STEEL,

GLASS and
PLASTIC
In Building Construction
 PLASTIC IN BC
METAL, GLASS AND
● UNIT - 1

METAL, GLASS AND PLASTIC IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

What is Metal?
 METAL
Metals are substances that form
naturally below the surface of the
Earth.

Most metals are lustrous or shiny.

Metals are inorganic, which

means they are made of
substances that were never alive.
Metals are elements or compounds that exhibit certain properties, including:

Luster: Metals have a shiny appearance due to their ability to reflect light.
Conductivity: They typically conduct heat and electricity well due to the
presence of free electrons.
Malleability: Metals can be hammered or pressed into different shapes
without breaking.
Ductility: They can be drawn into wires without breaking.
High density: Metals are usually dense materials.
Solid at room temperature: Except for mercury, which is a liquid at room
temperature.
TYPES OF METALS
What are the metals used in

building construction……???
 CONSTRUCTION
BUILDING
METALS USED IN
COMMON
01
IRON

02
ALUMINIUM

03
COPPER

04
BRASS

05
STEEL
etc…..
USES OF METALS
IN BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
Metals have played a crucial role
in architecture for centuries,
offering durability, strength, and
versatility in design. Here are
some ways in which metals are
used in architecture:
Structural Elements:
Structural Elements: Metals like
steel is commonly used as
structural elements in buildings
due to their high
strength-to-weight ratio. They
provide support for the building's
framework, allowing for large,
open spaces without the need for
excessive columns or walls.
Roofing and Cladding:
Metal roofing and cladding
materials, such as steel,
aluminum, copper, and zinc, offer
durability, weather resistance, and
aesthetic appeal. They come in
various profiles and finishes,
allowing architects to achieve
different looks and styles for
buildings.
Facade Systems:
Metal facade systems, including
curtain walls, panels, and louvers,
are popular for their modern
appearance and ability to provide
thermal insulation and weather
protection. They can be made
from aluminum, steel, or
composite materials and often
incorporate features like
perforations or patterns for visual
interest.
Decorative Elements:
Metals are used for decorative
purposes in architectural design,
including ornamental features,
railings, gates, and sculptures.
Materials like wrought iron,
bronze, and stainless steel offer
both aesthetic appeal and
longevity.
Fenestration:
Metal frames for windows, doors,
and curtain walls are common in
modern architecture. Aluminum is
a popular choice for fenestration
due to its lightweight, strength,
and resistance to corrosion.
Interior Finishes:
Metals are used for interior
finishes, such as wall panels,
ceilings, and decorative accents.
Materials like stainless steel,
brass, and copper can add a touch
of elegance and sophistication to
interior spaces.
Sustainability:
Metals are often chosen for their
recyclability and sustainability in
architecture. Many metal
materials can be recycled at the
end of their lifecycle, reducing the
environmental impact of
construction projects.
EIFFEL TOWER
GHERKIN TOWER
BEIJING NATIONAL STADIUM
GATEWAY ARCH GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE
INTRODUCTION
Metals form about a quarter of the earth crust by weight.

One of the earliest material used dated back to prehistoric time.

Some of the earliest metals used include:

copper, bronze and iron

Stone age 🡪 Bronze age 🡪 Iron Age… 🡪discovery of steel

🡪Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.
All metals except gold are generally found chemically combined with other elements in the form of oxides and sulphates. Commonly
known as ores.

Metal that are not mixed with any other materials are known as pure metals.
E.g. Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu) and Zinc (Zn).

Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals formed together

with other elements/materials to create new metals with improved Mechanical Properties and other properties of the base metal.
E.g. Brass (Copper and Zinc), Stainless steel (steel and chromium)
 METALS

CLASSIFICATION
FERROUS NON -
FERROUS
IRON ALUMINIUM

COPPER

BRASS

TIN

ZINC
Ferrous Metals & Non-Ferrous Metals
Ferrous metals are metals that contain iron.

Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain iron.

(non-ferrous may contain slight traces of iron)

Ferrous Metals Non- Ferrous Metals

Iron Aluminum

Low Carbon Steel Copper

Medium Carbon Steel Brass

High Carbon Steel Bronze

Cast Iron Zinc

Stainless Steel Lead

Tool Steels Tin

NON - FERROUS
METALS

ALUMINIUM
Aluminium is a silvery-white,
lightweight metal. It is soft and
malleable.
Properties
Lightweight
Corrosion Resistance
High Strength-to-Weight Ratio
Thermal Conductivity
Recyclability
Design Flexibility

Uses
Cladding and Roofing
Windows and Doors
Curtain Walls
Interior Finishes
HVAC Systems
 NON - FERROUS
METALS

COPPER
It is a soft, malleable, and ductile
metal with very high thermal and
electrical conductivity.
Properties
Aesthetic Appeal
Corrosion Resistance
Thermal Conductivity
Electrical Conductivity
Malleability and Ductility
Antimicrobial Properties
Recyclability

Uses
Electrical Wiring
Cladding and Facades
Fixtures and Fittings
Roofing
Interior Design Elements
Rainwater Systems
Piping and Plumbing
NON - FERROUS
METALS

BRASS
Brass is a metal alloy of
copper and zinc
Properties
Aesthetic Appeal
Corrosion Resistance
Durability
Malleability and Formability
Antibacterial Properties
Recyclability

Uses
Architectural Detailing
Cladding and Facades
Fixtures and Fittings
Roofing and Flashings
Interior Design Elements
Musical Instruments
 History of Iron in Building Construction
Ancient Civilizations: Iron was initially used sparingly in ancient civilizations such as the Hittites, Egyptians, Greeks,
and Romans for decorative and structural purposes.

Medieval Period: Iron became more prevalent in architecture during the medieval period, primarily for ironmongery
like hinges, locks, and nails, contributing to the functionality and security of structures.

Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution saw significant advancements in iron production techniques, leading
to the widespread use of wrought iron in construction and the development of iron bridges, such as the Iron Bridge in
England.

Modern Era: Steel emerged as a dominant material in building construction during the late 19th and early 20th
centuries due to innovations in steel production processes. Steel's strength and flexibility revolutionized architectural
design, enabling the construction of iconic skyscrapers and bridges.

Contemporary Applications: In contemporary architecture, iron and steel continue to play crucial roles, offering
versatility, strength, and sustainability. They are often used in combination with other materials to create innovative and
efficient building designs.
 METALS

CLASSIFICATION
FERROUS NON -
FERROUS
IRON ALUMINIUM

COPPER
PIG IRON
BRASS
CAST IRON WROUGHT STEEL
IRON TIN

ZINC
 IRON
Iron is a lustrous, ductile, malleable,
silver-gray metal
 Iron ores
The iron itself is usually found
Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron
in the form of magnetite, can be economically extracted. The ores are usually rich in
hematite, goethite, limonite iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow,
deep purple, to rusty red.
or siderite.
Iron is by for the most important of the metals used in
Ores carrying very high quantities of hematite or engineering construction. It is available in abundance,
magnetite (greater than ~60% iron) but does not occur freely in nature.
are known as "natural ore" or "direct shipping The ores of iron are classed according to the iron mineral
ore", meaning they can be fed directly into which is predominant.
iron-making blast furnaces. The iron content of the main ores are as follows:
Magnetite (Fe3O4) — 70–75%,
Haematite (Fe2O3) — 70%,
Limonite (2Fe3O3.3H2O) — 60%, it is hydrated
haematite, Iron pyrite (FeS3) — 47%, and
Siderite (FeCO3) — 40%

The fundamental chemical principles in the extraction of

iron from the ores is very simple. Heating the ores in the
Iron ore pellets Hematite: the main iron ore presence of a reducing agent will result in the formation
of CO or CO2, librated as a gas, and metallic iron. Iron
owes its greatest utility to the fact that it alloys freely with
Manufacture of iron ore
Iron is extracted using blast furnace.

Steps in extraction of iron:

▪ Ores is washed, crushed and mixed with limestone and

coke.
▪ The mixture is fed into the furnace and is then melted.
▪ Coke(a product of coal, mainly carbon) is used to convert
the iron oxides to iron.
▪ Limestone helps to separate the impurities from the metal.
▪ The liquid waste is known as slag that floats on the
molten iron.
▪ They are then tapped off (separated)
▪ The iron produced is only about 90% to 95% pure.
▪ The iron is then further refined using the basic oxygen
furnace and the electric arc furnace to produce steel
which is widely used now.

blast furnace
Ore, coke, and limestone are “charged” in layers into the top of a blast
furnace.
Ore is the source of the iron , Coke is the source of the carbon (coke is
derived from coal, by heating in a coking oven)
Limestone acts as a fluxing slag to remove impurities like sulphur and
silica.
1100-deg. air blown into bottom of furnace, burns oxygen off the iron
oxides, causing temperature in furnace to get above the melting point
of iron. (approx 3000 degrees)

Molten iron sinks to bottom of furnace, where it is tapped off from

furnace and cast into large ingots called “pigs”…pigs contain high
carbon content (4% or so), plus many impurities, such as sulphur and
silica which wasn’t removed by the limestone.
 TYPES OF IRON
PIG IRON
The most impure form of Iron
obtained in a blast furnace is known as
pig iron.

CAST IRON
After melting pig iron using a hot
air blast, cast iron is obtained which
contains less carbon content and is
extremely hard and brittle.

WROUGHT IRON
Wrought iron is the purest form of
iron. It is the purest form of iron, with
0.12 to 0.25% carbon.
PIG IRON

Pig iron, also known as crude iron, is an intermediate good used by the iron industry in
the production of steel. It is developed by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.

Pig iron has a high carbon content, typically 3.8–4.7%, along with silica and other
constituents, which makes it brittle and not useful directly as a material except for
limited applications.
PIG IRON
Pig iron is the product of smelting iron ore.

It has a very high carbon content from 3.5 to 4.5

percent and hence are highly brittle and hard.

