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 Future Communication
Editor
Chan

Future Communication Technology and Engineering is a collection of papers

Technology and Engineering

Technology and Engineering

Future Communication
presented at the 2014 International Conference on Future Communication
Technology and Engineering (Shenzhen, China 16-17 November 2014). Covering a
wide range of topics (communication systems, automation and control engineering,
electrical engineering), the book includes the state-of-art in research on
communication technology, and will be of interest to academics and professionals
in the above mentioned fields.

Editor: Kennis Chan

an informa business
FUTURE COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
This page intentionally left blank
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 2014 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON FUTURE COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING (FCTE2014), SHENZHEN, CHINA, 16–17 NOVEMBER 2014

Future Communication Technology

and Engineering

Editor
Kennis Chan
Advanced Science and Industry Research Center, Hong Kong
CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Printed and bound in the UK and the US
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be
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permission from the publishers.
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damage to the property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication
and/or the information contained herein.
Published by: CRC Press/Balkema
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ISBN: 978-1-138-02777-0 (Hardback)
ISBN: 978-1-315-69045-2 (eBook PDF)
 Future Communication Technology and Engineering – Chan (Ed.)
© 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN: 978-1-138-02777-0

Table of contents

Preface IX
Organizing Committee XI

Communication systems and network technologies

Key techniques and implementations of low-cost Radio Frequency (RF) communication 3
K.J. Hou & F.Y. Hou
A link evaluator: A channel quality estimator for Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
communications 7
M. Buzzanca, M. Malgeri & G. Schembra
A study of the possibility of superluminal communications 11
Z.H. Zhang, H.A. Zhang & Z.Y. Zhong
Transmission performance optimization of multi-wavelength repeaterless undersea
optical fibre cable 17
J.T. Yu, W.Y. Liu, X. Li & H.Y. He
The research of a joint channel coding based on LDPC and physical layer network coding 21
X.M. Lu, F. Yang, J.L. Wang, L. Su & B. Pan
Hardware network protocol stack design for FPGA-based FBG data transmission 25
Q. Wang, Z.Q. Xu, Q. Liu, Q.J. Huang & Z.Y. Li
The development of multihomed node model interworking with WLAN and WiMAX networks 29
Y. Wang, F. Ling & Y.M. Cheng
Research and implementation of MSC in TD-LTE system 35
F.S. Bai & R.M. Zhang
The design and realization of a handheld terminal for industrial control purposes, based on
RFID and embedded Linux 39
T. Zhang, Y.H. Xu & Z.Q. Ye
A novel algorithm of multi-target localization in sensor networks 45
Y.H. Zhang, B.N. Pei, X.Y. Zhang & N.N. Cao
A novel differential position code spread spectrum system with high data transmission capability 49
B.M. Li, L.L. Guo, J. Wang, S.H. Qi & Z.G. Sun
Network coding video transmission research and a design based on USRP 55
X.M. Lu, Y.J. Zhang, C.F. Li, H.D. Zhang & J. Yang
The complex network Fokker-Plank equation 59
B.H. Guo, S.Y. Zhou, W.J. Yan & S.L. Wu
Comparative study of online tools in preparation for future teachers for use in cooperative
learning methods 65
V. Maněna, M. Maněnová, K. Myška & K. Rybenská
An optimal search model for wireless sensor networks 69
T. Lu & Z.B. Cai
A forwarding scheme of a publish/subscribe system based on OpenFlow 73
T.Y. Chen & Y. Zhang

V
An adaptive virtual machine management system for cloud computing 77
B. Li & Y.L. Shang
A comparison of free and open source technologies suitable for future authoring tools in education 83
V. Maněna, R. Špilka & K. Rybenská
Key technology research into the resource access framework of the Internet of Things (IoT) 87
C. Li & C.C. Liu
A cucumber leaf disease classification system based on an embedded system 91
Y.W. Tian & X. Chen
A study of the humanistic education of Chinese college teaching from the aspect of
computer science and technology 95
S.Z. Liu
Cryptanalysis and improvement of a directed digital signature scheme using a non-interactive
public-key distribution system 99
J.R. Sun, S.C. Lin & M.S. Hwang
Cryptanalysis and improvement of the Li-Liu-Wu user authentication scheme 103
T.H. Feng, M.S. Hwang & W.Y. Chao
Evaluation of publish/subscribe-based routing over Software-Defined Networking (SDN) 107
S.J. Wang & Y. Zhang
An adaptive web-based learning system based on ontology 113
Q.L. Diao & F.H. Qiu
Solving of an erythrometry problem using a specialized Hough transform 117
A.S. Potapov, O.V. Shcherbakov & I.N. Zhdanov
Fast reconstruction of Go board grids using the modified Hough transform 121
A.S. Potapov, O.V. Shcherbakov & I.N. Zhdanov
Strategies and modeling of rumors defense and privacy protection on complex networks 125
Z.L. Sun, M.M. Tang & X.C. Fu
Container multimodal transport system model study based on the RFID technology 131
C.H. Pan & H.M. Fan
Design of an OAM radio beam generator using microstrip patch array 135
F.C. Mao, J.J. Yang, M. Huang, S. Yan & Y. Feng
Research and design of a forest management mobile service cloud platform for the natural
forest protection project 139
F. Li, Y. Ma, X. Zhang, X.W. Yu, P.F. Feng & M.B. Zhang
Design of miniaturized microstrip antenna using metamaterials 143
Y. Zhang, X.C. Ma, S. Yan, J.J. Yang & M. Huang
A ZigBee wireless network factory monitoring system design 147
W.K. Huang, F.J. Wu, Z. Xiao & H.B. Wu
A VaR (Value-at-Risk) model based on GARCH approach and EVT 151
J. Yang & S.Z. Zhang
Laser signal attenuation due to sand and dust particle scattering 157
Y.G. Wang, H.Q. Wang & M.H. Cao
Research on the innovation and development of electronic commerce based on
centralized procurement 163
L.Z. Zhang
The simulation of cluster bombs’ damage efficiency and analysis of damage factor 167
S. Liu, X.J. Zhao, F. Zhao, X. Wei & W.F. Li
The virtual display of a modern printing press 171
X.H. Wang, L.K. Luo, Y.S. Qi & Z.Y. Sun

VI
Language model for assessing author similarity 175
J.Y. Chen, Z.C. Wang & J.L. Wang
Emergency simulation for a drill system of a roller coaster in a virtual environment 179
X.Y. He, H.W. He & Z.Y. Hu
Temperature state and residual deformations in a welding conditions study 183
A.B. Ivanchenko, L.V. Belyaev, A.V. Zhdanov & V.V. Morozov

Electrical engineering and information technologies

Analysis and design of a micro-capacitor array detection circuit 189
W.D. Ge, D.Z. Xu & H.J. He
Applied research on memristor’s nonlinear characteristics in circuits 195
X.L. Cao, W. Cui & X.C. Ren
A conformance testing device for an IEC 61850 configuration file based on an NI CRIO platform 199
J. Jiang, H.Q. Gou, Z.H. Liu, D. Liu, J. Bu & X.X. Ji
A sustainable monitoring pulse wave ring detector 203
Y. Li, L. Yang, C.L. Lv, X.X. Zhao & L.X. Meng
An angle of arrival estimation using the projection method 207
S. Wu, D. Kerr, H. Lu, N. Wilkins, Z. Aliyazicioglu & H.K. Hwang
Assessing and evaluating Arabic morphological analyzers and generators 213
T. Elghazaly & A.M. Maabid
A comparative analysis of free and open source tools for electronic evaluations in sociology 221
M. Joukl & L. Hosák
An experimental study on using electronic forms for evaluation in sociology 225
M. Joukl, L. Kudová & L. Hosák
The design and application of a high power factor voltage regulator in polysilicon production 231
L.P. Gao, J. Wang, T. Li & S.G. Yin
A study of the performance of an amplify-and-forward relay system with an interference
at the relay and at the destination 237
M.R. He
An implementation of robustness testing for a TTCN-3 test system 241
S.M. Liu, X.M. Liu, X.F. Shao & Y.P. Liu
The design and implementation of a hierarchical agriculture information resource
management system 245
M.M. Ju, H.H. Zhang, C.Y. Zhai, P.P. Xin & C. Gao

Geoscience and environmental engineering

The ozone depletion theory of global warming 253
P.L. Ward
Ore-controlling factors of the bauxite deposits in eastern part of Guizhou province 261
Y. Kong
Re-Os geochronology of Panjia polymetallic deposit, Zhejiang province, China 265
B.J. Jia, Z.G. Chen, J.F. Qian, C. Jin, L.Y. Zhou & X.Y. Zhu
Rock fracture closing moderated by pressure solution 269
B. Mahmoudzadeh, L. Liu, L. Moreno & I. Neretnieks
Formation of drainage waters in tailing dumps of Khrustal’noe deposit in Kavalerovsky District,
and their effect on the hydrosphere (the Russian Far East) 277
V.P. Zvereva, A.M. Kostina & A.D. Pyatakov
The research on the influencing factors of carbon emission based on geographic detector model 281
R.N. Wu, J.Q. Zhang, M.X. Huang & Y.H. Bao

VII
Impact assessment of the processes occurring in tailing dumps of a Krasnorechenskaya
concentrating mill on the hydrosphere of Dalnegorsky District, according to modelling evidence 287
V.P. Zvereva, A.M. Kostina & A.I. Lysenko
Space monitoring of the earth and Haar wavelet transform 291
M.L. Kazaryan, M.A. Schahramanian & A. Richter
Environmental problems of coal mining in the Southern Far East of Russia and soil remediation
on mining dumps 295
L.T. Krupskaya, L.P. Gul, V.P. Zvereva & M.S. Onishchenko
Nonylphenol, benzophenones and benzotriazoles in different environmental matrices and foods 299
A. Careghini, A. Mastorgio, S. Saponaro & E. Sezenna
Lombardy region (Italy) priorities list of contaminated sites: A new relative risk
assessment procedure 307
A. Careghini, A. Mastorgio, S. Saponaro, E. Sezenna, M. Bellotti, S. Anelli & A. Trozzi
Research on an evaluation approach of environmental flow for rivers 315
J.J. Tu, X.S. Ai, Z.Y. Gao & J. Zhu
Productivity of a five-spot mixed well pattern in a dual porosity reservoir 319
J.J. Li, H.Q. Jiang, Y.X. Wang & H.X. Liu
Removal of volatile organic compounds from water using a novel adsorbent 325
P. Zhang, A. Smith, R. Ding & T.J. Bandosz
Bioecology of Hyla japonica (Gunther, 1859) in Priamurye, Russia 329
V.T. Tagirova
Prediction of organ donation after irreversible brain damage 333
L. Torres, H. Vicente, P. Novais, A. Abelha & J. Neves
Interactivity for facilitating and promoting traditional handicraft design 339
D. Shi

Author index 343

VIII
 Future Communication Technology and Engineering – Chan (Ed.)
© 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN: 978-1-138-02777-0

Preface

On November 16 to 17, 2014 in Shenzhen, one of the most developed and beautiful cities in China, the 2014
International Conference on Future Communication Technology and Engineering (FCTE2014) was successful
held. It is a great pleasure for me to see so many people come together for the advance of and progress of the
technology in a specific field.
From hand-written mails to telegraphs, fixed-line telephones and today’s mobile phones which could basically
provide a connection to any one at any place in the world, we humans have made tremendous progress in
communications technology.
Instead of coming to an end of development, communication technologies are actually at its fast growing stage;
there are more possibilities for future communication technologies provided by the achievements we have made
rather than limits. For this reason, we have decided to organize this international conference on communication
technologies. It is intended that the innovative ideas and inspiring studies presented at FCTE2014 will benefit
other researches in the future by other people. With the publication of this book, I am sure that this purpose will
be within our reach.
On November 16–17 at the convention, some innovative and inspiring ideas were presented; certain contro-
versial topics were discussed like what the most efficient/convenient methods for information communication
are and what the most possible prospect for future communication technology is. It is truly a difficulty to make
any definite conclusions from those presentations and discussions, but the desire and passion for improvement
and development shown by our participants are surely remarkable and respectable.
In this book, 70 inspiring papers are included, which were chosen from hundreds of submissions contributed
by people from various countries and regions after careful reading and discussing by our diligent reviewers. These
carefully selected papers studied almost every possible aspect of communication technology; the depth of the
researches’ is also thorough and complete. The discussed aspects include communication systems, automation
and control engineering, electrical engineering, AI algorithms, signal processing, data mining, knowledge-based
systems and so on.
Finally, the successful opening of FCTE2014 and publishing of this book is the collective work of many
people’s. As a member of the organizing committee, I would like specially thank these people with all my heart,
including all our participants and contributors, the reviewing committee, the CRC Press and other people who
have shown their kindness to FCTE2014. I earnestly look forward to another chance to work with these people
again in the future.
Kennis Chan

IX
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 Future Communication Technology and Engineering – Chan (Ed.)
© 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN: 978-1-138-02777-0

Organizing Committee

Honor Chair
M. Pal, Center for Advanced Materials Processing, India
J. Yeh, Tallinn University of Technology, Estonia

General Chair
Q. Rajesh, National Institute of Technology, India

Program Chair
K. Chan, Advanced Science and Industry Research Center, Hong Kong

International Scientific Committee

K.S. Rajesh, Defence University College, India
M.M. Kim, Chonbuk National University, Korean
X. Ma, University of Science and Technology of China, China
X. Lee, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
J. Xu, Northeast Dianli University, China
Z.Y. Jiang, University of Wollongong, Australia
V.K. Jain, Indian Institute of Technology, India
Q. Zhang, Shenzhen University, China
M.S. Chen, Da-Yeh University, Taiwan
M.V. Raghavendra, Adama Science & Technology University, Ethiopia
J. Ye, Hunan University of Technology, China
Q. Yang, University of Science and Technology Beijing, China
Z.Y. Jiang, University of Wollongong, Australia
V.K. Jain, Indian Institute of Technology, India
O.P. Rishi, University of Kota, India

XI
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Communication systems and network technologies
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 Future Communication Technology and Engineering – Chan (Ed.)
© 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN: 978-1-138-02777-0

Key techniques and implementations of low-cost

Radio Frequency (RF) communication

K.J. Hou
School of Computer & Communication Engineering, University of Science & Technology Beijing, Beijing, China

F.Y. Hou
School of Information Technology, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia

ABSTRACT: Radio Frequency (RF) communication is widely used in various fields such as remote control,
data exchanges, and sensor network. It greatly expands the application fields of computing and brings more
facilities to various applications, especially in the consumer electronics filed. As one kind of widely used
technology, the low-cost radio frequency communication system plays an important role. This paper describes the
scheme of low-cost radio frequency communication, including its hardware and software architecture, analyses
the important design issues, such as circuit, protocol, code, security, power consumption, and provides a reference
implementation built from typical radio frequency communication chips.

