following mechanical properties can be determined from the diagram :

Proportional Limit and Hooke’s Law : As seen in Fig. 2.3, the stress-strain diagram is a
straight line from the origin 𝑂 to a point called the proportional limit. This plot is a
manifestation of Hooke’s law. Stress is proportional to strain; that is

(2.4)

where 𝐸 is a material property known as the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus. The
units of 𝑬 are the same as the units of stress—that is, Pa or psi. For steel, 𝐸 = 29 𝘹 106 psi,
or 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎, approximately. Note that Hooke’s law does not apply to the entire diagram;
its validity ends at the proportional limit. Beyond this point, stress is no longer proportional
to strain.

Elastic Limit : A material is said to be elastic if, after being loaded, the material returns to its
original shape when the load is removed. The elastic limit is, as its name implies, the stress
beyond which the material is no longer elastic.

Yield Point : The point where the stress-strain diagram becomes almost horizontal is called
the yield point, and the corresponding stress is known as the yield stress or yield strength.

Ultimate Stress : The ultimate stress or ultimate strength, as it is often called, is the highest
stress on the stress-strain curve.

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Rupture Stress : The rupture stress or rupture strength is the stress at which failure occurs.
For structural steel, the nominal rupture strength is considerably lower than the ultimate
strength because the nominal rupture strength is computed by dividing the load at rupture
by the original crosssectional area.

c) Working stress and factor of safety

The working stress 𝜎𝑤 , also called the allowable stress, is the maximum safe axial stress used
in design. In most designs, the working stress should be limited to values not exceeding the
proportional limit so that the stresses remain in the elastic range (the straight-line portion
of the stress-strain diagram). However, because the proportional limit is difficult to
determine accurately, it is customary to base the working stress on either the yield stress
𝜎𝑦𝑝 , or the ultimate stress 𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡 , divided by a suitable number 𝑁, called the factor of safety.
Thus,

(2.5)

The yield point is selected as the basis for determining 𝜎𝑤 , in structural steel because it is the
stress at which a prohibitively large permanent set may occur. For other materials, the
working stress is usually based on the ultimate strength.

I.2.2 Axially Loaded Bars

Figure 2.4 shows a bar of length 𝐿 and constant cross-sectional area 𝐴 that is loaded by an
axial tensile force 𝑃. We assume that the stress caused by 𝑷 is below the proportional limit,
so that Hooke’s law 𝝈 = 𝑬𝝐 is applicable. Because the bar deforms uniformly, the axial strain
is 𝝐 = 𝜹/𝑳, which upon substitution into Hooke’s law yields 𝝈 = 𝑬( 𝜹/𝑳 ). Therefore, the
elongation of the bar is

(2.6)

2.4 Axially loaded bar

where in the last step we substituted 𝜎 = 𝑃/𝐴. If the strain (or stress) in the bar is not
uniform, then Eq. (2.6) is invalid. In the case where the axial strain varies with the x-
coordinate, the elongation of the bar can be obtained by integration, as stated in Eq. (2.3):
𝑳
𝜹 = ∫𝟎 𝝐𝒅𝒙. Using 𝝐 = 𝝈/𝑬 = 𝑷/(𝑬𝑨), where 𝑃 is the internal axial force, we get
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(2.7)

We see that Eq. (2.7) reduces to Eq. (2.6) only if 𝑷, 𝑬, and 𝑨 are constants.

I.2.3 Generalized Hooke’s Law

a) Uniaxial loading : Poisson’s ratio

Experiments show that when a bar is stretched by an axial force, there is a contraction in the
transverse dimensions, as illustrated in Fig. 2.5.

FIG. 2.5 Transverse dimensions contract as the bar is stretched by an axial force P.

In 1811, Siméon D. Poisson showed that the ratio of the transverse strain to the axial strain is constant
for stresses within the proportional limit. This constant, called Poisson’s ratio, is denoted by ν
(lowercase Greek nu). For uniaxial loading in the x-direction, as in Fig 2.5, Poisson’s ratio is
= −𝝐𝒕 /𝝐𝒙 , where 𝝐𝒕 is the transverse strain.

The minus sign indicates that a positive strain (elongation) in the axial direction causes a
negative strain (contraction) in the transverse directions. The transverse strain is uniform
throughout the cross section and is the same in any direction in the plane of the cross
section. Therefore, we have for uniaxial loading

(2.8)

Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless quantity that ranges between 0.25 and 0.33 for metals.
Using 𝝈𝒙 = 𝑬𝝐𝒙 in Eq. (2.8) yields the generalized Hooke’s law for uniaxial loading (𝝈𝒚 =
𝝈𝒛 = 𝟎)

(2.9)

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b) Multiaxial Loading

Biaxial Loading : Poisson’s ratio permits us to extend Hooke’s law for uniaxial loading to
biaxial and triaxial loadings. Consider an element of the material that is subjected
simultaneously to normal stresses in the x- and y-directions, as in Fig. 2.9(a). The strains
caused by 𝝈𝒙 alone are given in Eqs. (2.9). Similarly, the strains due to 𝝈𝒚 are 𝝐𝒚 = 𝝈𝒚 /𝑬 and
𝝐𝒙 = 𝝐𝒛 = −𝛎𝝈𝒛 /𝑬. Using superposition, we write the combined effect of the two normal
stresses as

(2.10)

which is Hooke’s law for biaxial loading in the xy-plane (𝝈𝒛 = 𝟎). The first two of Eqs.
(2.10) can be inverted to express the stresses in terms of the strains:

(2.11)

Two-dimensional views of the stresses and the resulting deformation in the xy-plane are shown in
Figs. 2.9(b) and (c). Note that Eqs. (2.10) show that for biaxial loading 𝝐𝒛 is not zero; that is, the
strain is triaxial rather than biaxial.

FIG. 2.9 (a) Stresses acting on a material element in biaxial loading; (b) two-
dimensional view of stresses; (c) deformation of the element

Triaxial Loading : Hooke’s law for the triaxial loading in Fig. 2.10 is obtained by adding the
contribution of 𝝈𝒛 , 𝝐𝒛 = 𝝈𝒛 /𝑬 and 𝝐𝒙 = 𝝐𝒚 = −𝛎𝝈𝒛 /𝑬, to the strains in Eqs. (2.10), which
yields

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(2.12)

Equations (2.8)–(2.12) are valid for both tensile and compressive effects. It is only necessary
to assign positive signs to elongations and tensile stresses and, conversely, negative signs to
contractions and compressive stresses.

c) Shear loading

Shear stress causes the deformation shown in Fig. 2.11.

The lengths of the sides of the element do not change, but

the element undergoes a distortion from a rectangle to a
parallelogram. The shear strain, which measures the
amount of distortion, is the angle 𝛾 (lowercase Greek
gamma), always expressed in radians. It can be shown that

the relationship between shear stress 𝝉 and shear strain 𝜸 is linear within the elastic range;
that is,

(2.13)

which is Hooke’s law for shear. The material constant 𝑮 is called the shear modulus of elasticity (or
simply shear modulus), or the modulus of rigidity. The shear modulus has the same units as the
modulus of elasticity (Pa or psi).

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