Pig iron is not pure iron. It also consists of various

impurities like sulfur, silica, and phosphorous.

Pig iron contains 3–4% carbon, 0.5–3.5% silicon,

0.5–2% manganese, 0.02–0.1% sulphur and
0.03–1% Phosphorus

Pig iron is not a saleable product. It is an

intermediate product formed during the production
of wrought iron, steel, and cast iron from iron ore.
Manufacture of Pig Iron
Three distinct operations are involved.
1)Dressing
2)Calcination and roasting
3)Smelting.

DRESSING:
The iron ores as obtained from mines are crushed into pieces of sizes
of 25 mm diameter.
This is achieved in the rock crushers of ordinary type.
The crushing of ores helps in two ways.
i)The ore particles of uniform size are obtained.
ii)The reducing gases penetrate the ores better way.

If ores contain clay,loam and other earthy matter,they are washed in a

stream to remove such impurities.

The perforated trays may be kept in water to remove pebbles and sand.

To work in dry condition, the magnetic separators are used to remove

the impurities contained in the iron ores.
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Manufacture of Pig Iron
2)CALCINATION AND ROASTING: 3)SMELTING:

After the iron ores are dressed,they are calcined and The melting so as to separate metal from ore is
roasted. known as the smelting.

The calcination consists in heating ores in presence It is carried out in a special type of furnace,known
of air so that they are oxidized. as the blast furnace.

The water and carbondioxide are removed from ores It is in form of vertical cylinder.
by calcination.

The roasting consists of making the ores hot and

very dry.

It is adopted to dissipate the volatile parts,especially

sulphur,by heat.

Hence the roasting will not be necessary,if ore is an

oxide.

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Properties of Pig iron
▪It is weak and brittle.
▪It can’t be welded.
▪It is difficult to bend.
▪It has a low melting point ( 12000C) as compared to steel ( 1400+).

Uses of Pig iron

▪It is used to make cast iron ,wrought iron, steel after refining.
▪It is used for making column, base plate, bracket.
▪Airplanes use pig iron as a cheap, dense ballast that can be moved around as needed.
▪It can be used to craft simple, decorative metal pieces used for external building
decoration.

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CAST IRON

Cast iron is formed by melting and remelting the iron and mixing it with scrap metals
and other alloys.

The liquid mixture is then poured into molds, cooled, and then solidified.

Hence, compared to wrought iron, instead of deforming the iron into the required
shape, the shape is easily molded using cast iron.
CAST IRON
Cast iron has high carbon content from 2 to 4%,
along with other iron constituents.

Due to the high carbon content and the way it is

cast, they are very brittle, hard, and
non-malleable.

Cast iron cannot be bent, stretched, or hammered

into the required shape.

It has weak tensile strength, therefore it

undergoes fracture before it deforms or fractures.
The properties of cast iron
▪Cast iron has good compressive strength but relatively poor tensile strength.
▪The casting process enables the production of complex shapes.
▪Resistance to oxidation.
▪Resistance to deformation.
Uses of Cast Iron

Cookware
Cookware, such as skillets, pots and pans, is one of the common uses of cast iron. Once the cookware is cured, it
seals in the seasoning of the foods cooked in them and even adds iron to the diet.
Cooking Utensils
Cooking utensils for stove-top and outdoor cooking are also constructed of cast iron. Many of these cast-iron
cooking utensils include spoons, grill presses and tongs.

Construction
Industrial and residential construction used cast iron on buildings, especially for beams and posts that hold up architectural
structures. Cast iron is also used in pipe plumbing.
Bridges
In the late 1700s, bridges constructed in Europe and the United States used cast iron as their primary building material.

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WROUGHT IRON

Wrought iron is produced by remelting the pig iron in the puddling furnace.

It is made by repeatedly heating and working it with tools to deform it to the required
shape.

It is hence also called worked iron.

 WROUGHT IRON
Wrought iron is corrosion resistant. They
have been used extensively by blacksmiths
for traditional "wrought iron" products.

They are used to make chains, crane

hooks, fences, gates, and carpenter
tools.
Properties of Wrought iron
▪A clear bluish color with a high silky luster and fibrous appearance.
▪Wrought iron has better tensile strength than cast iron and is more ductile.
▪Because of the nature of the puddling process that was used to produce the material, wrought iron
was produced in small volumes.
▪Wrought iron was more expensive than cast iron and could not be moulded into the kind of ornate
shapes characteristic of cast iron.

Uses of Wrought iron

Fences, Gates, Railings
Balconies
Porches and Verandahs
Canopies
Roof cresting
Lamps
Grilles
Hardware 49
 IRON ORE

FERROUS METALS
Blast Furnace

PIG IRON

Cupola Furnace Puddling Furnace Bessemer Converter

Open-hearth Furnace
Electric Furnace
Basic Oxygen Process

CAST IRON WROUGHT IRON STEEL

STEEL
an alloy of iron and carbon
Introduction
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with improved
strength and fracture resistance compared to other
forms of iron

The carbon content of steel is between 0.02% and

2.14%

Steel is one of the world's most-recycled materials,

with a recycling rate of over 60% globally
Manufacture of Steel
 2

Cast Iron Steel

 Properties of Steel
Weldability

Corrosion resistance

Strength

Toughness

Ductility

Machinability

Hardenability

Electrical resistivity and conductivity

Durability

Elongation

Good forming properties

Malleability
 Uses of Structural Steel

Basic products of steel such as

Plate,
Section and
Bars

From this members are fabricated

Beams,
Girders,
Columns,
Struts, ties etc.
Manufacture of Steel
 TYPES OF STEEL
Carbon Steels Tool Steels

Alloy Steels Stainless Steels

Classification of steel
 Carbon Steel
Carbon Steels are a type of steel that contain carbon as the main alloying element.

They are known for their strength and durability, and are widely used in construction,
automotive and other industrial applications.

The carbon content in carbon steels can vary with 0.15% - 2.1%.

The properties of carbon steels can be modified through heat treatment processes
such as quenching and tempering.

Types of carbon steel - Low carbon Steel, Medium carbon & High carbon steel
 Low Carbon Steel
Properties
Low carbon steel contains approximately 0.15–0.29% carbon and mild steel contains
0.16–0.29% carbon; making it malleable and ductile, but it cannot be hardened by heat
treatment.

Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and malleable; surface
hardness can be increased through carburizing

Uses of mild/low carbon steel

automobile body components
structural shape
pipes,
construction and bridge components
 Medium Carbon Steel
Properties
Medium carbon steel has a carbon content of 0.30 – 0.60 wt.% and a manganese
content of 0.60 – 1.65 wt.%. The mechanical properties of this steel are improved
via heat treatment involving autenitising followed by quenching and tempering,
giving them a martensitic microstructure.
Heat treatment can only be performed on very thin sections

Medium carbon steel can be used in the making of:

Shafts
Axles
Gears
Crankshafts
 High Carbon Steel
Properties

High carbon steel has a carbon content of 0.60– 1.25 wt.% and a manganese
content of 0.30 – 0.90 wt.%. It has the highest hardness and toughness of the
carbon steels and the lowest ductility.
High-carbon steels are very wear resistant as a result of the fact that they are almost
always hardened and Tempered.

Common application of high carbon steel

forging grades
rail steels
spring steels
pre-stressed concrete
wire rope
 Alloy Steel
Alloy steel is created in order to further improve the properties of steel by
combining iron and carbon with other alloys.

The elements that impart distinctive characteristics to steel are added to

iron to produce an alloy steel named after the element added
Prepared to increase strength, hardness, toughness, resistance to
corrosion and thermal and electrical conductivities
 EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Carbon (C) +Strength +Hardenability -Toughness

Chromium(Cr) +Strength +Hardenability +Corrosion Resistance -Toughness

Molybdenum(Mo) +Strength +Hardenability +Toughness +Hot Hardness

Vanadium(V) +Hardenability +Toughness +Hot Hardness +Wear

Tungsten (W) +Strength +Hardenability +Hot Hardness -Toughness

Cobalt(Co) +Hot Hardness +Wear -Toughness

Manganese(Mn) +Strength +Hardenability +Toughness

Nickel(Ni) +Hardenability +Toughness +Corrosion Resistance

 Types of Alloy Steels
HIGH SPEED STEELS

HIGH TEMPERATURE STEELS

MAGNETIC STEELS

CRYOGENIC STEELS

STAINLESS STEELS
 Comparison between Cast Iron, Wrought Iron & Steel

Cast Iron Wrought Iron Steel

Composition Crude form containing Purest Midway
2-4% carbon Contains up to 0.25%
carbon
Melting point 1200 degree Celsius 1500 degree 1300-1400 degree
Celsius Celsius

Hardness Hard, hardened by Cannot be Can be hardened &

heating & sudden hardened or tempered
cooling tempered
Comp. strength Compressive strength Comp strength
Strength 4.75 -25.2 tonnes/ sq
6.3-7.1 tonnes/sq cm is 2.0 tonnes/sq cm
and ultimate tensile cm
Ultimate tensile
strength 1.26 to strength 3.15 Ultimate tensile
1.57tonnes/sq cm. tonnes/sq cm strength is 5.51 to
11.02 t /sq m
 Comparison between Cast Iron, Wrought Iron & Steel

Cast Iron Wrought Iron Steel

Rusting Does not rust Rusts more than Rusts easily
easily Cast Iron
Malleability Brittle & cannot be Tough, malleable, Tough, malleable &
welded or rolled into ductile & moderately Ductile
Ductility
sheets elastic

Reaction to Does not absorb Cannot stand Absorbs shocks

sudden shock shocks heavy shocks

Forging & Brittle and cannot Easily forged or Rapidly forged or

Welding be welded or rolled welded welded
into sheets
Comparison between Cast Iron, Wrought Iron & Steel

Cast Iron Wrought Iron Steel

Uses For parts that rust Costlier than mild Used as
easily like water steel so being reinforcement in
pipes, sewers, drain replaced by the R.B. & R.C.C.
pipes etc. latter Used in making St.
Making such parts of Withstand shocks members, bolts,
machines as are not without permanent rivets and sheets
likely to be subjects to injury so used in (plain and
shocks or tension chains, crane corrugated)
Lamp posts, hooks and railway Making cutlery,
columns and couplings files & machine
railings tools
 Hot rolled sections

Structural
steel
sections
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Uses of Steel Sections
The following are the most common uses of steel sections:

For Angled Sections – Many industries use angled portions, including building, infrastructure, mining, and
transportation.
For Channels – This hollow section is utilised for applications with a consistently distributed load and minimal
moment/bending. This section excels as a secondary structural member, where loading passes to primary
members, such as transverse joists for supporting the floor, purlins for supporting the roof trusses, studs for
framing the walls, supporting members for ceiling assemblies, etc.
For HSS Section – The most general applications for this part include columns, shafts, and similar structural
elements.
For T Sections – Used frequently as a connection member between I-shaped or other shapes, a secondary
beam member, a chord member in trusses and the primary member of a built-up member, an end diaphragm
member in a bridge girder system, etc. 79
Applications of Structural Steel
Structural sections: these provide a strong, stiff frame for the building and
make up 25% of the steel use in buildings.