1 INTRODUCTION

With the development of computer and communica-

tion technologies, Radio Frequency (RF) communi-
cation provides a facilitated way to exchange data
(Beasley & Miller 2007, Beasley 2008). Thus, it is
widely used in many fields such as remote control,
sensor networks, supermarkets, logistics management,
fieldwork, as well as various embedded and consumer
electronics devices. Generally, the radio frequency
ranges from around 3 kHz to 300 GHz, which corre- Figure 1. Typical architecture of RF communication
sponds to the frequency of radio waves. The advantage system.
of RF communication is that it establishes a wireless
connection for data exchange.
Although RF provides great convenience, it requires common issues for low-cost RF communication, and
careful design and proper implementation to ensure then describes how to design and implement an actual
the data exchange is available, reliable, and secure RF communication system. Through comprehending
(Agrawal & Zeng 2011, Rappaport 2011). As these the hardware and software related key technologies, it
techniques/products are often oriented to consumer provides valuable facilities.
electronics and various widely deployed embedded The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Sec-
devices, low-cost becomes an important factor when tion 2 provides an analysis of related key techniques.
such systems are designed and realized. Usually, a low- Section 3 describes the specific design and realization
cost communication is built from the single chip based of an RF communication system. Section 4 concludes
solution. A single chip based solution means that the this paper.
RF sub-system has a few hardware components, which
are typically composed of one main transceiver chip
and several other circuit elements. There are many
2 KEY TECHNIQUES ANALYSE
such single chip based solutions. For example, TR3000
(2014) applies amplitude modulation and XE1202
2.1 System architecture
(2014) uses frequency modulation, as well as more
complex spread spectrum communication. Although The typical RF communication system has the archi-
different kinds of solutions require different work- tecture of Figure 1.
ing schemes, there exist common issues that must be In Figure 1, Data Interface manages the data trans-
well solved. This paper analyses some important and ferred between the RF systems and is the main data

3
processing system. For instance, the main data pro- probability of data error is inevitable, error correct-
cessing system is a computer, and there are several ing code should be appended to ensure the validity of
selective solutions to implement such interfacing. Dif- data transmission. Sometimes, special data code may
ferent solutions bring different cost, complexity and be required due to the characters of the under-layer
data rate. The traditional RS-232 provides the most circuit. For example, a Direct Current (DC) balance
simple and the cheapest interfacing solution to both coding may be required for some RF transceiver
high-end modern computers and low-end embedded chips. Otherwise, the RF circuit cannot work prop-
devices. However, if the required data rate is much erly. Although DC balance coding can be fulfilled
high, the USB interface may be necessary. Other inter- easily through Manchester’s code, it will decrease the
face manners are also possible, for example the plug-in data speed by half. Therefore, other ways like some
PCI card. However, this is more complex. customized coding solutions should be applied to over-
Control Unit does the necessary processing work come such problem (Hou & Dai 2002). Collision
for data preparation, packet assemble, protocol man- detection must be considered for protocol, because
agement and other control work. Usually, it is made most of the low-cost RF system cannot transmit sig-
with an embedded microprocessor with restricted nals together with others during the same period and
memory capacity. The traditional MCS-51 series by using the same frequency. Usually, a simple car-
single-chip controller is more widely used than other rier sensing and random delay is an available way to
microcontrollers. However, if a big computing abil- resolve the problem of collision.
ity or a fast computing speed is required, another
advanced microcontroller such as an ARM based 32-
bit microcontroller should be used to undertake the 2.3 Security
required tasks.
RF communication makes data signal exposed to wide
An RF Transceiver is the core component of the
space, which implies that it is easier to be inter-
RF data communication system. It converts the base
cepted or snooped by others. If sensitive information
band data signals into wave band signals and trans-
is contained in the data packet, corresponding mea-
mits the signals through an antenna. It also undertakes
sures should be applied to prevent adversaries from
the task of wave band signals receiving, converting
understanding the meaning of the data. Methods like
the signals into base band signals to be recognized by
Chaffing and winnowing can be used to realize such
back-end data processing parts. Usually, a low-cost RF
purpose (Rivest 1998). However, the real safe way
Transceiver is built from single-chip RF transceiver,
is to encrypt the data through cryptograph opera-
together with a small quantity of peripheral circuit ele-
tions (Boncella 2002, Denis 2006). Data integrity
ments. There are many such single-chip RF transceiver
should also be protected for secure purpose besides
solutions. Range, modulation mode, transfer speed, a
data privacy. That is to say, data confidentiality and
working frequency, and other considerations will play
integrity must be assured through cryptograph method
a part in making a selection from the options avail-
when security is required for RF communication
able. For example, the Frequency Modulation (FM)
system.
can provide a more reliable link than an Amplitude
Based on cryptography operations, encryption can
Modulation (AM) for mobile applications, because
convert the transferred plaintext data into its cipher
the device may experience a lot of sudden drops in
text form to maintain confidentiality, while Mes-
amplitude. Frequency modulation is not as sensitive
sage Authentication Code (MAC) can be attached to
as amplitude modulation to such influences.
check data integrity. Although there are many mature
and reliable cryptography algorithms, they all have
the property of intensive computing. This property
2.2 Protocol
requires the processing unit for cryptography exe-
Protocol is indispensable for any communication sys- cution must have powerful computing ability, which
tem. Usually, data to be transferred are assembled into is un-available for low-end microcontrollers like the
separate packets. Protocol is used by both the trans- MCS-51 series single chip microcomputers. If the RF
mitter and the receiver to establish and maintain the system is attached to a powerful computer (e.g., a lap-
wireless data link. Hand shaking, data length, data top computer), data encryption and related integrity
speed, data code, error control, flow control, as well code calculation can be executed in the main proces-
as any other details to understand and control the data sor of the computer. If data has to be processed in tiny
packets, are all the content of communication protocol. microcontroller, complicated cryptography algorithms
There are several common points that should be with high encryption intensity cannot be executed
carefully considered for protocol design: the packet smoothly. In such situations, systems may enhance
length, data speed, data code, error verification, and the encryption intensity through other remedial ways.
collision detection. Considering the RF working envi- For example, Data Encryption Standard (DES) can
ronment, the data packet should not be very long. run in MCS-51 series single chip microcomputers.
Besides, as for how the data speed can be reached, the So designers can set multiple secret keys and run
working environment should be taken into account. DES for multiple times. Although such measures can-
Generally, a short data length and a slow data speed not reach complete cryptography security, they can
are helpful to establish a stable RF data link. If a high actually create greater difficulties for attackers.

4
 TR3000 chip. Among these peripheral components,
Automatic Gain Control (AGC) and threshold sen-
sitivity adjustment will affect the quality of the RF
demodulation. When long distance communication is
required, threshold sensitivity can be adjusted to much
higher SNR to get bigger receiving gain. But this
will incur more data errors, which should be removed
by other applications such as Error Correction Code
(ECC).
An RF signal is radiated and received through an
Figure 2. An instance of RF communication system. antenna. No matter what kind of antenna is chosen,
filter, matching and amplification should be deployed
between the antenna and the transceiver chip. A Sur-
2.4 Low power consumption face Acoustic Wave (SAW) filter provides receiver
out-of-band rejection and suppresses output harmon-
More and more consumer electronics and embedded ics for transmitter. Impedance matching must be prop-
devices are mobile devices, and their attached RF units erly set for antenna. If necessary, such as long distance
are also mobile. One of the most important factors is required (Chow et al. 2013), radio amplifier or high
for a mobile device is its power consumption, which frequency amplifier will be installed to improve the
is a decisive factor in the feasibility of the devices. emissive radio wave power.
To decrease the power consumption, measures can If the RF communication system should be attached
be applied on circuit level or system level. Circuit to other computers, such as being attached to a laptop
level means to choose those circuit components with computer, the traditional RS-232 interface can link
power save abilities. For example, a chip with SLEEP them together. However, due to the problem of volt-
(or IDLE, POWER DOWN) working modes can sig- age matching, the UART signals must convert their
nificantly save power when it enters into idle status. voltage before connecting with the laptop computer.
System level measures mean that hardware and soft- Otherwise, damages may occur. Such converting can
ware measures should be comprehensively applied. be finished by special single chip dual driver/receivers
For example, a signal amplification circuit can be that include capacitive voltage generators, such as the
turned off by a software instruction to minimize the MAX232.
static current, when there is no data signal to be
transmitted.
3.2 Software realizations
2.5 Antennae Most of the related control work is executed through
programs, such as packet buffering, flow control, and
An antenna is often a neglected factor. However, it
error detection, which run by the microcontroller of
is very important for the quality of RF communica-
AT89C4051. It is an 8-bit microcontroller with 4
tion. The design and fabrication of antennae is a very
kbytes flash memory. If necessary, the off-chip mem-
professional task, which is beyond the skill of com-
ory should be installed to extend its memory space.
mon computer and communication researchers and
Control work is various. Here we only describe packet
engineers. Different antennae have different gains and
formatting, error detection, DC balance coding and
directionalities. For example, a whip antenna has good
data encrypting.
gain and is omnidirectional, but it has a certain length
For packet formatting, the total packet length should
which makes it difficult to be contained into small
not be too long. A preamble bit stream should be
devices. Some special integrated antennae are small,
applied, but its content needs to be specified according
omnidirectional, and good at signal gains. However,
to specific requirements. For the TR3000 transceiver,
they may increase the cost of the final product.
the preamble bit stream takes the effect of slicing sym-
metry. Besides the effect of slicing symmetry, maybe
the starting of a new packet need to be indicated by
3 IMPLEMENTATIONS
the preamble bit stream. To realize such a purpose, a
barker code with sharp single peak characteristic of
3.1 Hardware realizations
self-correlation function is much helpful.
An RF communication system based on TR3000 [5] In most wireless applications, error detection, even
single chip transceiver and AT89C2051 microcon- error correction must be applied to improve the
troller is implemented as in Figure 2. data exchange reliability. To detect errors, the simple
In Figure 2, TR3000 is the single chip RF even-odd check is not very appropriate, because the
transceiver, which provides both On-Off Keyed (OOK) probability of error may be much higher in wireless
and amplitude-shift keyed (ASK) modulations. The situations. To enhance the ability of error detection,
OOK modulation is better for power conservation a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) based checking
and link reliability, while ASK allows more fast data result should be calculated and attached to the packet.
rates. Several circuit components are installed around Fortunately, CRC calculation is not strong enough

5
Table 1. Dynamically DC balanced coding. related transformations. To enhance encryption secu-
rity, more rounds with different secret keys can be
Original half-byte of 4 bits 6 bits coding result applied to make a remedy for the weakness of a DES
algorithm.
0000 010101
0001 110001
0010 110010
0011 100011 4 CONCLUSION
…………
1111 011100 As wireless data exchange gets more and more pop-
ular for consumer electronics devices and various
embedded devices, building a low-cost RF commu-
nication has great application value. A low cost RF
for low-end microcontrollers. But CRC based check- communication system has its special characteris-
ing cannot reach the level of cryptograph security. tics, which restrict their designs and realizations. It
It should only be used for the purpose to detect the also faces special problems, which need different
data link error, not for the purpose of resistance against solutions from wired data linking. Key techniques
malicious data hackers. involving transceiver chip, controller, protocol man-
Due to the characteristics of the inner circuit of agement, coding, security, and others, are analysed.
TR3000 chip, the bit stream to be transmitted should Corresponding solutions or measures are described.
maintain DC balance. Although Manchester’s coding Also, a specific instance of a low-cost RF communica-
is perfect at DC balance, it will reduce the data speed tion system is implemented. With deeper applications
by half. As the DC balance requirement is not very and further demands emerging, further research work
strict for the chip (that is, it need not to be 1-0-1-0-by should be dedicated to improving the quality of com-
turns strictly; it just need to be equal in the number munication links and enhancing the security of data
of bit “1” and the number of bit “0”, during one bits protection.
slicing), a dynamically DC balanced coding can be
applied as in Table 1.
This coding scheme replaces each one 8-bit byte REFERENCES
with a 12-bit result. Although it is not strictly overturn
each next bit, the total number of bit of ‘1’ is equal E.Y. Chow, M.M. Morris & P.P. Irazoqui. 2013. Implantable
to the total number of bit of ‘0’, if they are counting RF Medical Devices: The Benefits of High-Speed Com-
munication and Much Greater Communication Distances
during the slicing of sequential 12 bits. In such way,
in Biomedical Applications. Microwave Magazine, IEEE
the requirement of DC balance is fulfilled, while the 14 (4): 64–73.
data speed is also maintained. D.P. Agrawal & Q.-A. Zeng. 2011. Introduction to Wireless
With the low-end microcontroller as the main pro- and Mobile Systems (3rd Edition). Stamford: Cengage
cessor for data processing, encryption is difficult to Learning
be implemented, especially for those advanced crypto- F.Y. Hou & K. Dai. 2002. The Design and Realization
graphic algorithms like the AES Advanced Encryption of Computer RF-communication System. Application
Standard (AES) or RSA public key encryption. With- Research of Computers 19(12).
out a high performance processor or co-processor, Jeffrey S. Beasley. 2008. Computer Networking (2nd Edi-
tion). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
only relatively simple encryption algorithms can be
Jeffrey S. Beasley & Gary M. Miller. 2007. Modern Elec-
implemented. Here, a DES based encryption can be tronic Communication (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River:
programmed into AT89C4051 using assemble lan- Prentice Hall.
guage of MCS-51 series instructions. DES uses 56 bits Robert J. Boncella. 2002. Wireless Security: An Overview.
key sizes and operates on 64 bits block size. Although Communications of the Association for Information
it is not very secure due to the short length of the Systems 9 (Article 15): 269–282.
secret key, it can still provide confidentiality protec- R.L. Rivest. 1998. Chaffing and winnowing: Confidentiality
tion for many situations. The entire DES realization without encryption. CryptoBytes 4(1): 12–17.
involves many procedures, such as block expansion Theodore S. Rappaport. 2011. Wireless Communications:
Principles and Practice (2nd Edition). Upper Saddle River:
and key mixing. Among these procedures, the con-
Prentice Hall.
struction and the storage of the s-box of DES are Tom St Denis. 2006. Cryptography for Developers. Rockland:
crucial to the realization optimizing. To obtain fine Syngress.
performance, program can use more memory space TR3000 hybrid transceiver. 2014. http://www.rfm.com.
to facilitate the storing, looking and fetching of the XE1202 FSK transceiver. 2014. http://www.semtech.com.