Reinforcing bars: these add tensile strength and stiffness to concrete and
make up 44% of steel use in buildings. Steel is used because it binds well to
concrete, has a similar thermal expansion coefficient and is strong and
relatively cost-effective. Reinforced concrete is also used to provide deep
foundations and basements and is currently the world’s primary building
material.

Sheet products: 31% is in sheet products such as roofing, purlins, internal

walls, ceilings, cladding, and insulating panels for exterior walls.
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Advantages of Structural Steel
In design:

Large spans
With columns of small sections
Great building heights and high load bearing
capacity
Combined with low dead weight of
the structure
Structural systems in which openings can be
easily provided

To simplify installation of services

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Advantages of Structural Steel
In construction In use

Prefabrication and erection of components Greater Flexibility

Shorter construction time Limited no. of internal supports

Ease in fixing and cladding Increasing effective life of building

Erection independent of weather conditions Ease in dismantling.

Modest demand on space on the site

Dry construction
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Corrosion

Corrosion is defined as a natural

process that causes the
transformation of pure metals
into undesirable substances
when they react with substances
like water or air.

This reaction causes damage and disintegration of the metal, starting

from the portion of the metal exposed to the environment and
spreading to the entire bulk of the metal.
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Prevention of Corrosion
1. Coal Tarring
2. Electro Platings
3. Embedding in Cement Concrete
4. Enamelling
5. Galvanizing
6. Metal Spraying
7. Painting
8. Tin Plating and Terne Plating.

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Fire Protection of Steel
Where the inherent fire resistance of the
steel is less than that necessary to meet the
requirements for structural stability for the
building, additional precautions must be
taken.

This usually takes the form of applied fire

protection which insulates the steel from the
increasing temperatures.

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Intumescent Coating

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Flexible Blanket Systems

Flexible blanket systems offer combined fire,

thermal and acoustic insulation and produce
no toxic smoke at high temperatures. They
are a lightweight and versatile product that
can be easy to install even on complex
shapes.

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Rigid Board Fireproofing

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STAINLESS
STEEL
an alloy of iron and carbon
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 GLASS
Glass as a building material. Brief history of its use through examples. Manufacture, properties and uses
of glass. Types of glass - float glass, cast glass, glass blocks, foamed glass, decorative glass, solar control,
toughened glass, wired glass, laminated glass, fire-resistant glass, glass blocks, structural glass. Glass and
energy efficiency in buildings. Current innovations
 GLASS AS A BUILDING
MATERIAL(Minimal weight and
maximum size is the motto)
● Glass, an inorganic solid material that is usually transparent or translucent as well as hard, brittle, and impervious to the
natural elements. Glass has been made into practical and decorative objects since ancient times, and it is still very
important in applications as disparate as building construction, housewares, and telecommunications. It is made by
cooling molten ingredients such as silica sand with sufficient rapidity to prevent the formation of visible crystals.
● Glass today, has become an integral part of modern day architecture.
● Using glass in a building instantly adds a touch of modernity to the living space.
● It not only gives the designers the choice of finish and a manifestation to their design aspirations, but also a wonderful
chance to participate with the outside world.
● Glass, in fact, is the only building material which can not only give see-through properties but also the desired structural
strength to be used in facades.
● glass is the choice for constructing lighter buildings. It also works for serious load reduction on the foundation, versus
brick.
● In good times, modern glass products have proved their sustainability, ease of maintenance while meeting new
requirements of thermal insulation.
● Glass elements in architectural design are adding a touch of class to green concerns, both emotional and
environmental.
● Contemporary and with a style of its own – Glass architecture is gaining popularity as its free flowing nature meets
contemporary requirements of fashion trends of glazed facades, adaptability to elements like color and prints and
innovations fitting into architectural regulations.
 GLASS AS A BUILDING
MATERIAL(Minimal weight and
maximum size is the motto)
 A BRIEF HISTORY OF GLASS IN THE
BUILDING INDUSTRY
● Glass blowing(Glassblowing, the practice of shaping a mass of glass that has been softened by heat by blowing air
into it through a tube) was discovered in the 1st century in Europe, this revolutionized the glass making industry.
● The technique spread throughout the Roman Empire.
● Production of Clear glass, by introduction of manganese dioxide, saw glass being used for architectural purposes.
● Cast glass windows began to appear in the most important buildings and villas in Rome and Pompeii.
● Over the next 1,000 years glass making spread through all of Europe and Middle East.
● In 7th century Anglo Saxon glass(This window with its haloed figure was reconstructed from pieces of glass) was
used in churches and cathedrals
● By 11th century sheet glass(sheet glass is a type of glass, initially produced in plane form) was made by the crown
glass process. (To make crown glass, blowers took a gob of molten glass and blew it into the shape of a very large
balloon)
● In this process, the glassblower would spin molten glass at the end of a rod until it flattened into a disk.
● The disk would then be cut into panes.
● By 13th century, this technique was perfected in Venice.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF GLASS IN THE
BUILDING INDUSTRY
 A BRIEF HISTORY OF GLASS IN THE
BUILDING INDUSTRY
● Stain glass windows were used in gothic renaissance and baroque architecture from the 11th to the 18th
century.
● The examples of stunning patterns created by using colorful glass are immortalized by great artists all
over the world.
● The Crown glass process was used up to the mid-19th century. in the 19th century, flat / sheet glass
windows were used in making windows.
● These were completely flat and did not have any optical distortions.
● But glass was still an item of luxury as it took large resources, brilliant skill and immense energy to be
produced.
● In 1958 Pilkington and Bickerstaff introduced the revolutionary float glass process to the world. This
method gave the sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces.
● Modern windows are made from float glass.
● Glass has been a fascinating material to humankind since it was first made in about 500 BC.
● It is one of the most versatile and oldest materials in the building industry.
● From its humble beginnings as a window pane in luxury houses of Pompeii to sophisticated structural
members in new age buildings, its role in architecture has evolved over the years.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF GLASS IN THE BUILDING INDUSTRY
● Until the 16th century, window glass or other flat glass was generally cut from large discs (or rondels) of crown glass. Larger sheets of
glass were made by blowing large cylinders which were cut open and flattened, then cut into panes. Most window glass in the early
19th century was made using the cylinder method. The 'cylinders' were 6 to 8 feet (180 to 240 cm) long and 10 to 14 inches (25 to
36 cm) in diameter, limiting the width that panes of glass could be cut, and resulting in windows divided by transoms into rectangular
panels.

● The first advances in automating glass manufacturing were patented in 1848 by Henry Bessemer.His system produced a continuous
ribbon of flat glass by forming the ribbon between rollers. This was an expensive process, as the surfaces of the glass needed polishing.
If the glass could be set on a perfectly smooth, flat body, like the surface of an open pan of calm liquid, this would reduce costs
considerably. Attempts were made to form flat glass on a bath of molten tin—one of the few liquids denser than glass that would be
calm at the high temperatures needed to make glass—most notably in the US. Several patents were granted, but this process was
unworkable at the time.

● Before the development of float glass, larger sheets of plate glass were made by casting a large puddle of glass on an iron surface, and
then polishing both sides, a costly process. From the early 1920s, a continuous ribbon of plate glass was passed through a lengthy
series of inline grinders and polishers, reducing glass losses and cost.

● Glass of lower quality, drawn glass, was made by drawing upwards from a pool of molten glass a thin sheet, held at the edges by rollers.
As it cooled the rising sheet stiffened and could then be cut. The two surfaces were of lower quality i.e. not as smooth or uniform as
those of float glass. This process continued in use for many years after the development of float glass.