6
 Future Communication Technology and Engineering – Chan (Ed.)
© 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN: 978-1-138-02777-0

A link evaluator: A channel quality estimator for Voice over Internet Protocol
(VoIP) communications

M. Buzzanca, M. Malgeri & G. Schembra

Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettrica, Elettronica e Informatica University of Catania, Catania, Italy

ABSTRACT: VoIP telephony has grown more and more widespread over the years, but it’s still a relatively
young technology which has not yet reached the maturity of traditional telephony, owing to several unresolved
challenges. One major issue stems from the underlying UDP/IP protocol stack, which lacks an adequate QoS
policy. This paper proposes an algorithm, named Link Evaluator, which evaluates channel quality, and analyses
statistical parameters that are important to VoIP applications.

1 INTRODUCTION Table 1. Comparison of common audio codecs used in

telephony.
Internet telephony poses several challenges which
are still unsolved. Bandwidth available to end-users Codec Sample Algorithmic
is getting wider, but, unfortunately, bandwidth alone name rate Bitrate delay
does not guarantee a successful call. This is due
G.711 8 kHz 64 kbit/s 125 µs
to a number of factors, but it mostly involves how AMR-WB 16 kHz 6.60 to 23.85 kbit/s 25 ms
the underlying network works. While traditional tele- G.729 8 kHz 8 kbit/s 15 ms
phony operates on a circuit switched network, VoIP Opus (LP) 8 kHz 4 to 20 kbit/s 10 to 60 ms
relies on a packet switched network, which is not
suitable for periodic streams of data. The UDP/IP
stack and its best-effort nature contrasts the timeli-
ness required by VoIP applications, making VoIP calls
unfeasible under certain network conditions. Since 2 AUDIO QUALITY DEGRADATION
there is no guarantee of a successful stream, it is impor-
tant to tell when the state of the network is suitable for Technologies for audio quality evaluation such as MOS
VoIP. (Mean Opinion Score), which became ITU-T recom-
There are already several technologies and algo- mendations in 1996 (ITU-T, 1996b), have been used
rithms that estimate network conditions on the fly for decades, despite being highly subjective.
(discussed in Section 3), but there are not many avail- In the VoIP scenario, we can find two main causes
able solutions that evaluate link quality before the for degradation in audio quality: a poor choice of an
stream begins. By doing so, it can be useful to fine audio codec and unsuitable network conditions.
tune the VoIP stream in order to deliver a better experi- An extremely compressing audio codec may result
ence to the end-user according to the detected network into lack of voice clarity, which can be seen as the
conditions. impairment in the understanding of listened speech.
To answer the need for a solution that is able to Such audio quality degradation occurs before the
provide useful statistical data to determine when a audio data is sent through the network, because of
VoIP call can be successfully transmitted with toler- the limitations of the audio acquisition hardware, and
able degradation, this paper proposes an algorithm, compression owing to the chosen audio codec.
called Link Evaluator, aiming at estimating network Table 1 features a comparison of commonly used
conditions. audio codecs in traditional with VoIP telephony: G.711
This paper is structured as follows. Section 2 (ITU-T, 1988), AMR-WB (ITU-T, 2003b), G.729
briefly introduces the problem of quality estima- (ITU-T, 1996a) and Opus (IETF, 2012).
tion. Section 3 describes the available technologies to Network traversal is a problem owing to the
estimate network conditions and voice quality. Sec- nature of the underlying network and protocol stack
tion 4 describes the newly designed Link Evaluator (UDP/IP).
algorithm. The paper concludes with a summary of Since the network is not ideal, events like packet
Link Evaluator’s limits and suggestions for further losses, duplication, and non-sequential delivery can
work. occur. In traditional telephony networks, all packets

7
are delivered sequentially and in a timely manner, since There are also attempts to objectively evaluate the
they all travel in a specific dedicated circuit, and many conversational or listening quality.
of these issues are not present. Data consistency in A relatively new algorithm regarding this approach
packet switched networks can be still guaranteed using is Perceptual Objective Listening Quality Assessment
application level protocols, but due to the time-critical (POLQA (ITU-T, 2011). It was standardized by ITU-T
nature of the payload, if it is not delivered in a timely in 2011 as the successor of the more obsolete Per-
manner, several side effects might degrade the audio ceptual Evaluation of Speech Quality (PESQ ITU-T,
stream quality. 2001), resolving a few issues with higher-bandwidth
Recommendations concerning network conditions encoded audio and providing higher accuracy with
have been formulated in the past. A one-way end- modern mobile networks evaluation.
to-end delay larger than 300 ms, according to ITU-T POLQA is a full-reference algorithm, which means
recommendation G.114 (ITU-T, 2003a), is considered it works by comparing the degraded audio signal to the
not acceptable for most user applications. Interarrival original. This means it can only be used in a planned
jitter compensated by jitter buffers must not be higher test environment, and it cannot be integrated into
than 100 ms (Cisco Systems, 2001). measurement tools that operate in real life situations.
Assuming a pre-set hardware set cannot be changed
(which is often the case with embedded devices with
VoIP capability, such as VoIP phones or smartphones), 4 LINK EVALUATOR
choosing the appropriate codec for the available net-
work is therefore essential. In certain scenarios it is important to know whether a
It is also very important how the VoIP client con- VoIP call results in acceptable quality before such call
nects to the access point providing internet access. is started. For example, knowing the network condi-
Ideally, a cable provides the most reliable bridge tions before the call is initiated allows the setting up
between the client and the access point, but it is of more efficiently certain audio codecs. It can also
not always possible to use wires, most notably in avoid the frustration of attempting a VoIP call with
the mobile VoIP domain. At best, the mobile device bad network conditions.
is connected to an access point via 802.11, but in As already stated, available solutions either are
more realistic scenarios a mobile phone obtains inter- unsuitable for real-life applications, or operate while
net access via 3G/pre-4G networks. Older generation the call is ongoing. In order to satisfy the need to
networks like HDSPA/HUSPA, were proven to be evaluate network conditions before call initiation, an
unsuitable for VoIP (Arjona, 2009), but with the advent algorithm named Link Evaluator was developed.
of LTE, the scenario is different. An approach con- Link Evaluator was not designed to evaluate audio
sists in using the traditional VoIP technologies on quality, as it does not inspect the packets’ payload.
top of LTE networks, with the same issues and con- It is tailored to work in conjunction with the well-
straints, but there is a new technology named Voice known G.729 audio codec: it may not be as accurate
over LTE (VoLTE) which defines a real-time pro- as other codecs without proper adjustments, but such
tocol built from scratch, tailored for mobile pre-4G adjustments are relatively trivial once the structure of
networks. the audio frame is known.
The evaluation consists of two sequential steps: ini-
tially, statistical data is acquired using Quality Check
3 RELATED WORK Protocol (QCP), which is part of the link evalua-
tor specification, and then an evaluation algorithm
There are at least two existing technologies which can analyses the data and determines link quality.
be used to evaluate the VoIP QoS. The first one is
RTPC, which is part of the RTP (IETF, 2003a) protocol
4.1 Quality Check Protocol
defined in the same RFC. Its purpose is to provide
statistical information relevant to QoS while the real- Quality Check Protocol (QCP) is the name given to
time data is being transmitted. the network protocol responsible for the acquisition
Information transmitted in the protocol payload of all the QoS parameters involved into the evaluation
includes means for estimating one-way delay, inter- phase. Its design revolves around the idea that a QCP
arrival jitter, and packet loss, valuable parameters for packet must also be an RTP packet, implying that all
any kind of QoS estimation. the QCP data is encapsulated inside an RTP packet as
There also exists an extension of RTPC, named payload.
RTPC XR (IETF, 2003b), which further extends the This makes the QCP packet appear like it was an
range of estimated network parameters by adding RTP packet, which is essential since statistical data
packet loss ratio, call quality evaluation in terms of is collected by analysing dummy traffic sent in QCP
an MOS score, round trip time, and SNR information. packets.
RTPC evaluates network conditions while the call is In order to make the estimations reasonably accu-
ongoing, and it is not possible to evaluate network rate, this traffic must resemble as much as possible
conditions beforehand. Currently, no RTP extension the application traffic. Resemblance is also impor-
provides such service to the user. tant if the packets must traverse certain nodes which

8
 determined after empirical tests that were conducted
on a real network.
It is worth noting that once the client enters the
‘completed’ state, all subsequently received DATA
packets are discarded because the state expects anACK
packet. This can cause an approximation error in the
calculation of the packet loss ratio if the network is so
slow that is unable to send all his DATA packets before
the client changes state.
In this state, all QoS parameters should be gathered
and processed, although the protocol itself is indepen-
dent of how these parameters should be calculated.
Figure 1. Link evaluator state machine diagram.
Completed state
This is a transitory state where the client sends an END
packet to the server and puts itself into the ‘ending’
offer different QoS profiles to different packet types,
state. If the transmission of the END packet fails twice,
because the probe packets could be treated differently
the client goes back into the ‘idle’ state, however the
if they do not appear as RTP packets.
computed parameters data is kept, and is available for
The protocol can be used in P2P applications,
the evaluation algorithm.
although during its runtime there is always a ‘client’
node (which initiates the evaluation request) and Ending state
a ‘server’ node (which replies to the evaluation In this state the client waits for an ACK packet. If
requests). the ACK packet is not received after one second,
another END packet is sent, and the client waits again
4.1.1 Protocol description for an ACK. If the transmission of the ACK packet
The way the protocol works is described by the state fails a second time, the client resets into the ‘idle’
machine diagram shown in Figure 1. state. Otherwise, if the ACK packet is received within
one second, the client changes its state to ‘idle’, and
Idle state also updates the evaluation data with the information
The default state. Whenever the client wants to initi- about sent packets placed by the server in the packet
ate network evaluation, the protocol changes from this payload.
state to the ‘starting’ state, and sends a START packet
to the server. If any network error or two consecutive
timeouts occur, the protocol will revert back to this 4.1.2 Packet format
state. As QCP packets are basically RTP packets with QCP
protocol payload, they are all structured so that they
have the same size of an RTP packet carrying 40 ms of
Starting state
G.729 payload (40 bytes of IP/UDP/RTP headers + 40
In this state the client waits for an ACK packet. If the
bytes of payload). Of this payload, 12 bytes are occu-
ACK packet is not received after one second, another
pied by QCP header data and the remaining 28 bytes
START packet is sent, and the client waits again for
are normally unused.
an ACK. If the transmission of the ACK packet fails a
While most of the protocol packet types are essen-
second time, the client resets into the ‘idle’ state. Oth-
tially service packets used to control the protocol state,
erwise, if the ACK packet is received within 1 second,
the DATA packets contain the parameters, taken into
the client changes its state to sending’.
account during the evaluation, and are therefore worth
describing in detail. Figure 2 displays the structure
Sending state of the DATA packet excluding IP/UDP/RTP headers,
In this state, DATA packets are exchanged between which is composed by several fields:
the client and the server. However, the server does not
start sending DATA packets until the client success- Version Number (4 bit): protocol version.
fully delivers the first one. The client sends exactly Reserved (8 bit): reserved for future usage.
150 DATA packets (the equivalent of 6 seconds of Packet Type (4 bit): packet type.
G.729 speech) at an interval of 40 ms in order to Cumulative Packets Lost (16 bit): total packets lost
simulate real RTP packet exchange between the two during the data exchange phase.
nodes. After dispatching 150 packets, the client enters Jitter (16 bit): interarrival jitter of the previous packet
the completed’ state if no critical error occurs (oth- in milliseconds.
erwise it would return to ‘idle’ state). The number of Delay since last received packet (16 bit): time elapsed
sent packets is an acceptable trade-off between algo- since the last packet was received in milliseconds.
rithm accuracy and costs (in terms of battery, time Last received packet sequence number (16 bit):
and data plan) and corresponds to about 6 seconds of sequence number of the last received packet.
conversation. The appropriate algorithm duration was Unused (28 bytes): unused payload bytes.

9
 currently limited to the usage of a particular codec,
and it does not take into account bandwidth estimation
techniques, which play an important role in scenarios
where bandwidth is dynamically allocated.
Future work may extend the algorithm so that allows
the usage of bandwidth estimation techniques to fur-
ther improve the accuracy of the network conditions’
evaluation. It also needs to be more flexible with
Figure 2. Structure of the DATA packet.
regards to codec selection in order to be used within a
larger spectrum of scenarios.
4.2 Evaluation algorithm
The evaluation algorithm challenges the collected
QoS parameters against the following constraints: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
1. Average interarrival jitter less than 100 ms This work was developed under the project S.R.S. –
2. Maximum interarrival jitter less than 250 ms Progetto di Formazione Integrato SINERGREEN
3. Interarrival jitter must surpass the average jitter (Smart Intelligent Energy Green), RES-NOVAE,
threshold (100 ms) at least once. SEM” supported by MIUR (Minister of Education,
4. Average round trip time less than 300 ms University and Research).
5. Packet loss ratio is less than 5%.
If any of these conditions is not satisfied, VoIP calls
are deemed not feasible. REFERENCES
Note that there are two sets of QoS parameters that
Arjona, A. 2009. A study of mobile VoIP performance in
are tested by the evaluator: the local data set (locally
wireless broadband networks.
computed parameters) and the server data set (received Cisco Systems 2001. Quality of Service for Voice over
from the server in DATA packets). This is to test link IP. http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/ios/solutions_docs/
reliability in both ways. qos_solutions/QoSVoIP/QoSVoIP.pdf
Constraints two and three are ways to control the IETF 2003a. RFC 3550: RTP: A Transport Protocol for Real-
amount and length of gaps that can occur during a Time Applications.
conversation. Having a jitter higher than 100 ms means IETF 2003b. RFC 3611: RTP Control Protocol Extended
that jitter buffer is not large enough to compensate, Reports (RTCP XR).
causing a gap in the audio playback due to a buffer IETF 2012. RFC 6716: Definition of the Opus Audio Codec.
ITU-T 1988. ITU-T Recommendation G.711: Pulse code
underrun; having more than one gap in six seconds
modulation (PCM) of voice frequencies.
of conversation results in an unacceptable call quality. ITU-T 1996a. ITU-T Recommendation G.729: Coding of
Furthermore, if maximum jitter is too high, the caused speech at 8 kbit/s using conjugate-structure algebraic-
gap is extended beyond acceptable levels, and, for this code-excited linear prediction (CS-ACELP).
reason, the constraint 3 exists. ITU-T 1996b. ITU-T Recommendation P.800: Methods for
The average round trip time constraint is to ensure objective and subjective assessment of quality.
delay effects do not degrade call quality too much. If ITU-T 2001. ITU-T Recommendation P.862: Perceptual
the average RTT is too large, the increased latency Evaluation of Speech Quality (PESQ): An Objective
causes acoustic delay, which negatively affects call Method for End-To-End Speech Quality Assessment of
Narrow-Band Telephone Networks and Speech Codecs.
quality.
ITU-T 2003a. ITU-T Recommendation G.114: One-way
The last constraint concerning packet loss ratio is transmission time.
also used to control the amount of gaps, since high ITU-T 2003b. ITU-T Recommendation G.722.2: Wideband
packet loss can be a cause of buffer underruns. coding of speech at around 16 kbit/s using Adaptive Multi-
Rate Wideband (AMR-WB).
ITU-T 2011. ITU-T Recommendation P.863: Perceptual
5 CONCLUSIONS Objective Listening Quality Assessment.

Link Evaluator is a system that is able to detect net-

work conditions for a VoIP use case. However, it is

10
 Future Communication Technology and Engineering – Chan (Ed.)
© 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN: 978-1-138-02777-0

A study of the possibility of superluminal communications

Z.H. Zhang, H.A. Zhang & Z.Y. Zhong

Family Research Group in Superluminal Phenomena, Xitucheng Lu, Haidian District, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Based on the requirements of interstellar communication and high bit rate transmission of infor-
mation, we discussed the possibility of the superluminal communications in future, the restraints of special
relativity and SB theory and the time advance in negative dispersion media. Meanwhile, we have pointed out
that the pulse reshape in high negative dispersion media can satisfy the requirement of bit error rate.

Keywords: superluminal communications, restriction of SR, velocity of energy transport

1 INTRODUCTION happens. If these light pulses can be employed to trans-

mit information, one channel is enough to transport
With the development of the internet and astronautics, several T bits signal, the system will be simplified, and
information needs to be exchanged both in amount and the problems appearing in multi-channels can also be
distance increasingly rapidly day by day. Therefore we avoided and the velocity of information transmission
still need to seek a new technique to enhance informa- can also be raised. Here we shall discuss the possibility
tion transmission capacity and velocity. As we know of superluminal transmission of information.
in digital communications the information transmis-
sion is by virtue of coded pulses and obviously the
transmission velocity of information is just that of the 2 SUPERLUMINAL PROPAGATION OF THE
pulses and is determined by a refractive index and a LIGHT PULSES AND SUPERLUMINAL
dispersion of medium. At present, for wireless, the OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS
velocity is about c; for fibre is equal to c/n1 , where n1
is index of fibre core. Because the short pulse easily A light pulse contains a series of frequency compo-
suffers a serious distortion [1], in addition the trans- nents. Supposing the waveform of the pulse as U(r, t),
mission velocity of pulses is restricted. For getting a we have [4]
high transmission bit rate we have to employ a Dense
Wavelength Division Multiplex (DWDM) or multi-
core fibre technique. Right now, the channel numbers,
as reported, are as high as several hundreds. As all
channel transmit through one fibre at the same time,
this complicates the techniques of the non-linearity
and dispersion compensation of the fibre as well as
the multiplex and de-multiplexing. It also makes the here k = nω/c, n = n0 + (dn/dω)ω + (d 2 n/dω2 )
communication system very complex and expensive ω2 .
and even restricts the property of communication sys- Instead of n and k in equ. (1), as a first approxima-
tems. Although the multi core fibre can help us reduce tion we can get [5],
the channel numbers in the fibre, but it complicates
the technique of the fibre manufacture. We can imag-
ine that the communications just as the traffic, and the
capacity of a communication system will be in direct
ratio to the velocity of the signal transmission. For a
system, the faster the information current, the higher
the transmission bit rate and the less channel numbers
are needed. Recently, a lot of superluminal phenom- The waveform of reshaped pulse can be represented
ena of light pulses have been observed [2,3], even the by the envelope function C(r, t) and the pulse peak is at
light pulses have a negative velocity (about –c/310)
[3], which means that the transport velocity of light
pulses can be faster than infinite and the time advance

11
And moves with a group velocity

This group velocity vg connects with phase velocity

vp through the formula

Although the dispersion value dn/dω of the medium is

very small, but the angle frequency ω is much larger,
and we can have vg < c; or vg > c; even vg < 0 and the
time advance happens for different ω [4]. Such as ng
can be much larger to make the group velocity reduce
to 8 m/s, so that the superluminal propagation of light Figure 1. Propagation of a pulse in Media, L – propaga-
tion distance, D – dispersion of media, T – arriving time at
pulse and the photons trap is due to the interaction of distance L.
light and matter. They are reshaped by the dispersion
of the medium and are a natural phenomenon. At any two problems that needed answering before using these
time the reshaped light pulse is an assembly of electric pulses to transfer information.
fields or photons and detectable. The ‘time advance’
can be used to make a ‘time compensator’.
We have proved the correctness of equ. (4) by 3.1 Are the superluminal light pulses virtual?
virtue of computer stimulation. Supposing a pulse Y is According to Sommerfeld and Brillouin’s (SB) the-
consist of 21 cosine waves with a slight frequency ory [7] the velocity ve of energy transport cannot be
difference dω. larger than c, so that some people think that the super-
luminal pulse is virtual and contains no energy and it
cannot be used to transfer information. As in experi-
ments these pulses were detected, it means that they
are real. We also have found that the SB theory is not
In the calculation we take the parameters as: ω0 = 1, correct, and the curve ve /c in Brillouin’s figure per-
dω = 1 × 10−2 , no = 1, c = 1. The calculated results haps corresponds to the contour of the absorption line.
are shown in Figure 1. Such as at L = 6, because A confusion of the transmission efficiency and trans-
the velocity vg changes with the dispersion value D mission velocity of energy was made in SB theory. The
(dn/dω), the arriving time t is different too. Put the velocity of energy transport ve was defined as P/ω [7],
values of n0 , D and ωo in Equation (7), estimated t coin- where P is average density of power flow, and ω is
cides with the result of Equation (4) shown in Figure 1. total density of transmission energy. We think that the
When the group velocity is negative, the time advance density of the power flow in a medium can be repre-
happens, and arriving time t at L = 6 is negative. We sented by Poynting vector S, and for monochromatic
can see that when dispersion D = −10, calculated the light is [4]
arriving time t = −54 time unit; but when D = −20,
t = −114 time unit. These results agree with those
shown in Figure 1. The results of the computer simula-
tion also show that the dispersion can cause broadening
and splitting of pulse in the propagation as well as in For light pulse U(r, t),
the photon trap. The calculated result shows that the
group velocity is different from the phase velocity due
to the interaction between light and the medium, or the
dispersion reshape. Therefore the superluminal prop-
agation of light pulse or photon trap can be by virtue where, k
is the unit vector in the propagation direction.
of either Electromagnetic Induced Transparency (EIT)
or the Electromagnetic Induced Absorption (EIA).
The propagation of light pulses without distortion has
been discussed in another paper [6].
is wave impedance, η is the effective value of wave
impedance, and U(r,t) given in equ. (1). Obviously, the
3 SOME THEORETIC PROBLEMS FACED velocity of energy transport ve is determined by E or U.
The problem is what is the total transmission of energy
Although we have discussed the superluminal propa- density? We think the inner energy of the transmission
gation of light pulses in a medium above, we still have medium does not take part in the energy transmission

12
and it only produces a loss (or gain) of the transmis- the result should as a observer which is still rela-
sion energy. So that for monochromatic light ω = εE 2 , tive to the earth, since light velocity is independent
we can get ve = vp ; and for light pulse ve ≈ vg . In such of the observer. Therefore, he asserted that all phys-
case, the centre of gravity of the pulse may not be ical laws should be at covariance under the Lorentz
consistent with the peak owing to the broadening of transformation. But what is the real situation? The
the pulse may be asymmetric. The conclusion that ve experimental result shows that this assert made by
must be less than c is wrong. As we know both of vp Einstein is wrong. The interference of two light beams
and vg can be larger than c certainly. In such case, we shows that the other beam is rest relative to you fol-
think that the group velocity vg is more precise than lowing a light beam. If other beam travels with c, yet,
the velocity ve to describe the velocity of energy trans- the phase difference between two beams will change
mission and still represents the velocity of a signal in rapidly and the result is that no interference fringe
negative dispersion region for digital communications. appears after combining two beams. Of course that
The pulse is an assembly of photons or electric fields is not true. The interference experiment shows that the
in time-space, and pulse reshape under the action of light velocity depends on the state of the observer cer-
dispersion of medium (or interference) can make the tainly even if in vacuum. The time – space covariance
transmission velocity go up or slow down.These pulses should be s2 − (ct)2 = s2 − (c t  )2 . Generally c  = c ,
are detectable and show that they tote the energy and this equation has no solution; therefore the Lorentz
can be used to transfer information. transformation does not exist. But when v  c, we can
consider c ≈ c , only in this situation, the Lorentz trans-
formation can be used approximately. So that relativity
3.2 Is the propagation of the information faster is only valid for v  c approximately. We also sug-
than c? gested [9] a new time-space transformation instead of
the Lorentz transformation. That is
According to the theory of special relativity, Einstein
said: no body (including a signal) can move faster than
c [8]. For developing superluminal communications
we must answer this question: is Einstein’s conclusion
correct? Therefore, we studied the special relativity
Here x0 is an initial distance between two systems,
carefully and found that Einstein’s conclusion was
v is relative velocity, and defined v > 0 if distance
incorrect too, and pointed out that the superluminal
x increases and v < 0 if x decreases. We have dis-
motion was a natural phenomenon. Here introducing
cussed this in paper [9]. Real visual mechanics also
our study result briefly.
recognizes that superluminal motion is a natural phe-
First, we think there are two kinds of epistemology
nomenon [10]. Therefore information can propagate
for knowing the external world,
faster than c certainly in theory.
1. Objective epistemology: external body exists
objectively and independent of our observa-
tion. Classical mechanics and quantum mechanics 4 PROSPECT OF SUPERLUMINAL OPTICAL
belong to this category, they study the real law COMMUNICATIONS
of body motion (in macro or micro scope) and
recognize the superluminal motion; 4.1 Advantage of the superluminal communications
2. Subjective epistemology. We cognize the existence
At present, the information that needs to be exchanged
of an external body through observation and rel-
increases rapidly. Because of the limitation of the capa-
ativity and astronomy belong to such a theory of
bility of the Opto-electric techniques, the bite rate
knowledge. They only deal with the image of the
transmitted by each channel is about 10–20 Gb/s. In
body and the study of the visual laws of body
order to fit the requirement of the need to increase
motion. We also can perceive relativity as a visual
information exchange, a Dense Wavelength Division
mechanics.
Multiplex (DWDM) and multi-core fibre technique
Since light’s speed is limited, there are differences have been adopted, all of them increasing the complex-
between real and visual law. So that, the conclusion ity of the system. If the velocity of a signal is faster
of special relativity may not be suitable for the real than c, if suppose its velocity can reach as high as 100c,
situation. obviously one channel can has a several Tb/s infor-
Second, we also found there is a serious mistake mation capacity. A single channel will simplify the
in special relativity that is based on two principles: 1. technique of dispersion and non-linearity compensa-
The relativity principle: (include special and general tion, as well as the exchange and multiplex techniques.
relativity principle); 2. The principle of light velocity It will also lessen the need for the fabrication of fibre
invariance: at any time the light velocity in vacuum and the cost of the system will decrease. In the vg < 0
is c. Albert Einstein thought the light velocity was situation, since the time advance of output pulse hap-
independent of both the light source and the observer pens, we can manufacture a ‘time compensator’ to
since it is the solution of the Maxwell equation. He shorten the transmission time of information. From
thought (Einstein’s paradox) that if you follow a light the construction of the information highway, only after
beam, go forward and looked at other light beam getting faster signal transmission speed to lealize the

13
Figure 2. Simulated Curves of refractive index n and gain Figure 3. Curve of deviation of index n. — Real; --- Imag.
coefficient in WKD Experiment [1].

superluminal communication can we say that we have

constructed a real information highway exactly. So that
to develop the superluminal communication is very
attracting. We are facing the new task of how to trans-
mit a series of coded light pulses in a medium over
long distances.