● Between 1953 and 1957, Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers developed the first successful
commercial application for forming a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered
under the influence of gravity. The success of this process lay in the careful balance of the volume of glass fed onto the bath, where it
was flattened by its own weight.Full scale profitable sales of float glass were first achieved in 1960, and in the 1960s the process was
 GLASS - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
● Pilkington process was invented by Sir Alistair Pilkington in 1952 and is the most popular and widely
used process that describes how to make glass for architectural purposes in the world today
GLASS - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
GLASS - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
GLASS - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
● It consists of the following steps:
● Stage 1- Melting & Refining:
● Fine grained ingredients closely controlled for quality, are mixed to make a batch, which flows into the furnace, which is heated
up to 1500 degree Celsius.
● This temperature is the melting point of glass.
● The raw materials that float glass is made up of are:
● SiO2 – Silica Sand
● Na2O – Sodium Oxide from Soda Ash
● CaO – Calcium oxide from Limestone / Dolomite
● MgO – Dolomite
● Al2O3 – Feldspar
● The above raw materials primarily mixed in batch helps to make clear glass. If certain metal oxides are mixed to this batch
they impart colors to the glass giving it a body tint.
● For e.g.
● NiO & CoO – to give grey tinted glasses (Oxides of Nickel & Cobalt)
● SeO – to give Bronze tinted glasses (oxide of Selenium)
● Fe2O3 – To give Green tinted glasses (oxides of iron which at times is also present as impurity in Silica Sand)
● CoO – To give blue tinted glass (oxides of Cobalt)
● Apart from the above basic raw material, broken glass aka cullet, is added to the mixture to the tune of nearly 25% ~ 30%
which acts primarily as flux. The flux in a batch helps in reducing the melting point of the batch thus reducing the energy
consumed to carry out the process.
 GLASS - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
● Stage 2 - Float Bath:
● Glass from the furnace gently flows over the refractory spout on to the mirror-like surface of
molten tin, starting at 1100 deg Celsius and leaving the float bath as solid ribbon at 600 deg
Celsius.
● Stage 3 - Coating (for making reflective glasses):
● Coatings that make profound changes in optical properties can be applied by advanced high
temperature technology to the cooling ribbon of glass.
● Online Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) is the most significant advance in the float process
since it was invented.
● CVD can be used to lay down a variety of coatings, a few microns thick, for reflect visible and
infra-red radiance for instance.
● Multiple coatings can be deposited in the few seconds available as the glass flows beneath the
coater (e.g. Sunergy is a hard coat pyrolitic Low E glass offering unique aesthetics, high light
transmission and low reflectivity.)
Stage 4 - Annealing:
● Despite the tranquillity with which the glass is formed, considerable stresses are developed in the
ribbon as the glass cools.
● The glass is made to move through the annealing lehr where such internal stresses are removed,
as the glass is cooled gradually, to make the glass more prone to cutting.
 GLASS - MANUFACTURING PROCESS
● Stage 5 - Inspection:
● To ensure the highest quality, glass manufacturers carry out inspection at every stage.
● Occasionally a bubble that is not removed during refining, a sand grain that refuses to
melt or a tremor in the tin puts ripples in the glass ribbon.
● Automated online inspection does two things.
● It reveals process faults upstream that can be corrected.
● And it enables computers downstream to steer round the flaws.
● Inspection technology now allows 100 million inspections per second to be made across
the ribbon, locating flaws the unaided eye would be unable to see.
● Stage 6 - Cutting to Order:
● The entire process of glass making is finally complete when diamond steels trim off
selvedge – stressed edges- and cut ribbon to size dictated by the computer.
● Glass is finally sold only in square meters.
Transparency: PROPERTIES OF GLASS
● This property allows visual connection with the outside world.
● The transparency of glass can be from both sides or from one side only.
● By the advent of technology clear glass panels used in buildings can be made opaque. (Electro chromatic glazing)
U value:
● U value represents the amount of heat transferred through glass.
● The lower the U-value the better the insulation properties of the glass– the better it is at keeping the heat or cold out.
Strength:
● Glass is a brittle material but with the advent of science and technology, certain laminates and admixtures can increase its modulus
of rupture( ability to resist deformation under load).
Workability:
● It is capable of being worked in many ways.
● It can be blown, drawn or pressed.
● It is possible to obtain glass with diversified properties- clear, colorless, diffused and stained. Glass can also bewelded by fusion.
● So, workability of glass is superior property of glass.
Recyclable:
● Glass is 100% recyclable, cullets (Scraps of broken or waste glass gathered for re-melting) are used as raw materials in glass
manufacture, as aggregates in concrete construction etc.
Solar heat gain coefficient:
● It is the fraction of incident solar radiation that actually enters a building through the entire window assembly as heat gain.
Visible transmittance:
● Visible transmittance is the fraction of visible light that comes through the glass.
 PROPERTIES OF GLASS
Energy efficiency and acoustic control:
● Energy-efficient glazing is the term used to describe the double glazing or triple glazing use in modern windows in
homes.
● energy-efficient glazing incorporates coated (low-emissivity) glass to prevent heat escaping through the windows.
● The air barrier also enhances acoustic control.
Important Properties of Glass
● It absorbs, refracts or transmits light. It can be made transparent or translucent.
● It can take excellent polish.
● It is an excellent electrical insulator.
● It is strong and brittle.
● It can be blown, drawn or pressed.
● It is not affected by atmosphere.
● It has excellent resistance to chemicals.
● It is available in various beautiful colours.
● With the advancement in technology, it is possible to make glass lighter than cork or stronger than steel.
● Glass panes can be cleaned easily.
 TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR
APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY

● Float glass, cast glass, glass blocks, foamed glass, decorative glass solar control, toughened glass, wired
glass, laminated glass, fire-resistant glass, glass blocks, and structural glass.
● Float Glass
○ Float glass is made of sodium silicate and calcium silicate so, it is also called as soda lime glass.
○ This is produced by annealing the molten glass and is clear and flat.
○ It has too much transparency and can cause glare .
○ Glass is produced in standard metric thicknesses of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 19 and 25 mm, with 10mm being the
most popular sizing in the architectural industry
○ It is used in making canopies, shop fronts, glass blocks, railing partitions, etc.
○ The basic type of building glass, which can be modified and treated by tempering, staining, sandblasting and
cutting, is clear float glass.
○ Float glass is an input raw material for the wide range of the usage of glass in building structures (interiors
and claddings of buildings).
 TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR
APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY

Cast Glass
● Glass casting is the process in which glass objects are cast by directing molten glass into a mould where it
solidifies.
● The technique has been used since the Egyptian period.
● Modern cast glass is formed by a variety of processes such as kiln casting, or casting into sand, graphite or
metal moulds.
● Cast glass windows, albeit with poor optical qualities, began to appear in the most important buildings in
Rome and the most luxurious villas of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
 TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
Glass Blocks
● Glass block or glass bricks are manufactured from two different halves and they are pressed and annealed
together while melting process of glass.
● The resulting glass blocks will have a partial vacuum at the hollow center.
● Glass bricks provide visual obscuration while admitting light.
● is an architectural element made from glass used in areas where privacy or visual obscuration is desired
while admitting light.
● Glass block was originally developed in the early 1900s to provide natural light in industrial factories
● Glass block used as architectural purpose in the construction of walls, skylights etc. They provide
aesthetic appearance when light is passed through it.
 TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
● Decorative Glass Or Tinted Glass
● Tinted glass is nothing but colored glass.
● A color producing ingredients is mixed to the normal glass mix to produce colored glass which does not
affect other properties of glass.
● Iron oxide is added to give glass a green tint; sulphar in different concentrations can make the glass
yellow, red or black. Copper sulphate can turn it blue. Etc.
● Different color producing ingredients are tabulated below:
 TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY

Solar Control or Insulated Glazed Units

● Insulated glazed glass units contains a glass is separated into two or three layers by air or vacuum.
● This type of glazing has functions of thermal insulation and noise reduction
● They cannot allow heat through it because of air between the layers and acts as good insulators.
● These are also called as double glazed units.
● When the space is filled with an inert gas it is part of energy conservation sustainable architecture design
for low energy buildings.
● Solar control glazing guarantees that the offices will not heat up in the summer.
● This will save on costs for air conditioning..
● One of the outstanding properties of the glass is, therefore, the high light transmittance that provides for
light-flooded offices.
● This generates a pleasant "psychological indoor climate" because the rooms are flooded with natural
daylight and increase motivation and thus the productivity of the office workers also increases.
TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
 TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
Toughened Glass
● The increasing of the mechanical resistance of float glass can be reached using the technology of heat-toughening
(tempering) that means glass is heated to the specific temperature (about 650 °C) and subsequently it is cooled by the sharp
airflow.
● Due to the cooling, inside the structure of heat-strengthened glass the tensile stress occurs, while on the surface the
compression stress occurs.
● Thus, the physical properties from the viewpoint of the strength are significantly changed. In the case of breaking, glass will
break into small pieces, so the risks of personal injury and property damage are minimized.
● this glass is classified as safety glass.
● Glass must be finally machined (drilling holes, grinding edges, etc.) before tempering, because its further machining after
toughening is not already possible
● Toughened glass is strong glass which has low visibility.
● It is available in all thicknesses.
● This is also called as tempered glass.
● This type of glass is used for fire resistant doors.
● They Are Available In Same Weight And Thickness Range As Float Glass.
TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
 TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY

Laminated Glass
● Laminated safety glass is composed of two or more panes of tempered or heat-strengthened glass with the usage
of intermediate foil inserted in autoclave at the temperature of about 140 °C and the pressure of 0.8 MPa.
● Most often used intermediate foils are polyvinyl butyral (PVB) or ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) foils.
● The thickness of the foil is, according to the type, 0.38 mm or 0.76 mm.
● In the case of breakage, safety glass remains glued to the foil and the personal injury and property damage are
avoided.
● In the cases, when one of glass is not damaged, the wholeness of glass pane is maintained.
● The combination of laminated heattoughened glass is also used for walkable glass slabs.
● Safety laminated glass with acoustic effect uses PVB foil and reaches improved characteristics for avoiding the
noise spreading.
● The properties of this glass depend on the specific composition and combination of the glass panes and foils.
● Thus This type of glass is made by sandwiching glass panels within a protective layer. It is heavier than normal
glass and may cause optical distortions as well. It is tough and protects from UV radiation (99%) and insulates
sound by 50%. Used in glass facades, aquariums, bridges, staircases, floor slabs, etc.
TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
 TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY

Fire Resistant Glass

● Glass wool is made of fibers of glass and acts as good insulating filler
● Glass wool is a thermal insulation that consists of intertwined and flexible glass fibers, which causes it to "package"
air, and consequently make good insulating materials.
● Glass wool can be used as filler or insulators in buildings, also for soundproofing.
● It is fire resistant glass.
● is a multi-layered product that literally burns away layer by layer, thus retarding the progress of the fire.
● All of these products are rated by levels and are tested for specific performance criteria.
 TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
Structural Glazing
● Structural Glazing is an adaptable form of curtain wall construction which gives designers and architects the freedom to
create striking façade and enhance the artistic appeal of the buildings.
● structural glass can provide a complete glass envelope for building structures without the need for conventional frames or
mullions.
● In addition to these it had also brought in speedy construction practices, reducing the overall weight of the structure and
more pleasing modern look.
● It has been seen that a new trend of adding a structural glazing cover to many existing building is catching up very fast.
● Some of the major issues that govern the design of structural glazing system are sealant performance, air & water
infiltration, structural design requirements and the selection of right types of glass.
● High-quality functional silicon sealant is perfect for the dynamic requirements, since the structural glazing modules are
subject to high stress, due to the large area, they must be able to withstand high wind forces and must deflect all the
forces caused, by thermal expansion or vibrations, to the substructure on the building.
● Under the ideal conditions, structuraly glazed elements are completely pre-manufactured and then attached to the
framed construction of the building.
 TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
Low-E glass
● Low-E glass is a type of insulating glass, which increases the energy efficiency of windows by reducing the transfer
of heat or cold through glass.
● That means in the winter the building stays warmer, and in the summer it remains cooler.
● Low-emissivity (Low-E) glass has a thin coating, often of metal, on the glass within its airspace that reflects thermal
radiation or inhibits its emission reducing heat transfer through the glass.
● A basic low-e coating allows solar radiation to pass through into a room.
● Thus, the coating helps to reduce heat loss but allows the room to be warmed by any sunshine.
● The low-e coating is usually on the inside pane of glass; if solar control is required then the outside pane of glass
would have either a film or a body tint to reflect or absorb the solar radiation.
 TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
Shatterproof Glass
● Shatterproof glass is used for windows, skylights, floors etc.
● Some type of plastic polyvinyl butyral is added in its making process.
● So, it cannot form sharp edged pieces when it breaks.
 TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
Extra Clean Glass
● This type of glass is hydrophilic i.e. The water moves over them without leaving any marks and photocatylitic i.e.
they are covered with Nanoparticles that attack and break dirt making it easier to clean and maintain.
● Because of these properties, it acts as stain proof and gives beautiful appearance. Maintenance is also easy.
 TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
Chromatic Glass
● This type of glass can control daylight and transparency effectively.
● These glass are available in three forms- photochromatic (light sensitive lamination on glass), thermochromatic
(heat sensitive lamination on glass) and electrochromatic (light sensitive glass the transparency of which can be
controlled by electricity switch.)
● It can be used in meeting rooms and ICUs
 Glass Selection Criterion
● Glass is available in many types, thicknesses, patterns and finishes.
● The glass is selected for reasons of safety, appearance and the way it controls the internal environment of the
building.
● Glass may be grouped into categories by considering: - Strength and safety - Appearance - Environmental control
Strength and safety Glass in a building will be subject to mechanical loads in the form of wind load and impact.
● It may also be subject to stresses due to environmental conditions such as temperature changes.
● The strength properties of glass can be varied by increasing the thickness, heat treatment and combining the glass
with other materials to form composites.
● The strength of glass must be sufficient to resist the loads it is likely to be exposed to.
● Safety of glass is related to its strength but also takes into account the risk of injury from the failed glass.
● correct choice of glass, by a design professional, for a particular glazing application, requires the consideration of a
number of characteristics such as the color and appearance of glass, its thickness, visible light transmission
through it, solar energy transmission and absorption, percentage of the solar energy reflected away from the
exterior surface of the glazing, also its U-Value i.e heat gain or loss through glass due to the difference of indoor
and outdoor temperatures.
Glass Selection Criterion
 Glass Uses
Uses
● Supply of natural daylight
● Protection from rain, wind, and cold
● Transparency or translucency
● Supply of fresh air
● Secondary use
● Heat protection
● Sound protection
● Solar protection
● Fire protection
● Use of solar energy
● Living comfort
● Means of design
● Electromagnetic dampening.
● Glass is now being used in the building industry as insulation material, structural component, external glazing material, cladding material;
● it is used to make delicate looking fenestrations on facades as well as conventional windows.
● With the advent of green technology in construction, glass is constantly undergoing transformation.
● Solar power glass, switchable glass projection screens are a few of the newer uses.
 GLASS AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS
INTRODUCTION
● As glass building allow lot of heat inflow through its outer glass envelop which gets trapped inside the building and heat up the in
side space. So if designers can provide an escape route for this hot air, (especially from the area just inside the structural glazing),
so that this entrapped hot air does not spread into the interior spaces, it would really help to keep the occupants in thermal
comfort range with lesser load on the air-conditioning system.
● Based on this principle double glazed glass has been produced by the glazing industry to reduce drastically the quantity of hot air,
which is produced inside the shaft area because of the sun rays coming through the exterior glass.
● energy efficient glasses provide the benefit of reducing the heat gain in buildings due to its excellent energy saving properties without
compromising on the natural light.
● Glass ensures that the building gets ample natural light, making interiors look brighter and livelier reducing the need for artificial
lighting and saving energy, or in other words, reducing the electricity bill.
● Ample light inside the home makes spaces look more spacious and roomy, an important factor to consider given today‘s shrinking
living spaces in urban areas.
 GLASS AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS
● These energy efficient glasses provide the benefit of reducing the heat gain in buildings due to its excellent energy saving
properties without compromising on the natural light coming inside the building or the brilliant aesthetics that add value to
the façade.
● And in winter, they ensure solar gain. So that no matter what the season, people inside stay comfortable at all times.
● Using energy-efficient glass also helps in ensuring that the interiors, and the occupants of the home, feel more comfortable.
● Ideal for solar and thermal insulating parameters, these glasses combine aesthetics with environmental sensibility and
conform to all International and National Green Standards, making it the natural choice as a green building solution.
● Performance parameters of glasses like visual light transmission, solar factor, U-value and internal reflection make buildings
more efficient and ecologically viable.
● Energy efficient glasses, when used properly can reduce the total energy consumption by anywhere between 8~10 per cent
of the total energy consumed and hence the accrued benefits of using these glasses keep growing over the years.
● Furthermore, it is not just the recurring savings but also the reduction in the capex because of the lower energy loads
required for conditioning the building.
● Typically the heat gained/lost through glazing in a normal building in India is anywhere between 40~50 per cent and using
the right type of glass can bring down the energy consumption by 30~40 per cent (only glazing).
● The incremental cost for the high performance glazing can be recovered in a time span of 3~4 years.
 INTRODUCTION TO CURTAIN WALL GLAZING

● A curtain wall system is an outer covering of a building in which the outer walls are non-structural, utilized only to keep the
weather out and the occupants in
● Curtain walling is a building envelope that is intended to support only its own weight and withstand the effects of
environmental forces such as wind.
● It is not intended to assist the structural integrity of the building.
● The wind and gravity loads of the curtain wall are transferred to the building structure, typically at the floor line.
● Since the curtain wall is non-structural, it can be made of lightweight materials, thereby reducing construction costs.
● . When glass is used as the curtain wall, an advantage is that natural light can penetrate deeper within the building.
● The curtain wall façade does not carry any structural load from the building other than its own dead load weight.
● The wall transfers lateral wind loads that are incident upon it to the main building structure through connections at floors or
columns of the building.
● A curtain wall is designed to resist air and water infiltration, absorb sway induced by wind and seismic forces acting on the
building, withstand wind loads, and support its own dead load weight forces.
 INTRODUCTION TO CURTAIN WALL GLAZING
● Curtain wall systems are typically designed with extruded aluminum framing members,. The aluminum frame is typically infilled with glass,
which provides an architecturally pleasing building, as well as benefits such as daylighting.
● Curtain walls d are designed to span multiple floors, taking into consideration design requirements such as: thermal expansion and
contraction; building sway and movement; water diversion; and thermal efficiency for cost-effective heating, cooling, and lighting in the
building.
● There are three main types of curtain walling construction: “stick” and “unitized and semi unitized
 INTRODUCTION TO CURTAIN WALL GLAZING
stick construction,
● the curtain wall frame is constructed mainly on site with mullions and transoms supporting glass, spandrel panels, metal
panels and brise-soleils, connected piece by piece.
● Each mullion is usually supported by the floor or perimeter beams.
● Stick curtain walling systems are versatile and allow for the integration of other systems, such as sliding doors and windows.
● They tend to be less specialised and can be built by all types of fabricators as they are not dependent on having a large
factory.
● However, stick systems do require multiple steps to erect and seal the wall, which means more time is spent on site – an
approximate rule of thumb would be that 70% of the work is carried out on site, with 30% in the factory
● This incurs further costs, such as labourers’ time
 INTRODUCTION TO CURTAIN WALL GLAZING
unitised construction,
● the curtain wall is composed of large units that are assembled in the factory, shipped to the site and erected on the building.
● Aluminium profiles are used to form the frame
● Vertical and horizontal mullions of the modules mate together with the adjoining modules.
● Modules are generally constructed one story tall and one module wide but may incorporate multiple modules.
● Typical units are five to six feet wide.the interconnecting gasket or wet seal as an airtight barrier.
● The outside face of glass, exterior glazing materials and the outer exposed face of aluminum framing function as a rain screen, shedding
water away.
● Opening vents, glazing and infill panels are built into units before being transported to site.
● As with stick construction, each unit is usually supported by the floor or perimeter beams.
● For unitised curtain walling, about 30% of the work is done on site, while 70% is carried out in the factory.
● The complete assembly of the units in the factory brings a number of benefits.
● These include: Improved quality control
● Concurrent manufacture and site preparation - units can be assembled while the structural frame is being built. The facade can also
be completed a floor at a time, allowing parallel internal work
● Quicker installation, requiring less manpower on site
 INTRODUCTION TO CURTAIN WALL GLAZING