4.2 Realization of the superluminal

communications
Since the information is transferred by the coded
pulses that propagate in a medium with the group
velocity, if we want vg > c, the dispersion of the
medium must be negative, it means that we need the
pulses to propagate in anomalous region. In theory, Figure 4. Curve of second derivation of index n. — Real;
we can choose a suitable dn/dω to make the 0 < ng < 1, --- Imag.
and vg = c/ng > c, before the experiment [3]. Most sci-
entists obtained the larger dispersion by means of the
gain or absorption of a single spectral line. Because The pulse propagation equation ignoring absorption
of the frequency superposition of signals and spectral and non-linear effect,
lines, the distortion of the signal is serious; right now
scientists still study how to get a larger negative dis-
persion. The measure of gaining aided superluminal
propagation of light pulses suggested by Chiao et al
[11] as in experiment [3] is one of the valuable sugges-
tions. Using two pumping Raman lasers with very near here
frequencies (ν1,2 = ν0 ± ν) induces two gain peaks,
When the signal with a centre frequency ν0 propa-
gates in this medium, the signal also can get a gain to
compensate the loss of the medium When the inten-
sity of two pumping Raman laser beam is equal, the
polarization of medium for that signal beam is [3,7]

In experiment [3] group index measured ng = 310 (±

5), observed that the group velocity is negative, and is
faster than infinite and appears the time advance. By
where M is a parameter connected with the medium the property selection of the parameters, we can get
character and the power of pumping beams. Based on 1 < ng > 0, and vg > c. We also demonstrated that by
the relation between n and χ, we can get n, dn/dω and calculation the superluminal light pulses can propagate
d2 n/dω2 , varies with frequency ω as in Figures 2–4. long distance without distortion [6].

14
4.3 The practical problems faced by superluminal it is time to start experimental research immediately.
communications In the future the research may still meet some prob-
lems needed to solve. But compared with the theoretic
Although the superluminal propagation of light pulses
barrier, these difficulties cannot figure out what we
has been observed, and the theoretic research has
need, and we would like to cooperate with all peo-
been done, but in practice it maybe meet some new
ple interesting in superluminal communication around
problems. So it still has a long way to go before prac-
the world and push the research work of superluminal
tical application. At first, since the medium has larger
communications forward.
negative dispersion, the distortion of light pulses is
larger and limits the long distance transmission of light
pulses. Fortunately as we see from Fig. 3, 4 dn/dω and REFERENCES
d2 n/dω2 are not too large and are relatively flat in the
middle region, so that this distortion may be not be [1] G.P. Agrawal. Nonlinear Fiber Optics, 2nd. ed. (Aca-
serious. On the other hand, this distortion can be cor- demic Press, 1995).
rected by some approaches of the waveform control [2] Huang Zhi-xun. Recent Advances in Faster Than Light
technique. Secondly, since dispersion dn/dω depends Research. National Defence Industry Press 2002).
on parameter M, therefore vg also depends on the Huang Zhi-xun; Theory and Experiments of Faster than
intensity of pumping laser beam and the density of Light Research; (Academic Press 2005).
[3] Wang L.J., KuzmichA., DogariuA. Gain-assisted super-
medium atoms devoted to χ, so that the time jitter is
luminal light propagation, Nature, 2000, 406, 277–279
important, since the clock information also follows the [4] Zhang Zihua, Zhang Huaan. Superluminal Phenomena
signal transmission. In such case the problem of time and its influence on Physics and Informatics. 6th sym-
jitter will be another research items. At last, in superlu- posium of Photonics of China, Oct. 2008, Chongqing.
minal communications, the requirement of frequency [5] Zhang zi hua, Zhang Hua an, Cause of superluminal
stabilization of light sources and the narrow width of transmission of light pulse and Photon Capture (AOM
spectral lines increase; to raise the laser quality is also 2010 – OSA-IEEE Topical Conference, Advances in
important. On the other hand, how to keep superlumi- Optoelectronics & Micro/nano-Optics, 3–6 Dec, 2010,
nal pulse propagates long distance without distortion Guang zhou, China) Zhang zi hua, Reshape and Supe-
luminal propagation of light pulses in media with
is still the primary task. Superluminal communication
Negative dispersion, Chinese Scientists 2011, No. 1,
systems in future can only be employed in trunk or spe- pp. 1–7.
cial lines. But the techniques of time compensation can [6] Zhang zi hua, the distortion-less propagation of the
be applied in remote control and remote measurement Superluminal light pulses, “Shen Shi Zhi Guang”, the
in space navigation. Literature of reform and innovation of China. (Press of
Our research [4] also shows that the velocity of Science and Literature of China 2009, Beijing).
information transmission is phase velocity vp of the [7] Brillouin. L. Wave propagation and group velocity,
load wave in analogy communications and is group (Academic Press, New York 1960).
velocity vg in digital communications. [8] A. Einstein, Relativity, (Methuen & Co Ltd Methuen &
Co Ltd, 1916)
[9] Zi-hua Zhang, Hua-an Zhang, Zhi-ying Zhong, Correct-
ing the mistake of the Principle of light invariance and
its effect. ICOELC. June 2014, Taiyuan, China.
5 SUMMARY Aplied Mechanics and Materials Vols 651-653 p.2287
(TTP Ltd. Switzerland).
In this paper we discussed the possibility of the super- [10] Cyclopedia of China (Electrical and Electronic tech-
luminal communications. Our conclusion is that the nology, 2002) (Press of Cyclopaedia of China, 2002
superluminal communications are certainly possible Beijing).
and the theoretic problem has been solved. We think [11] R. Y. Chiao, Phys. Rev. A 48, R34 (1993).

15
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 Future Communication Technology and Engineering – Chan (Ed.)
© 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN: 978-1-138-02777-0

Transmission performance optimization of multi-wavelength repeaterless

undersea optical fibre cable

J.T. Yu & W.Y. Liu

Luoyang University of Foreign Languages, Luoyang, Henan, China

X. Li
Unit 62041, Changchun, Jilin, China

H.Y. He
Luoyang University of Foreign Languages, Luoyang, Henan, China

ABSTRACT: Multi-wavelength repeaterless undersea optical fibre cable transmission is a credible commu-
nication method with big capability to satisfy the requirement of communication across the sea. This paper
discusses the influences from chromatic dispersion, polarization mode dispersion and nonlinearity. According
to the simulation results on the platform of OptSim, we selected the wavelength of 1546.12 nm, 1547.72 nm,
1549.32 nm, 1550.92 nm and CSRZ code to optimize the wavelength and coding simultaneously. As a result, the
eye diagram of each channel is clear and their performances have little difference between them. The system
performance has been improved well and the transmission distance is further extended.

1 INTRODUCTION distance. The smaller cumulative dispersion at the

receiving end will maintain pulse shape well and
Multi-wavelength repeaterless undersea optical fibre reduce inter-symbol interference. Large local Group
cable transmission becomes necessary in view of lim- Velocity Dispersion (GVD) can inhibit the cross-
itation of chromatic dispersion and Polarization Mode phase modulation (XPM) and Four Wave Mixing
Dispersion (PMD) and long-distance transmission (FWM) effectively [2]. A signal cannot be transmitted
without repeater. Chromatic dispersion, PMD, nonlin- normally without dispersion.
earity and noise are factors that limit the repeaterless When using a NRZ code, the system with chromatic
transmission distance. A Raman amplifier is intro- dispersion can achieve more than 450 km (468 km)
duced in the environment of long distance transmis- repeaterless transmission. The BER is 2.01 × 10−5 ,
sion. In this paper, the influence of dispersion and system margin is 4.07 dB. But the worst channel in
nonlinear effects is studied. the system is all error without chromatic dispersion
200 GHz (1.6 nm) is selected as channel spac- and the eye diagram is closed completely. The reason
ing. The wavelengths are 1550.12 nm, 1551.72 nm, is that chromatic dispersion will cause pulse broaden-
1553.33 nm, 1554.94 nm. Enhanced Forward Error ing and crosstalk between the codes. But FWM affects
Correction (EFEC) technology is adopted, and its the system transmission performance so seriously that
redundancy is 23%. the system does not work properly.
BER and Q factors are used to evaluate system per-
formance. Also the eye diagram and system margin
are used as assistant measures. Generally, the system 2.2 Simulation of chromatic dispersion
margin is estimated by Q factor in dB [1]. System compensation technology
margin is required in system design to be greater than
3 dB considering that a variety of factors in the actual In the most distant transmissions, chromatic dispersion
environment cannot be reflected in simulation system. of G.652 fibre at 1550 nm is very large after overcom-
ing nonlinearity and the effects of the transmission
distance and performance. Dispersion Compensating
2 EFFECTS AND OPTIMIZATION OF Fibre (DCF) post-compensation is chosen as the output
CHROMATIC DISPERSION power of power amplifier at sender is large. Dispersion
compensation ratio η is defined as follows:
2.1 Effects and simulation of chromatic dispersion
Chromatic dispersion can accumulate and will
increase linearly with the increase of transmission

17
Figure 1. Change curve of Q factors of channel 3 with the
change of DCF length.
Figure 2. Attainable range of transverse stress and bending
DDCF , DSMF are respectively dispersion coefficient of radius (a) and attainable range of external plus axial tensile
DCF and Single-Mode Fibre (SMF). LDCF , LSMF are strain and bending radius (b).
respectively length of DCF and SMF. η = 1 is fully-
compensation. η < 1 is owed-compensation. η > 1 is since the simulation cannot simulate complex under-
over-compensation. The owed-compensation is cho- sea environments, various environmental factors will
sen in the system. Dispersion Compensation Module influence PMD randomly, and the PMD produced by
(DCM) is used to compensate on the receiving shore. external factors may not be higher than 38 ps [4].
DCF and loss simulator are used to simulate the DCM. To further illustrate the influence of the stress and
η changes from 0.7 to 0.9 by changing the length of bending on PMD, Figure 2(a) shows the attainable
DCF. The channel 1 and 4 can achieve error-free trans- range of transverse stress and bending radius and
mission. Figure 1 shows the change curve of Q factors Figure 2(b) shows the attainable external range plus
of channel 3 (the worst channel) with the change of axial tensile strain and bending radius.
DCF length. As is shown in Figure 2(a), the transverse stress that
As is shown in Figure 1, Q factor of channel 3 is the system can endure decreases gradually with the
the largest when the DCF length is 73 km (η is 78%). increase of the PMD coefficient. When the bending
System margin of channel 3 improves 0.2 dB. There radius is less than 0.3 m, the transverse stress that the
may be two reasons: one is that wavelength selection system can endure increases sharply with the increase
makes the channel 3 have more nonlinear product, of the bending radius. When the bending radius is
original channel power reduce, and noise increase more than 0.3 m, the transverse stress has no change
and performance become poor. The other is that the basically with the increase of the bending radius. At
amplifier gain is not flat which makes the Optical this time, birefringence induced by transverse stress
Signal Noise Ratio (OSNR) of channel 3 lower. As plays a decisive role. It can be concluded that when
a result, we change the wavelength to 1549.32 nm, the PMD coefficient is 0.04 ps/km1/2 , the transverse
1550.92 nm, 1552.52 nm, 1554.13 nm without any dis- stress and bending radius should be taken under the
persion compensation and the system margin of each curve range to ensure the system is not affected by
of the channels are shown as follows: channel 1 is PMD, while eliminating the PMD compensation. For
13.34 dB, channel 2 is 13.18 dB, channel 3 is 1.12 dB, example, transverse stress is required not to be greater
and channel 4 is 10.96 dB. Channel 1, 2 and 4 are than 8.9 N/m when bending radius is 0.3 m.
free-error. Channel 3’s performance is the worst and As is shown in Figure 2(b), the tensile strain that
differs from the other channels more. It is necessary the system can endure decreases gradually with the
to optimize the choice of channel wavelength. increase of the PMD coefficient. The tensile strain
increases linearly with the increase of bending radius.
When the PMD coefficient is 0.04 ps/km1/2 , the value
3 EFFECTS AND OPTIMIZATION OF PMD of the bending radius is larger than that in Figure 4.
When the bend radius changes from 1 m to 10 m, the
In undersea optical fibre cable transmission system, range of the tensile strain is 0 to 0.3 basically. As long
the PMD will become one of the major limiting factors as taking the value under the curve range, we can
in long-distance transmission because of the uncer- ensure the system is not affected by the PMD while
tainty of applications environment. It broadens the eliminating any PMD compensation. For example,
pulse, limits the transmission rate, and affects the when the PMD coefficient is 0.04 ps/km1/2 and the
system’s transmission performance [3]. bending radius is 0.3 m, the tensile strain is required
The PMD will cause pulse broadening and distor- to be not greater than 0.05.
tion and interference between codes in a WDM system.
By analysing the experimental eye diagram, the eye
4 EFFECTS AND OPTIMIZATION OF
opening of the worst channel has increased a little. The
NONLINEARITY
BER reduces to 2.95 × 10−6 and the system margin is
4.93 dB. System margin has improved 0.86 dB rela-
4.1 Effects and simulation of nonlinearity
tively to the system considering PMD (system margin
with PMD is 4.07 dB). Overall, the impact of PMD on Fibre nonlinearity can be divided into two categories
the system is not great and can be neglected. However, [5]. One is a scattering effect including Stimulated