unitised construction,
● No need for scaffolding
● Can be installed from the interior of the building. This is ideal for high towers or building sites where there is a tight footprint
● Less space is needed on site for layout – another advantage
● Another advantage of unitised systems is that, unlike stick systems, they do not transfer impact noises from floor to floor or horizontally
from room to room.
● This is because the unitised panels are separated by linking gaskets.
● The different materials (ie, gasket to aluminium), become acoustically excited to different levels, thus creating full separation at the
junctions between units.
INTRODUCTION TO CURTAIN WALL GLAZING
INTRODUCTION TO CURTAIN WALL GLAZING
 CURTAIN WALL GLAZING
Glazing material
● The glazing or infill material may affect the choice of framing material.
● The frame has to support the weight of the glazing and accept glazing units of the required thickness.
● Glass is retained in position by pressure plates screwed into extruded screw ports in the face of the main sections.
● Cover caps conceal the fixings screws for an aesthetic exterior appearance.
● Insulated Glass, often called double glazing, is a combination of two or more panes of glass spaced apart with a
spacer bar and hermetically sealed with a primary and secondary sealant to form a single unit with one or more air
spaces in between.
● Insulated glazing units improve the thermal performance, thus significantly reducing heating and air-conditioning
costs.
● IG units also reduce probability of condensation formation on the surface of the glass.
● IGU can be a combination of Low-E coatings, tinted glasses, reflective coatings, silk-screened patterns, laminated
glass products and more.
● A wide variety of insulating glass configurations are available to satisfy a variety of performance and aesthetic
requirements.
 CURTAIN WALL GLAZING
Characteristics of Insulated Glazing Units
● Thermal Properties: The U value is effectively lowered by insulating glazing and can be further reduced by filling of
inert gases, generally increasing cavity thickness and using inert gases like Argon or Krypton or Xenon to further
improve thermal insulation
Acoustical insulation: Insulating glazing can reduce noise by about 30dB (5mm glass- 12mm air gap -5mm glass)
● Condensation: IGU reduces the probability of condensation formation compared to monolithic glass.
● Sealing: Two glasses are separated by a spacer which is generally made of aluminum; primary sealant and
secondary sealant are used for air and water tightness.
 CURTAIN WALL GLAZING
Aluminium
● Aluminium does not suffer badly from corrosion and is easy to form and finish allowing many different designs.
● Aluminium is used as hollow sections and is relatively flexible in bending and torsion.
● Because of the hollow and complex profile cross sections achievable with aluminium it is easy to make drained and
ventilated or pressure equalised windows.
● Aluminium is a very good conductor of heat.
● To meet requirements for low thermal transmission aluminium profiles are thermally broken with either a
polyamide or resin element between inner and outer aluminium sections.
● Aluminium is the most common frame material for stick system curtain walls, glazing screens and shop fronts.
● It is also commonly used as a framing system to support rainscreens.
● The profile comprises an outer section that serves to hold the infill material in place, prevent water penetration and
form an air seal.
● The inner section comprises a hollow structural box the depth of which determines the strength and stiffness of
the section.
 CURTAIN WALL GLAZING
Aluminium
● Coated aluminium is a durable material and a useful life of 25 years or more can be achieved.
● Framing members may be designed to retain the infill panels in a number of ways:
● curtain walls comprise mullion (vertical) and transom (horizontal) framing members.
● mullions and transoms, with each panel acting as an individual unit.
● Drainage and ventilation slots are located in the vertical pressure plate.
● Each panel is individually pressure equalised and drained via its transom, enabling the curtain wall to quickly react
to fluctuating wind pressure
● Transoms are overlapped to the mullion which incorporates an EPDM gasket to seal between mullion and
transom.
 CURTAIN WALL GLAZING
● EPDM(Ethylene-Propylene Terpolymer) gaskets offer an additional means of sealing the curtain walling and
reducing the chances of air and water entering the building.
● They are highly resistant to water, ozone and ageing which makes them an ideal solution for external applications.
Use of Sealant
● The structural sealant when properly installed forms a continuous, waterproof seal against leakage and air
infiltration.
● Sealant and spacer transmit wind load movement to the structure and withstand flexure, tension, compression and
differential thermal shear stresses.
● Air and Water Infiltration
● Air and water infiltration requirements usually have few visual implications on structural glazing systems.
● However, proper positioning of gaskets, weather strips and sealant are critical & essential.
● The system must be designed to resist water infiltration through the above gasketing and properly designed gutter
and flashing.
 CURTAIN WALL GLAZING
● Structural Requirement
● The framework must be designed for anticipated wind pressure, corresponding beam displacement, spacing of verticals and
deflections: variable movements due to expansion and contraction of the building structure.
Pressure cap
● The most common means of retaining glazing in a curtain wall frame is by using a pressure plate which secures the glass in the
glazing rebate around the full perimeter of the glazing unit. Pressure caps are secured in position by screws which must be either
tightened to a required torque or to a stop where the pressure cap makes contact with the frame.
Gaskets
● Function Glazing gaskets are required to: - Limit air leakage and water penetration - Allow relative movement - Distribute and absorb
loads - Accommodate tolerances
● The joint should be constructed to give an adequate contact area between the sealant and the substrates.
● This should be not less than 6mm onto a non-porous surface and 10mm onto a porous surface. Backer rods should be used to
prevent the wasteful use of material and so that the joint can be properly tooled to form a good bond.
● Materials Sealants are commonly classified by their base materials: - Silicones - Polysulfides - Polyurethanes - Acrylics
● However the performance of a sealant is not only governed by the base material but also by additives such as plasticisers, retarders
and fillers.
 PERFORMANCE OF CURTAIN WALL
Thermal Performance
● Some curtain wall systems utilize "pressure bars" (also referred to as "pressure plates") that are fastened to the outside of the mullions
to retain the glass.
● These systems frequently include gaskets that are placed between the pressure bar and mullions and function as thermal breaks and
help with acoustic isolation.
● With a properly designed system the water that enters the system at the gasket corners will weep out through the snap cover weep
holes.
● Proper placement of insulation at the curtain wall perimeter reduces energy loss and potential condensation issues.
Visual (Daylighting, Aesthetics)
● Key visual features of curtain walls are glazing appearance and sightlines.
Sound (Acoustics)
● The acoustic performance of curtain walls is primarily a function of the glazing and internal seals to stop air leakage .
● The sound attenuation capability of curtain walls can be improved by installing sound attenuating infill and by making construction as
airtight as possible.
● Incorporating different thicknesses of glass in an insulated glass unit will also help to mitigate exterior noise.
● This can be accomplished by increasing the thickness of one of the lites of glass or by incorporating a laminated layer of glass with a
noise-reducing interlayer, typically a polyvinyl butyral or PVB.
 PERFORMANCE OF CURTAIN WALL
FIRE SAFETY
● Fire safing and smoke seal at gaps between the floor slab-edge and the back of the curtain wall are essential to compartmentalize
between floors and slow down the passage of fire and combustion gases between floors.
● MAINTENANCE ACCESS
● The curtain wall should be designed for accessibility for maintenance.
● Low-rise buildings can generally be accessed from the ground using equipment with articulated arms.
● For high rise construction the building should be designed for swing stage access for window cleaning, general maintenance, and
repair work, like glass replacement.
● Sustainability
● The best strategy for sustainability of curtain walls is to employ good design practices to ensure the durability (maximum service life)
of the installation and to use systems that have a good thermal break and high R-value (values as high as R-7 are possible with
triple-glazed systems). Also, the use of low-e and spectrally selective glass coatings can significantly reduce energy loads and improve
comfort close to the wall.
● Aluminum and steel frames are typically recycled at the end of their service life.
 PERFORMANCE OF CURTAIN WALL
Designing For Solar Heat Gain Control And Solar Optical Properties
● The use of glazed curtain walls can present challenges in balancing the desire for more natural daylight versus addressing the heat
gain typically associated with such systems.
● Occasionally, there are concerns relating to having too much uncontrolled daylight, sometimes referred to as glare.
● The challenge is to strive for the highest visible light transmittance (VT) and the lowest solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) while not
preventing the glass from being too reflective when viewed from both the exterior and the interior, while controlling glare.
●
 CURRENT INNOVATIONS
● The façade constructed of low-emissive, double-glazing glass with ceramic prints and glass ribs, using the polyhedral "Tempoint"
frameless glass façade system.
● Bent glass
● The development of bent glass allowed architects to experiment with curved glass lines.
● The curved surfaces give a building its own personality, creating the whole or a part of the façade.
With a growing proportion of bent glass been processed to make safety glass, bent glass can also be laminated for specialized
categories like bullet resistant.
So far bent glass has primarily been used in public buildings, office complexes and for corporate facility facades. Interior architecture
applications for bent glass include railings for staircases, walkways, partitions and elevator glass panels.
● Nano Green, a high performance glass that offers high thermal insulation accompanied by a very low solar factor.
● electrochromic glass that utilizes a low electric current to adjust tint according to outdoor light conditions.
● Switchable electro-chrome glass can also be used in place of, or as a complement to the upstream shade facilities. This darkens at
the touch of a button whilst ensuring that visual contact with the outside world is maintained.
● Self-cleaning glasses like SGG Bioclean are another attraction both for environment friendly supporters and those pushing cost
control.
● Innovations like self-cleaning glass, which is class coated with coatings like titanium dioxide, reduce maintenance of surfaces
 CURRENT INNOVATIONS
● A smart glass partition will turn translucent to opaque on demand allowing the same screen to afford limited viewing or turn into a
projection screen, if required.
●
● With the development of supporting construction sealants, coatings, cables and other structural innovations the problems of leakage
and security are being suitably resolved.
● The materials used for the frames and supports also contribute to the green coefficient of the glazing, and thereby for the whole
project.
New Opportunities through building-integrated PV
● facade-integrated photovoltaics will also play an increasingly pivotal role in boosting energy efficiency in the future.
● Even today PV elements featuring the latest thin-film technology can be ordered in various colours thereby providing more design
freedom for facades.
● When they are used correctly, glass facades become light-producing and energy generating shells, which adapt to the varying
environmental conditions, and as a result, contribute to using environmental resources sparingly in the long-term.
 CURRENT INNOVATIONS
● Glass aggregates: Recycled glass used in new construction products includes new window glazing, wall and floor tiles and fiberglass
insulation. It also goes into concrete towards making tiles, terrazzo flooring, pavers, wall finishes, pipe bedding and concrete as
exposed aggregate
Building material from glass: REAPOR is a fiber-free building material for thermal and acoustic insulation using recycled glass.
Developed in Germany, it has the advantages of being light weight, stable and water-, acid- and fire- resistant. In terms of workability
too the material scores high. Adjustments to the material can be made in terms of desired degree of thermal or acoustic insulation
and weight requirements. Further it is environment-friendly being made with 90% recycled glass and is itself fully recyclable.
● The Living Glass is a piece of responsive architecture which is actually a thin, transparent surface that ‘breathes’ when the carbon
dioxide levels in a room become high. This Living Glass contains a silicone surface which is embedded with Flexinol wires and has
parallel slits which open and close when the wires contract. The slits then open and fresh air comes in, while CO2is expelled out. The
slits close again when the CO2levels inside the room are balanced again, thus proving to be very useful in controlling the air quality
inside the room.
Glass floors
● Glass for interiors has taken a new meaning with the use of glass floors becoming popular. This is done by the use of what is known
as heavy glass. This is a glass of thickness upwards of 1 inch that is also laminated for extra strength. Floor slabs, stairs, partitions, and
entryways can be fabricated from heavy glass to achieve a stunning effect. More properties like sound control and fire safety can be
introduced through the use of special interlayers during the lamination process. In India, such specialized uses of glass are rare
because of the expense and expertise involved.
 CURRENT INNOVATIONS
Anti-reflective glass in larger sizes
● New technology to manufacture anti-reflective glass, has removed limitations on the size and architects can now use large-sized glass
without resorting to multiple frames. Today, manufacturers can provide sizes up to 96 by 120 inches or more.
Hybrid coatings, while offering all the desirable qualities of solar control and high levels of light transmittance, also have a light, crisp shine
or subtle reflectivity that provides a uniform appearance, improve occupant privacy and comfort and reduce interior glare. A single coating
that offers transparency and privacy, thermal and solar characteristics is a boon
Anti–bacterial glass–The Latest in Healthcare Architecture
● AGC Flat Glass Europe, formerly Glaverbel recently launched its new Antibacterial Glass TM in a world premiere. The glass kills 99.9%
of bacteria and also stops the spread of fungi. Given the instances of visitors and patients catching infections while in hospital, this is a
milestone.
This glass eliminates micro-organisms as soon as they come in contact with the surface of the glass.
● Glass with integrated prisms or light-diverting lamellas directs the daylight into the deep areas of the room. A favorite technique is to
use prisms and other light-reflecting mechanisms to redirect sunlight to hit the ceiling or a specially designed surface. Essentially, the
four properties of light rays—reflection, refraction, luminosity and transparency—are used in varying combination to generate unique
effects.
● ceramic printed glass offer solar control with color, visibility management and aid in design.
● For specific requirements like security, there's the option of bullet proof glass for projects like farmhouses and other isolated
properties.
 CURRENT INNOVATIONS
● Acoustic control is another facility offered by glass cladding, reducing stress from exterior noise.
● Louvre embedded glass panels will direct the sun rays where you need them.
● new product integrates solar shading systems into the standard IGU – this concept will serve as a breakthrough to combine Solar
heat & Glare control properties and will offer dynamic features that can be controlled just by touching a button.
● gen-next' glasses, or spectrally selective glasses, which are 'intelligent' glass units that selectively allow and reject different
wavelengths of solar r adiation, resulting in better inflow of natural light with considerably reduced heat emissions
224
PLASTICS
 PLASTIC
Plastic is a material consisting of a
wide range of synthetic or
semi-synthetic organic compounds
that are malleable and, therefore,
can be molded into solid objects.