18
Raman Scattering (SRS) and Stimulated Brillouin
Scattering (SBS). The other is the Kerr effect including
Self-Phase Modulation (SPM), Cross-Phase Modula-
tion (XPM) and Four-Wave Mixing (FWM).
Through analysing the worst channel simulation,
the BER is 2.01 × 10−5 and the system margin is
4.07 dB when considering SPM, XPM and FWM. The
BER is 1.05 × 10−10 and the system margin is 7.87 dB
without FWM. The BER is 9.11 × 10−17 and the sys-
tem margin is 10.12 dB without SPM, XPM or FWM.
It can be seen that the system margin can improve by Figure 3. Relation between system margin and EDF length
3.8 dB without FWM, and the BER is lower and the in power amplifier module (a) and relation between system
eye diagram is clearer. The system then adds 2.25 dB margin and EDF length in remote-booster gain module (b)
redundancy, system performance improves, eye open- (with FEC).
ing is bigger, jitter amplitude decreases and the eye
becomes clearer. Therefore, the Kerr effect has a great
impact on the system, making the system margin remote-booster module and the corresponding fibre
reduce 6.05 dB. It is necessary to reduce the impact input power are different. When we use the CSRZ,
of the Kerr effect on the system performance. system, the performance improves well and the sys-
When considering SBS and SRS, the BER is tem margin increases. Therefore, when we optimize
2.01 × 10−5 . And the BER reduces to 3.51 × 10−6 the system, we can select the CSRZ code to extend the
without SBS. We can see that SBS has little impact on transmission distance.
the system. Furthermore, seen from the transmission
power loss, the signal power in 75 km section of the
fibre loses 0.022 dBm due to SBS and on the 280 km 4.3 The optimization of adjacent channel spacing
section the loss of signal power is up to 0.769 dBm. and channel wavelength
Moreover, the higher the input power, the longer the
4.3.1 The optimization of adjacent channel spacing
transmission fibre, the greater will be the line loss
The channel spacing, the light power density, the power
caused by SBS. Therefore, choosing the right input
into fibre, dispersion, etc. are the major limiting fac-
power is very important to reduce the power loss
tors affecting the WDM system. And these factors
caused by SBS. When the Raman Effect in a Raman
have impacts on nonlinearity. The unequal channel
amplifier is not changed, SRS and SBS are closed at
spacing will reduce the impact of FWM greatly,
the same time in order to study the effects of SRS on
thereby increasing the maximum optical power of each
system. Then we obtain the BER at 7.88 × 10−6 and
channel.
the system only has 0.4 dB redundancy. Eye definition
Referring to the ITU-T G.692 recommendation, we
has no improvement basically. Therefore, the impact
select the NRZ code, and 4 waves with the wave-
of SRS on the system is negligible.
length of 1556.7 nm, 1558 nm, 1559.7 nm, 1560.7 nm
as a simulator. The system margin of each channel is
4.2 Optimization of the main point of system 11.67 dB, 12.14 dB, 11.62 dB, 11.95 dB. Though some
of the channels are poorer than that of 200 GHz chan-
The input power of fibre will directly affect the non- nel spacing, the performances of four channels are
linearity in the case of fixed fibre parameters. The basically similar to each other. Moreover, nonlinear-
amplifier gain is closely related to the pump inten- ity is controlled well and the system margin of the
sity and erbium-doped fibre (EDF) length. There is an worst channel (channel 3) improves 7.5 dB, making
optimum EDF length corresponding to the maximum the system utmost transmission distance can be further
gain. Figure 3(a) shows the system margin changes extended.
of the worst channel (channel 3) by using different From the above analysis, in order to better suppress
codes (NRZ, RZ, CSRZ) and FEC when nonlinearity, the influence of nonlinearity on the system and over-
dispersion. and noise are considered. come the unbalancing between channel performances,
From the analysis of Figure 3(a), when the system the system uses unequal channel spacing for transmis-
performance is optimal, the optimal EDF length in sion. Thus the system performance will be improved
power amplifier module and corresponding fibre input greatly.
power, using different codes, are different.
Similarly, the output power of a remote-booster gain 4.3.2 Optimization of channel wavelength
module is also enough to cause a large nonlinearity. Simulation results from the previous analysis
Set the EDF length of power amplifier module at the shows that, when we select the wavelength as
optimal value, change the EDF length of the remote- 1550.12 nm, 1551.72 nm, 1553.32 nm, 1554.92 nm
booster gain module and the system margin of the (A) and 1549.32 nm, 1550.92 nm, 1552.52 nm,
worst channel is shown in Figure 3(b). 1554.13 nm (B), and don’t consider dispersion com-
From the analysis of Figure 3(b), when we use pensation, the performance of each channel is shown
different codes, the optimal EDF length in the in Table 1.

19
Table 1. Performance of each channel with A and B set of 5 CONCLUSIONS
wavelengths.
This paper studies the effects to multi-wavelength
Q System repeaterless undersea optical fibre cable transmission
Performance BER value (dB) margin (dB) performance, caused by chromatic dispersion, PMD,
and nonlinearity. It proposes a series of optimiza-
A ch 1 8.88 × 10−34 21.62 13.43
tion methods to improve the system’s performance
ch 2 1.35 × 10−24 20.15 11.95
ch 3 2.01 × 10−5 12.27 4.07 and extend the transmission distance from the aspects
ch 4 1.14 × 10−29 21.02 12.83 of dispersion compensation, fibre input power, chan-
nel spacing, wavelength, and coding technology. (1)
B ch 1 4.34 × 10−33 21.53 13.34
The use of the DCF post-compensation and owed-
ch 2 5.46 × 10−32 21.37 13.18
ch 3 1.73 × 10−3 9.32 1.12
compensation compensates the influence of chromatic
ch 4 5.63 × 10−20 19.16 10.96 dispersion. (2) We get the range of transverse stress,
tensile strain and a bending radius that the system can
endure to avoid PMD compensation. (3) It is better
to avoid the wavelengths of 1552.52 nm–1553.32 nm
As is shown in Table 1, with respect to the A set of when we select a wavelength. (4) When we select the
wavelengths, channel 3 performance of B set of wave- wavelengths of 1546.12 nm, 1547.72 nm, 1549.32 nm,
lengths is still the worst. So we change the wavelengths 1550.92 nm and the CSRZ code, the eye diagram of
to 1546.12 nm, 1547.72 nm, 1549.32 nm, 1550.92 nm each channel is clear and their performances have
and do not consider the dispersion compensation. The little difference. The system performance has been
BER of channel 1 is 1.24 × 10−29 and system mar- improved well and the transmission distance is further
gin is 12.82 dB. The BER of channel 2 is 1.24 × 10−35 extended.
and system margin is 13.68 dB. The BER of channel What’s more, we can obtain the research methods
3 is 1.08 × 10−35 and system margin is 13.69 dB. The about extending transmission distance in a WDM sys-
BER of channel 4 is 4.33 × 10−33 and system mar- tem. Due to limited conditions, there are some issues
gin is 13.34 dB. The performance of each channel is to be further resolved: for example, with the 10 Gbit/s
almost the same. There is no error in the condition of and even the 40 Gbit/s system, the effects of PMD and
existing transmission distance and the number of mul- PMD compensation will be researched continuously.
tiplexing wavelengths. It is possible to further extend
the transmission distance.
REFERENCES
As for the analysis of changing the channel
wavelength, it is better to avoid the wavelength of [1] OptSim 4.5 Models Reference Volume II Block Mode.
1552.52 nm–1553.32 nm when select the wavelength. RSoft Design Group, Inc. [EB/OL]. http://www.resoft
Synthesizing all the above analysis results, we design.com
optimize the wavelength and coding simultaneously. [2] Sultana, Nasrin & Islam, M.S. 2012. Analysis of XPM
That is selecting the wavelength of 1546.12 nm, effect with SPM and GVD in WDM fiber optic trans-
1547.72 nm, 1549.32 nm, 1550.92 nm and CSRZ mission system. 2012 International Conference on Com-
code. The system margin of channel 1 is 18.75 dB. puter and Communication Engineering, ICCCE 2012:
263–266
The channel 2 is 17.43 dB. The channel 3 is 16.54 dB,
[3] Lignie, M.C. & Nagel, H.G.J. 1994. Large polariza-
and the channel 4 is 16.20 dB. The eye diagram of tion mode dispersion in fiber optic cables. Lightwave
each channel is clear. The performance has some Technol., 1994,12(8): 1325–1329
improvement over that using unequal channel spacing. [4] ITU-T G.650
The system margin increases. Transmission distance is [5] Kaur, Gurmeet & Singh, M.L & Patterh, M.S. 2010.
further extended. Effect of fiber nonlinearities in a WDM transmission
When using CSRZ and wavelength optimization, system. Optik, 2010(6): 889–896
the system performance improves more than the one
using unequal channel spacing. But the two kinds
of optimization are both good. From the perspective
of wavelength utilization, we suggest selecting wave-
length optimization when there are less wavelengths
and using unequal channel spacing when the number
of wavelength is more.

20
 Future Communication Technology and Engineering – Chan (Ed.)
© 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN: 978-1-138-02777-0

The research of a joint channel coding based on LDPC

and physical layer network coding

X.M. Lu, F. Yang, J.L. Wang, L. Su & B. Pan

Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, Shanxi Province, China

ABSTRACT: This paper combined LDPC channel coding technology with physical layer network coding, and,
based on the principle of superposition by the code word, put forward a new joint channel coding technology.
The technology treated the network coding signal in the relay node as a redundant code and combined it with the
original coded signal to form a joint coding signal. Finally, it is simulated for bit error rate on the Matlab which
proves that technology can effectively reduce the BER and improve transmission performance.

1 INTRODUCTION

Network coding, which is put forward in recent years,

is a new theory. Its basic principle is that relay node
deals with information of a transmission link before
sending it, and the destination node can receive the
information finally [1], [2]. The theory proves that net-
work coding can realize the maximum transmission of
a network. References come up with Physical Network
Coding (PNC) and prove that PNC has a higher per-
formance gain as compared with a direct transmission Figure 1. Joint channel coding system model based on
[3], [4]. LDPC and PNC.
As the channel is not independent in the actual net-
work and references [1] indicate that the separation node, and then the relay node uses network coding
theorem of network coding and channel coding may technology to deal with the information and sends it
be false in the theory of random linear codes [5], so (a, b, a ⊕ b) to the destination node. According to the
network coding and channel coding often require a Shannon noisy channel coding theorem, the decoding
joint design in the wireless network [6]. error probability tends to zero with the coding length
Research of LDPC technology indicates that LDPC increasing (L → ∞). Thus, compared with the tradi-
performance of 1/2 code rate in the BPSK modulation tional network coding, decoding error probability of
mode is only 0.0045 dB worse than the Shannon limit. the joint channel coding is the lower. The network
The common algorithm of LDPC is a BP decoding model is displayed in Figure 1.
algorithm based on iterative arithmetic which is widely S1 sends the information flow (kS1 ) to the relay
used in communication technology. node and the node receives at the same time, and
This paper comes up with a joint channel coding then S2 also sends the information flow (kS2 ) to them.
technology based on LDPC and the physical layer After receiving the information flow ((kS1 , kS2 ), the
network coding which is applied in a wireless commu- relay node XORs the two packets and broadcasts the
nication network and the technology can reduce the bit XOR-ed version to D. D can obtain its packet by
error rate effectively so as to improve the transmission XOR-ing again with its own packet. The system uses
performance of system. LDPC and BPSK modulation.
It assumes that S1 and S2 use the same coding,
the generated matrix of S1 and S2 is G1 and G2
respectively and their check matrix are H1 and H2.
2 JOINT CHANNEL CODING SYSTEM MODEL
2.1 The coding decoding scheme of the joint
It assumes that an ideal wireless communication net-
channel
work system includes two user source nodes: one relay
node, and one destination node. In the network, the It uses LDPC and BPSK modulation to deal with the
user source node sends information (a, b) to the relay signals at S1 and S2.

21
 yk = lk + nk when lk = Gk + xk , we can obtain

is the additive white Gaussian noise of channel.

The relay nodes XORs the two packets and we can
obtain yxor = y1 ⊕ y2 .
The receiving node D can obtain its packet by
XOR-ing again with its own packet (y1 , y2 ).

2.2 The check matrix H of joint channel coding

system
The node D receives the sequence (y = [y1 , y2 , yxor ])
and if decoding it, it must have the check matrix Hxor
T
(Hxor = 0).
When [y1 , y2 , yxor ]HkT = 0, we can obtain Figure 2a. Bit error rate.

3.2 Bit error rate

Firstly, we analyse the interruptive probability of
transmission. In the Figure 1, source nodes send infor-
mation to the destination node respectively through
two links (L1 , L2 ). Assuming that channel capacity
With the features of model 2 and XOR operation,
of the two links is C(γ1 ) and C(γ2 ), the interruptive
we can obtain x1 + x2 + x1 ⊕ x2 = 0. In this paper, the
probability is
check matrix is

r is the maximum transmission rate of information.