Plastics are made from materials

such as cellulose, coal, natural gas
and crude oil through a
polymerisation or polycondensation
process.
PLASTICS USED IN CONSTRUCTION
THERMOPLASTICS
A thermoplastic is a plastic material that softens when melted and gets solidified when
undergoes cooling. These types of plastics can be reshaped or remolded numerous
times. Thermoplastic substances can be recycled or reused.

233
THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
Thermosetting plastics are made up from long chains of molecules that are cross-linked.
They have a very rigid structure. Once heated, thermosetting plastics can be moulded,
shaped and pressed into shapes. Once set they cannot be reheated since they are
permanently set.

234
www.youtube.com/watch?v=YR31q6nPMPk
POLYCARBONATE SHEET

Polycarbonate is a thermoplastic that

comes in a transparent sheet. It is
incredibly tough and absorbs minimal
moisture, making it resistant to impact
damage as well as water damage. It's
also flame-retardant and chemical
resistant

269
Polycarbonate roofing
UNIT 2

297
 STEEL IN BASIC STRUCTURES

Columns

Beams

Foundations

Staircases

Roofs

Roofing and Glazing Materials

Connections between different components and fixing 298

Joints in Steel - Riveting
A rivet is a short pin, of malleable metal such as iron,
steel, or copper, with a head at one end; used to
unite two metal plates by passing it through a
hole in both plates and then hammering down
the point to for a second head.

In structural riveting, a hot steel rivet with a formed

head is inserted in holes through two members
to be joined; its head is then held with a hand
hammer with a cup shaped depression, while a
pneumatic hammer drives a rivet set repeatedly
against the other end to form a second head.
The rivet shrinks as it cools, drawing members
tightly together.

299
Types of rivet heads
• Countersunk, raised
• Countersunk, flat
• Button, coned neck
• Button, straight neck
• Pan, coned neck
• Pan, straight neck

300
Joints in Steel - Bolting
The bolts commonly used in steel frame
construction falls into two general categories:

Carbon-steel bolts – or common bolts; are similar

to the ordinary machine bolts. Carbon steel is
steel having no specified minimum content of
alloying elements; minimum copper content not
exceeding 0.40%.

High-strength bolts – are bolts made of either

high-strength carbon steel or quenched and
tempered alloy steel; tempered meaning, heat
treated during manufacture to develop the
necessary strength. It is usually tightened using
pneumatic or electric impact wrench.
301
Types of bolts

302
Joints in Steel - Welding
Welded connection is through
the heat generated by the arc
to make the electrode and
welding parts local melting,
after condensation weld, so
as to connect the welding
parts into one.

303
304
305
306
307
GRILLAGE FOUNDATION

Used at the base of the column

Consists of multiple tiers of steel

beams superimposed in layers

Tiers are placed at right angle to

each other and are encased in
concrete

308
STEEL FOUNDATIONS - Pedestal Foundation

309
310
311
312
313
314
▣ Riveted
Connections

▣ Bolted
Connections
▣ Welded
Connections

▣ Bolted-Welded
Connections
▣ Used for very long time.
▣ Made up of:
Round Ductile steel bar called shank.
A head at one end

The length of the rivet should sufficient to form the

second head.
▣ Heating of the rivet

▣ Inserting it to an oversize hole pressure to the head.

▣ Squeezing the plain End by Pneumatic driver
Round head.
▣ On Cooling Reduces in
Length–Clamping Force
▣ The introduction of high strength structural bolts.
▣ The labour costs associated with large riveting crews
▣ The cost involved in careful inspection and removal
of poorly installed rivets.
▣ The high level of noise associated with driving
rivets.
▣ Fastened Together primarily by
Bolts.
▣ Bolts may be loaded

in: Tension
Shear
Both Tension & Shear

▣ Threads of bolts under shear

Excluded - Increased strength
force:
Included- Decreased strength.
▣ Bearing type bolts

▣ High strength friction grip bolts

(HSFG)
Black Bolts Turned Bolts Ribbed Bolts
▣ Uses when bearing type bolts slips under shear
▣ High strength bolts (8G or 10K grade) Pre-tensioned
against the plates to be bolted together so that
contact pressure developed between the plates being
joined
▣ Prevents relative slip when extra shear is applied
▣ Higher Shear Resistance.
Advantages
1. The bolting operation is very silent
2. Bolting is a cold process hence there is no risk of fire
3. Bolting operation is more quicker than riveting.
4. Less man power is required in making the connections.

Disadvantages
1. If subjected to vibratory loads, results in reduction in
strength get loosened.
▣ whose components are joined together
primarily by welds.
 Types of Welds
Groove ( More reliable than others)
Fillet (Mostly used, Weaker than groove and others)

Plug (expensive – poor transmission of tensile forces)

Slot (expensive - poor transmission of tensile forces)
▣ Horizontal
▣ Vertical
▣ Overhead
▣ Flat
▣ Economical – Cost of materials and labors.
▣ Efficiency is 100% as compared to rivets (75-
90%)
▣ Fabrication of Complex Structures – Easy –

like Circular Steel pipes.

▣ Provides Rigid Joints – Modern Practice is of Rigid
Joints.
▣ No provision for expansion or contraction therefore
greater chances of cracking.

▣ Uneven heating and cooling - member may distort

- may result in additional stresses.

▣ Inspection is difficult and more costlier than rivets

▣ Most connections are Shop Welded and Field
Bolted types.

▣ More Cost Effective

▣ Better Strength &

Ductility characteristics –Fully welded.