In Figure 1, the modulation system of the network
system is BPSK and the channel is AWAN, so bit error
3 ANALYSIS OF BIT ERROR RATE rate is:

3.1 Error rate of pair-wise codewords

Instantaneous SNR of each channel is rk respectively.
The error rate of pairing codeword is shown below.

4 PERFORMANCE SIMULATION
η is error code.
Using computer simulation software (Matlab), we can
obtain the performance curve with the traditional net-
work coding and the joint channel coding. In Figure
2a, compared with the traditional network coding, the
In the fading channel, the error rate of pairing
bit error rate of the joint channel coding has been sig-
codeword is PEP (d|γ1 , γ2 ), d is Hamming distance.
nificantly reduced. And as the SNR increases, the bit
error rate reduction becomes greater. From Figure 2b,
the frame error rate of the joint channel coding is also
greatly different. When the bit error rate is 10−3 , the
performance gain of the joint channel coding is greater
than 5 dB.
The experimental results demonstrate that the joint
channel coding can reduce the bit error rate and frame
error rate effectively.
From the above results and analysis, we can see
We can obtain
that, compared to the network coding, the transmis-
sion capability of a system based on LDPC and PNC
technology has been greatly improved.

22
 at the same time the coding strategies can reduce the
bit error rate and frame error rate effectively. However,
with network technology development, its promotion
throughout the network is becoming more and more
important and we can use the new joint channel cod-
ing based on LDPC and PNC to improve the network
throughout.
This paper is supported by Northwestern Polytech-
nical University Foundational Research Fund 2011
(JC201143).

REFERENCES
[1] Li S.Y.R., Sun Q.T. & Z.Y. Shao. Linear network cod-
ing: theory and algorithms [J]. Proceedings of the IEEE.
2011, 99(3):372–387.
[2] Hao, K. Research of Network Coding Key Technology
Figure 2b. Frame error rate.
and Applications [D]. Tianjin University, 2011
[3] Yu H.H. & Zhang J. Physical-layer network coding in
wireless multi access relay channel [C]. Applied Infor-
ACKNOWLEDGMENT mation and Communication. Springer Berlin Heidelberg,
2011, 227(1):312–320.
Combining network coding theory with network com- [4] Yeung R.W., Lis Y.R. & Cai N., et al. Network coding
munication technology, a new joint channel coding Theory (1st ed) [M]. Now Publishers 2005.
based on LDPC and PNC is put forward in this paper. [5] Song L., Yeung R.W. & Cai N. A separation theorem
And through mathematical analysis and simulation for single-source network coding [J]. IEEE Transactions
Information Theory, 2006, 52(5):1861–1871.
results, it shows that this coding technology can effec-
[6] Zhou L.C. & Xiu C.D. A joint design of physical
tively reduce the bit error rate and frame error rate layer network coding and channel coding for wire-
effectively, which can greatly improve the transmission less networks [J]. Computer Science and Electronics
capability of a system. Engineering (ICCSEE), 2012 International Conference,
From practical application, when we use network 2012(3):312–316.
coding strategies to increase the network throughout,

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 Future Communication Technology and Engineering – Chan (Ed.)
© 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN: 978-1-138-02777-0

Hardware network protocol stack design for FPGA-based

FBG data transmission

Q. Wang
China National Materials Group Corporation, China

Z.Q. Xu, Q. Liu, Q.J. Huang & Z.Y. Li

School of Information Engineering, Key Laboratory of Fiber Optic Sensing Technology and Information Processing,
Ministry of Education, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China

ABSTRACT: In this paper, with respect to low data transmission rate for the existing FBG demodulation
system, a data transmission method based on FPGA hardware network protocol stack is proposed. This paper
designs a state machine-based LAN91C111 hardware driver, crops the standard TCP/IP protocol, and takes into
account the characteristics of system data transmission. Timing simulation software is applied to functional
simulation in the design, so as to ensure the reliability of the design. In hardware tests, a wireshark packet
capture tool is employed to obtain real-time network communication data, and to analyse the data in detail, so
as to ensure the accuracy of the design. Test results show that a high-speed and stable network transmission of
sensing data can be assured by the design when the electric circuit remains unchanged.

1 INTRODUCTION

Since FBG sensors are competitive in many superior

characteristics (such as small size, immunity to elec-
tromagnetic interference, etc. (Macro Esposito 2013)),
they are widely used in structural health monitoring,
heavy-duty machinery, equipment condition monitor-
ing, and such fields (L. Wang 2011; Jeannot Frieden Figure 1. Schematic diagram of system hardware structure.
2010). In order to achieve high-speed parallel demod-
ulation of multi-channel FBG sensors, existing FBG on the basis of unchanged circuit structure, a FPGA-
demodulation systems have utilized FPGA-based data based pure hardware UDP protocol is thus designed
acquisition and transmission circuits, running LwIP to improve the network transmission rate of a demod-
protocol via NiosII soft core to achieve network com- ulation system. Researches in this topic can solve the
munication. Test results show that the design proposal data high-speed network transmission problems of a
can ensure 4 kHz stable demodulation of 4-channel FBG demodulation system, and further make sure that
FBG sensor (Li Zheng-ying 2013). a demodulation system can achieve the stable and
However, with the development of technology, the high-speed demodulation of high-capacity FBG sen-
FBG sensor system is becoming large in capacity (Liu sors. As a result, it has great research value and huge
M.Y. 2012; Zhou Zu-de 2013), and a large-capacity engineering significance.
FBG sensor may produce a huge amount of data dur-
ing high-speed real-time synchronous demodulation,
causing the data transmission rate to become a bot- 2 SYSTEM HARDWARE DESIGN
tleneck problem in the system. For instance, when
a demodulation channel is extended to eighteen, the 2.1 System hardware structure
system runs at a demodulation rate of 4 kHz. That Figure 1 shows the hardware structural schematic
is to say, it is connected to 576 sensors at full load diagram of a FBG demodulation system. A FBG
(32 FBG sensors per channel) and each frame data demodulation system relies on FPGA as the core to
is as long as 1,192 bytes. Data transmission rate will achieve large-capacity and high-speed FBG demodu-
reach 38.14 Mbps, far beyond the maximum trans- lation. FBG sensing is accessed to the system through
mission rate specified in the above design proposal. eighteen channels, and the FPGA controls sweep the
To solve this problem, in this paper, by making full source and signal acquisition circuit to collect and
use of FPGA flexible and reprogrammable features calculate FBG wavelength values, and then transmits

25
Figure 2. LAN91C111 interface timing diagram. Figure 4. A network protocol layer diagram.

Figure 5. Design structure chart of TCP/IP protocol in

FPGA.
Figure 3. Verilog-based LAN91C111 interface driver code.
Figure 4 is the network protocol layer diagram.
As the figure shows, on the left is the Open Sys-
them to PC for further processing through the network
tems Interconnection Reference model (OSI). It is
interface chip LAN91C111. HR911105A refers to a
the reference architecture for the world-wide network
network isolation transformer, provided with network
communication standard, proposed by the Interna-
filters and indicators.
tional Organization for Standardization. In practice,
TCP/IP protocol suite has been widely used, as shown
in figure below (Richard S.W. 2000). On this topic,
2.2 LAN91C111 introduction and realization of the network communication is designed to point-to-
hardware driver point single connection in the LAN, with a PC serving
LAN91C111 is a non-PCI 100 M/10 M adaptive net- as the client and FBG demodulation system as the
work communication chip integrated with MAC and server. The server is required to frequently send a
PHY (LAN91C111 Ref). The system requires initial large amount of FBG sensor data to the client, but the
configuration in design, and then sends and receives client only sends command control word to the server.
network data. LAN91C111 operations are realized by Therefore, the standard TCP/IP has been greatly sim-
means of reading or setting its MAC and PHY regis- plified in this paper, in order to markedly reduce
ters, and the read and write timings for its interface the complexity of the protocol. As shown in the fig-
pins are shown in Figure 2. ure below, in the network module layer diagram of
In order to facilitate the use of Verilog to achieve the FBG demodulation system, the network interface
timing operations for the network interface chip pin, a layer contains the functions of initialization and data
macro definition with parameters is adopted in design, reception-transmission for LAN91C111. On the net-
as shown in Figure 3. The read/write register is a work layer, only ARP/ICMP/IP protocols are retained.
small state machine to be embedded into the main net- The transport layer employs the relatively simple UDP
work data reception-transmission state machine by the protocol; and the application layer is the data trans-
macro definition, as shown in Figure 6. mission and command word receiver module for the
demodulation system.

3 PROTOCOL CROPPING AND REALIZATION

3.2 Design proposal
3.1 Network communication protocol
Figure 5 is the design structure chart of TCP/IP proto-
In order to simplify development, the standard TCP/IP col in FPGA. LAN91C111 read-write timing control
protocol suite has been cropped taking into account is achieved by network interface chip read-write state
the actual demands of the project. machine; LAN91C111’s initial configuration and data

26
 Figure 7. ARP request simulation received.

Figure 6. Data reception-transmission state machine.

collection functions are achieved by initialization con-

figuration module and Ethernet frame data collection
module through read-write state machine. Figure 8. ARP response simulation transmitted.
Figure 6 is a data reception-transmission state
machine. The system will enter data reception-
transmission state upon the completion of LAN91C111
initialization configuration. Since it is complicated for
4 TEST RESULT
it to achieve interrupted responses for LAN91C111
receiving data by hardware description, a query-
4.1 Software simulation
reception mode shown in the figure is adopted in the
design to receive and transmit data alternately. Altera-Modelsim software is adopted for function
Response to an ARP request from the client is simulation in the design and the parameters in the test-
achieved by an ARP module, as shown in the figure. bench document have been set as the actual values
When an ARP request is received, the ARP module to ensure the simulation results conform to the actual
will be booted by network control module for data result. MAC address and IP address of LAN91C111
analysis. If the destination IP address is in conformity are set as 00 E0 3D F4 DD F7 and 59.69.64.2 respec-
with the server IP address, an ARP response frame tively (hexadecimal: 3B 45 40 02) with laptop as
will be transmitted to the client. When the ICMP is the client in the test, whose MAC address and IP
received, an ICMP module will be booted by network address are F0 DE F1 B5 5E F8 and 59.69.64.169
control module for data analysis. If the ICMP message (hexadecimal: 3B 45 40 A9).
is a loopback request and the destination IP and MAC Figure 7 shows an ARP request simulation received.
address are both in conformity with that of the server, Signal list is on the left of simulation timing diagram,
a response frame for ICMP loopback request will be namely: enable signal written in reception caching
transmitted. RcvWrEn (active high), RcvWrData (16 bit mode)
If the IP frame data of the client is received by data written in reception caching by LAN91C111, signal
reception-transmission state machine and the protocol send busy (high level means being sent), sending data
type of IP frame header is UDP, a UDP receiver mod- value (16 bit mode) written by LAN91C111. As shown
ule will be booted by network control module for data in Figure 7, during RcvWrEn high level (from 40 ns
analysis. If the destination port number is in confor- shown in Cursor 1 to 250 ns shown in Cursor 2), 42
mity with the receiver port number, the frame header bytes are written in with the destination address as
of UDP protocol will be filtered out and the frame the broadcast address (0×FFFFFF) and the protocol
data will be transmitted to a demodulation system con- type as ARP request. The simulation result shows
trol module, which will conduct command parsing for that the function simulation of data reception state
the data transmitted by the client and then control the machine and reception caching is normal, which is
relevant hardware of a FBG demodulator. in conformity with the expected design goal.
If the data storage of demodulation data caching Figure 8 is an ARP response simulation transmit-
module exceeds 1,400 bytes in high-speed demodula- ted, which is the response signal for ARP request
tion algorithm, UDP transmitter module will be booted of Figure 7. As shown in Figure 8 below, during
by a network control module. Since the network frame send busy high level (from 1,565 ns shown in Cur-
data length is 46–1,500 bytes, the transmitting thresh- sor 5 to 3,070 ns shown in Cursor 6), 42 bytes are
old has been set as 1,400 bytes in the design, which written in LAN91C111 by the system with the des-
can make the network frame include data with maxi- tination address as the client and the protocol type
mum length and improve the data transmission rate. A as ARP response. The simulation result shows that
UDP transmitter module will encapsulate FBG sens- the function simulation of data transmission state
ing data in a UDP protocol frame, set the destination machine, the transmission caching, the ARP module,
port, calculate, verify, and fill in the UDP frame and and the network control module are normal, which is
then boot the IP transmitter module, which will encap- in conformity with the expected design goal.
sulate the UDP data received in IP protocol frame, For function simulation shown in Figure 7 and
calculate, verify, and fill in an IP frame, write in trans- Figure 8, most of modules are verified in the design,
mitting cache and wait for transmission by the data and the simulations of ICMP and UDP transceiver
reception-transmission state machine. modules are similar to the simulation process above.

27
 system. It designs a state machine-based hardware
driver for network chip LAN91C111 and crops the
standard TCP/IP protocol, based on the characteris-
tics of system data transmission, and it completes the
hardware designs for ARP, ICMP, IP and UDP proto-
cols for a TCP/IP protocol. Altera-Modelsim timing
Figure 9. Packet capture data of ARP and ICMP protocol.
simulation software is applied to functional simula-
tion in the design, so as to ensure the reliability of the
design. In hardware tests, a wireshark packet capture
tool is employed to obtain real-time network commu-
nication data, and to analyse the data in detail, so as
to ensure the accuracy of the design. Test results show
that a stable network transmission of FBG sensing data
can be assured by the design.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Figure 10. Packet capture data of UDP protocol.
This paper is supported by the National High Technol-
4.2 Hardware test ogy Research and Development Program (863 plan)
Connect FBG demodulation system to laptop with of China (No. 2012AA040106).
cable; download the generated .s of document com-
piled by QuartusII to FPGA; packet capture network
data with wireshark. REFERENCES
The packet capture data of the ARP protocol and Jeannot Frieden, Cugnoni Jo, Botsis John, et al. High-speed
ICMP protocol, which is shown in Figure 9, can be internal strain measurements in composite structures
obtained upon the input of command ping 59.69.64.2 under dynamic load using embedded FBG sensors [J].
in the cmd command prompt window in the laptop. Composite Structures, 2010, 92(8): 1905–1912.
The first line shown is ARP request data sent by the LAN91C111 Reference Manual [Z]. http://www.microchip.
computer to the demodulator; the second line is ARP com/wwwproducts/Devices.aspx?product
response data sent back by the demodulator; the fol- Liu M.Y., Zhou Z.D., Tan Y.G., et al. Fiber Bragg grating
lowing eight lines are successively ICMP loopback sensors-based mechanical structure damage identifica-
tion. [J]. Mechanika, 2012, 1:108–112.
data of the computer and the response data of the Li Zheng-ying, Xu Zhi-qiang, Tang Zhi-hao, et al.
demodulator. Research of high-speed FBG demodulation system for
Figure 10 shows the packet capture data of a UDP distributed dynamic monitoring of mechanical equip-
protocol. A UDP transmitter module will be booted ment [J]. Advances in Mechanical Engineering, 2013,
to send data to the computer when the FBG sensing 2013(107073): 1–8.
caching data of the demodulator reaches 1,400 bytes. Macro Esposito, Salvatore Buontempo, Angelo Petriccione,
The length of the network frame shown in the fig- et al. Fiber Bragg Grating sensors to measure the coef-
ure is 1,442 bytes with the data length of 1,400 bytes. ficient of thermal expansion of polymers at cryogenic
The FBG sensing value (with channel number as sim- temperatures [J]. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 2013,
189:195–203.
ulation numerical value to substitute sensing value) Richard S.W. TCP/IP Illustrated Volume 1: Protocol [M].
and the communication code value of a demodulation Translated by Fan Jianhua. Beijing: China Machine Press,
system are shown in the data area. Data with 99,265 2000.
frames is sent within 30.000294 s with the data length Wang L., Li D., and Ou J. Fiber Bragg grating temperature
of 1,442 bytes for each frame and with the network sensors system on a twin-deck continuous rigid frame
transmission rate calculated of 38.17 Mbps, which is bridge for long term monitoring [J]. Advanced Materials
in conformity with the maximum transmission rate Research, vol. 148–149, pp. 1611–1618, 2011.
required for the system (38.14 Mbps), calculated pre- Zhou Zu-de, Tan Yue-gang. Fiber Bragg Grating dis-
viously (since frame header data, except for sensor tributed dynamic monitoring and damage identification
of mechanical system [M]. Beijing: Science Press, 2013,
data, is also in the network frame, the measured 305–343.
transmission rate value is bigger than the calculation
value).

5 CONCLUSION

This paper introduces a FPGA-based network

data transmission method of a FBG demodulation

28
 Future Communication Technology and Engineering – Chan (Ed.)
© 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN: 978-1-138-02777-0

The development of multihomed node model interworking

with WLAN and WiMAX networks

Y. Wang & F. Ling

Department of Electronic and Information Engineering, Lishui University, Zhejiang Province, China

Y.M. Cheng
Department of Electric and Information Engineering, Beihua University, Jilin Province, China

ABSTRACT: This paper addresses the mobility simulation model of the multihomed node for supporting a
MIPv6 function in an interworking of Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) and IEEE
802.11 WLAN. The multihomed node model with two air interfaces is developed and based on WiMAX and
WLAN workstation node model in simulation software. The main point of this paper is to support the MIPv6
function and provide a new network selection policy for multihomed nodes to make a handover decision between
the WiMAX and the WLAN network. Finally, the simulation scenario and results are shown for testing and
developing multihomed node models and MIPv6 functions.

1 INTRODUCTION interfaces, but not on the cellular interface (e.g.,

WiMAX interface) [4].
With the exponential growth of wireless commu- With Karl Andersson and ANM Zaheduzzaman [5],
nications, it is well accepted that next generation the authors provided network selection and handover
wireless networks will be heterogeneous, providing timing with multihomed MIPv6 by suing Round-
users of multi-interface devices with the ability to Trip Times (RTT) and RTT jitter values, but without
roam between different access networks. It is worth OPNET fullTCP/IP stacks. Deguang Le and Xiaoming
mentioning that the increasing popularity of Wire- Fu [6] evaluated MIPv6 performance only in WLAN
less Local Area Network (WLAN) enabled devices network with wlan_wkstn_adv and wlan_server_adv
to have trigged interest in the development of sys- model. However, this paper creates a multihomed
tems that will integrate WLAN and cellular wide area node model based on wimax_ss_wkstn_adv and
data network technologies such as WiMAX or Uni- wlan_wkstn_adv node model in OPNET [7]. Unlike
versal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) other paper’s introduction, the network selection
with support for vertical handoffs between the dif- method utilizes the mathematical expression based on
ferent access networks [1]. Because of the demand the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI). We just
for efficient mechanism, mobile users will be able to modify the OPNET original C code to achieve two
experience ubiquitous data services and very high data final goals, one to support a MIPv6 function, the other
rates across heterogeneous networks by using WLANs to provide the network selection policy. In our network
as a complementary technology for next generation selection policy, we put the RA (Router Advertise-
cellular data networks, while providing the end user ment) message together with interface type obtained
continuous access [2]. from a received RA into the queue list in an IP layer
WiMAX Forum [3] believes that Mobile WiMAX once the RA is received. In comparison to the inter-
(IEEE 802.16e–2005) services will complement exist- face type, the IP layer determines the default network
ing and future broadband technologies such as WiFi, interface. It always prefers WLAN toWiMAX during
because both WLAN and WiMAX aim to pro- the overlapping area between WiMAX and WLAN
vide ubiquitous low cost broadband wireless internet network.
access. WLAN offers high data rates of 54 Mbps
within a 100 m range. It is mostly used within build-
2 OVERVIEW OF NETWORK TECHNOLOGIES
ings, whereas WiMAX offers high bandwidth 70 Mbps
wireless back haul in a 5 km range, generally covering
2.1 IEEE 802.16e mobile WiMAX
a large outdoor environment.
However, it should be noted that, at the time of The IEEE 802.16e standard [3] is a technology pro-
writing, the main problem for WiMAX and WiFi is posed to offer wireless access to network stations in
that the IPv6 is available only on WiFi and virtual a metropolitan area environment. These networks are

29
designed to operate at high data rates and to deal with
several applications, resulting in different types of traf-
fic profiles and demands. The motivation is to one day
provide at last a mile of broadband wireless access to
the general population; it is seeking to implement a
single standard for fixed broadband wireless access
and mobility with high scalability and a low cost of
deployment.

2.2 IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN

IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN is a flexible data commu-
nication system implemented as an extension to, or as
an alternative for, a wired LAN within a building or
campus using wireless radio technology. In WLAN
it combines data connectivity with user mobility,
through simplified configuration, and enables move-
able LANs, which allows users to take advantage of the
flexibility, convenience, and portability that WLAN
can provide.

3 SYSTEM MODEL AND NETWORK

SELECTION POLICY

3.1 The system model

Figure 1. Overview of the developed Multihomed node
The multihomed node model has been developed for model.
MIPv4/MIPv6 mobility simulation in WiMAX and
WLAN network. The developed node model has the
structure shown in Figure 1, in which there are two
WiMAX and WLAN interfaces. In Figure 1, in the
protocol stack of the multihomed model, the network
interface selection algorithm is implemented in an IP
layer to determine one of the interfaces through which
a higher layer transmits packets while the handover
happens.
For testing the developed multihomed node model
and MIPv6 function, the multihomed node runs in Figure 2. Multihomed node tested network architecture.
the interworking of WiMAX and WLAN network, as
shown in Figure 2. – If it is empty, insert the rx_RA in the first position
of the list, and then start the timer.
3.2 The network selection policy – Or else, check the list that already has the same
rx_RA or not. If yes, just restart the timer of
In our multihomed node model, it is equipped with the corresponding rx_RA_entry in the list. If no,
two access interfaces. Whenever handover happens it is the different rx_RA we got. By comparing
between WiMAX and WLAN, the IP layer should the rx_interface number of the new rx_RA with
decide from which interface the higher data packet the rx_interface number of each entry in the list,
should be transmitted. In order to distinguish the mul- we find out the correct position and put this new
tiple interfaces, we bind the received RA (Router rx_RA into this position in the ordered list.
Advertisement) message together with the received
interface number into the ordered list. By comparing It is worth highlighting that whether the list already
the received RA with the interface number, the net- has the same rx_RA or not in Figure 3, which can be
work access interfaces can be efficiently managed in decided in IP layer by multihomed node. For instance,
ordered list, which is illustrated in Figure 3. Hereafter, the mobile node in MIPv6 network obtains its care-of-
the flow chart of the network selection policy between address by receiving a router advertisement message.
WiMAX and WLAN is described. From the receipt of the router advertisement message,
In Figure 3, there are four cases from which to the mobile node determines that it has connected with
choose WLAN and WiMAX access networks. While a foreign link because the router advertisements con-
the multihomed node receives rx_RA: tain new network prefixes. Hence, according to this
received network prefix, the IP layer will determine
– After receiving rx_RA, check whether the list is whether this received RA is the same as the previous
empty or not. received RA or not.

30
Figure 3. Illustration of network selection policy.

Here we should say, the multihomed node can

be attached to multiple networks simultaneously
(WiMAX/WLAN) while staying in the overlapping
area between WiMAX and WLAN networks. In gen-
eral network design, the multihomed node will, by
default, be chosen from an ordered list of available
interfaces. However, in our designed network selec-
tion policy, it is worth highlighting that the first entry
is always the default access network in the ordered
list. Note that, the default network connection policy
will always prefer WLAN over WiMAX in our design,
which can be seen in the following Figure 4.
In order to better understanding this network selec-
tion policy, an example of how to manage the access
interface in ordered list is shown in Figure 4. Note
that in Figure 4, we assume that multihomed node
Figure 4. An example of managing access interfaces in an
(MN) is moving from point A to point B throughout ordered list.
the entire WiMAX and WLAN network. The right side
of Figure 4 is the updated rx_RA list. – When the MN arrives at the overlapped region of
AP2, BS1 and BS2, AP2_RA will be inserted as the
– Put the first BS1_RA in the ordered list.
first entry in the list because WLAN is preferred
– When getting the new RA from AP1, we compare
over WiMAX.
AP1_RA with BS1_RA, then put AP1_RA in the
– When the MN continues to move to point B, entry
first position. Then we change to WLAN network.
AP2 and BS1 will be deleted in order from the list.
Even though BS1_RA timeout has not occurred,
– Finally, when the MN moves out of BS2, the rx_RA
we prefer the WLAN over WiMAX, so it should be
for BS2 would be deleted.
changed.
– When the MN moves out of WLAN, the AP1_entry An example of network selection policy is shown
would be deleted because of AP1_RA timeout in Figure 5. Once the IP layer received RA, it would
and the default access network becomes WiMAX record a receiving interface type together with RA,
network again. and then inserted it into the sorted list. After con-
– When the MN gets into the overlapped area of BS1 tinuing to receive RA, this could be the same as or
and BS2, BS2_RA is attached after BS1_RA in different from the first recorded RA, and the IP layer
the list. will compare these two RAs. As Figure 5 explains, for

31
Figure 5. An example of new network selection policy.

Figure 6. Network selection policy code.

Figure 8. Handover in WiMAX and WLAN in MIPv6

network.

for obtaining the received interface index, which set in

Figure 7. Obtained Rx interface index through which the the ARP layer, is shown in Figure 7. We modified the
RA was received. ARP layer code to add intf_recvd_index field informa-
tion in an ICI packet format. When the IP layer gets
instance, the interface number of rcd_RA2 is 1, which the packet from the ARP layer, it will parse this packet
is larger than rcd_RA1 (its value is 0). Therefore, we to get the intf_recvd_index value in this ICI field.
put the rcd_RA2 in the first queue list. Next, the inter-
face number of rcd_RA3 (its value is 1) is the same as
rcd_RA2, but we put it after the rcd_RA2. IP layer will 4 SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
access the rcd_RA2 first, after rcd_RA2 is invalid, the
pointer will move to rcd_RA3. In order to verify that our developed multihomed node
Here we should also emphasize that a multihomed can support both MIPv4 and MIPv6 mobility func-
node can be attached to multiple networks simulta- tions, we create two BSs (Base Station) in WiMAX and
neously (WiMAX/WLAN) during overlapping area two APs (Access Point) in WLAN as shown in Figure
between WiMAX and WLAN network. In this case, the 2. The multihomed node starts moving from WiMAX
multihomed node will, by default, be chosen from an network, and then it goes through the WLAN network.
ordered list of available interfaces. In our designed net- In the MIPv6 simulation results, Figure 8a depicts
work selection policy, the default network connection that the UDP traffics are almost received compared
policy will prefer WLAN over WiMAX. with UDP traffic sent, but it still experiences very
Part of the network selection policy code is also few packet losses during the handover period in the
shown in Figure 6. From Figure 6, we can see that WiMAX and WLAN networks. In Figure 8b, the trans-
the user policy to choose the preferred interface is mission of data packets through the WLAN interface
WLAN first, and then it chooses the WiMAX inter- starting after the handover from WiMAX to WLAN
face according to the interface index value. The code has happened. Both WiMAX throughput and WLAN

32
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