335
 STEEL IN BASIC STRUCTURES

Columns

Beams

Foundations

Staircases

Roofs

Roofing and Glazing Materials

Connections between different components and fixing 336

339
340
341
GRILLAGE FOUNDATION

Used at the base of the column

Consists of multiple tiers of steel

beams superimposed in layers

Tiers are placed at right angle to

each other and are encased in
concrete

342
STEEL FOUNDATIONS - Pedestal Foundation

344
345
STEEL CONNECTIONS BETWEEN DIFFERENT
COMPONENTS
*According to the type of internal forces

*According to the type of members joining

 According to the type of Internal forces
Shear Connections (Simple)

Shear Connections (Semi - Rigid)

Connections between different components

Moment Connections (Rigid)

Difference between Simple and Rigid
Connection
If the member is connected such that it can rotate under the
applied loads (without movements), the connection is
considered as a “pin” or “simple” or "shear" connection. If
the member is also restrained against rotation, it is called a
“moment” or “rigid” connection.
Shear Connection (Simple)
Shear Connection (Semi-Rigid)
Moment Connections (Rigid)
 According to the type of members joining

- Beam to Beam Connections

- Beam to Column Connections

- Column to Column Connections (Column Splices)

Beam to Beam Connections
Connects Beam to beam

Two types - Primary Beam to Secondary beam

Beam Splices
Beam to Beam Connections
Beam to Beam Bolted
Beam to Beam Connections

Splices in Beams
Beam to column connections

- Fin Plates

- End Plates

- Web or Flange Cleats

Fin Plate Connection
A fin plate connection consists of a length of
plate welded in the workshop to the supporting
member, to which the supported beam web is
bolted on site
End Plate Connection
In this connection the plate is connected to the beam
cross-section by means of full penetration welding or
corner welding and then by bolt to the flange of the
column.
Web Cleats
A web cleat steel connection is a type of
connection that uses an L-shaped steel plate,
called a cleat, to connect the web of a beam to
the flange of a column.
Flange Cleats
A flange cleat steel connection is a type of
structural steel connection that uses a metal
plate, called a cleat, to connect two beams or
columns together. The cleat is welded or
bolted to the flanges of the beams or columns,
and the beams or columns are then connected
to each other by bolts or welds.

Top and seat angles

Hunched Connections
A hunched beam to column connection is a
structural connection used in steel frame
construction where a beam is connected to a
column in a way that the beam's depth is
greater than that of the column. This creates a
step in the connection, often resembling a
hunch or a protrusion.
Column to column connections
(Column Splices)
Column to column connections
(Column Splices)
Column Base Plate Connections

With Stiffners
Steel Staircase
PAN TREADS
GRATING TREADS
GRATING TREAD
Spiral Staircase
Spiral Staircase
Steel Roof Truss
Types Of Steel Roof Truss
- Open Trusses

- North Light Trusses

- Bow String Trusses

King Post
Howe Truss
Fink Truss
Scissors Truss
Raised Chord Truss
NORTH LIGHT TRUSS SECTION
Rolled Steel beams – As per IS code specifications
Rolled Steel beams – As per IS code specifications

Lets Consider ISMB 400 vs. ISMB 450

1. In comparison Moment of Inertia (Iyy) values for the 2 are 622.1 & 834.0 respectively.
2. Similarly their Section modulus (Zxx) values are 1022.9 & 1350.7 respectively.

When designing steel structures these values determine the choice of section to be used. For a requirement of lets say
Section modulus (Zxx) of 1050 one would end up choosing ISMB 450 even if the value is ~30 above ISMB 400’s specification.

This means more steel is being used to carry a lesser load and efficiency of material being used reduces, invariably
increasing project cost.
PEB - pre-engineered building

This is where PEB buildings make all the difference.

1. Every section of this structure is modeled in a structural simulation software to understand all types of loads and
forces.
2. The modeled values are used to produce sections that exactly match the required design criteria. That is the reason
the cross section sizes of the beam varies through out the structural span increasing only at places where it is
required.

This process of design and detailing reduces any excess steel usage, makes the structure economical and light in
weight for that required span.
PEB – PORTAL FRAME
 Truss Portal
Frame

1. Truss are 2D framework that span between 2 1. A portal frame is designed as one
columns. continuous structural frame that starts as a
column section from the Grade beam, turns
2. The truss is independent of the column to become a spanning member and then
design, where the only condition to be taken turns again to become a column section.
care is the mode of connection and 2. The load transfer dynamics is designed as
effectiveness of the joint to ensure one continuation section where the
successful load transfer. spanning beam and column are not designed
independent of each other.
3. This makes them far more efficient than
TRUSSES
Beijing – BIRD’S NEST STADIUM
Architects: Herzog and de Meuron
Structure: Arup Associates
Beijing – BIRD’S NEST STADIUM
Architects: Herzog and de Meuron
Structure: Arup Associates
Beijing – BIRD’S NEST STADIUM
Architects: Herzog and de Meuron
Structure: Arup Associates
PEB – PORTAL FRAME
PEB – PORTAL FRAME

• Primary Load carrying members • The secondary structural elements • All the surface connecting
are PORTAL Frames that span from are the tie members that are elements are either stiffeners and
edge to a central RING Beam placed between these portal webs that hold the portal frames
frames. together along with some
aesthetical entities or that give the
famous appearance to the
stadium.
Beijing – BIRD’S NEST STADIUM
Architects: Herzog and de Meuron
Structure: Arup Associates
PEB – PORTAL FRAME
PEB – PORTAL FRAME
PORTAL FRAME Columns in position
PORTAL FRAME Columns in position
PORTAL FRAME Columns in position
PORTAL FRAME with spanning truss in position
The inner ring support frame
S
P
A
C
E
F
R
A
M
E
•A TRUSS-LIKE, LIGHTWEIGHT RIGID STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTED FROM
INTERLOCKING STRUTS IN A GEOMETRIC PATTERN.
•SPACE FRAMES CAN BE USED TO SPAN LARGE AREAS WITH FEW INTERIOR
SUPPORTS.

A SPACE FRAME IS STRONG BECAUSE OF :

• THE INHERENT RIGIDITY OF THE TRIANGLE;

• FLEXING LOADS (BENDING MOMENTS) ARE TRANSMITTED AS TENSION

AND COMPRESSION LOADS ALONG THE LENGTH OF EACH STRUT.

LOAD
DISTRIBUTION
A space frame is a three-dimensional structure composed of interconnected structural
elements arranged in a geometric pattern to create a strong and lightweight framework.
•HORIZONTAL SLAB OF INTERLOCKING SQUARE,
PYRAMIDS AND TETRAHEDRA BUILT FROM
ALUMINIUM OR TUBULAR STEEL STRUTS.
•STRONGER FORM IS COMPOSED OF INTERLOCKING TETRAHEDRA IN WHICH ALL THE STRUTS HAVE
UNIT LENGTH.
•MORE TECHNICALLY THIS IS REFERRED TO AS
AN ISOTROPIC VECTOR MATRIX OR IN A
SINGLE UNIT WIDTH AN OCTET TRUSS.

•MORE COMPLEX VARIATIONS CHANGE THE LENGTHS OF THE STRUTS

TO CURVE THE OVER ALL STRUCTURE OR MAY INCORPORATE
•SPACE FRAMES WERE INDEPENDENTLY DEVELOPED BY ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL AROUND
1900 .

•BELL'S INTEREST WAS PRIMARILY IN USING THEM TO MAKE RIGID FRAMES FOR NAUTICAL AND
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, WITH THE TETRAHEDRAL TRUSS BEING ONE OF HIS
INVENTIONS,
HOWEVER FEW OF HIS DESIGNS WERE REALIZED.

•BUCKMINSTERFULLER IN THE 1950S DEVELOPED FRAMES INDEPENDENTLY, FULLER'S FOCUS

WAS ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES AND HIS WORK HAD GREATER INFLUENCE.

BUCKMINISTER FULLER GEODESIC DOME GRAHAMBELL SPACE FRAME DESIGN

•PLATFORM OR OVERHEAD STRUCTURE THAT SPANS LARGE DISTANCES WITHOUT NEED FOR
INTERNAL LOAD BEARING SUPPORT.
•IN THE PAST FEW DECADES, THE SPREAD OF SPACE FRAME WAS MAINLY DUE TO ITS GREAT
STRUCTURAL POTENTIAL AND VISUAL BEAUTY . NEW AND IMAGINATIVE APPLICATIONS OF
SPACE FRAMES ARE BEING DEMONSTRATED IN THE TOTAL RANGE OF BUILDING TYPES,LIKE:

•SPORTS ARENAS
•EXHIBITION PAVILIONS
•ASSEMBLY HALLS
•TRANSPORTATION TERMINALS
•AIRPLANE HANGARS
•WORKSHOPS, AND WAREHOUSES ENCLOSURES
•LIGHTWEIGHT -THIS IS MAINLY DUE TO THE FACT THAT MATERIAL IS DISTRIBUTED SPATIALLY IN

SUCH A WAY THAT THE LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM IS PRIMARILY AXIAL; TENSION OR COMPRESSION.
CONSEQUENTLY, ALL MATERIAL IN ANY GIVEN ELEMENT IS UTILIZED TO ITS FULL EXTENT. FURTHERMORE,
MOST SPACE FRAMES ARE NOW CONSTRUCTED WITH ALUMINUM, WHICH DECREASES CONSIDERABLY THEIR
SELF-WEIGHT.

•MASS PRODUCTIVITY-SPACE FRAMES CAN BE BUILT FROM SIMPLE PREFABRICATED

UNITS,WHICH ARE OFTEN OF STANDARD SIZE AND SHAPE. SUCH UNITS CAN BE EASILY TRANSPORTED AND
RAPIDLY ASSEMBLED ON SITE BY SEMI-SKILLED LABOR.CONSEQUENTLY,SPACE FRAMES CAN BE BUILT AT A
LOWER COST.

•STIFFNESS-A SPACE FRAME IS USUALLY SUFFICIENTLY STIFF IN SPITE OF ITS LIGHTNESS. THIS IS DUE TO ITS

THREE- DIMENSIONAL CHARACTER AND TO THE FULL PARTICIPATION OF ITS CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS.

•VERSATILITY -SPACE FRAMES POSSESS A VERSATILITY OF SHAPE AND FORM AND CAN UTILIZE A

STANDARD MODULE TO GENERATE VARIOUS FLAT SPACE GRIDS,LATTICED SHELL, OR EVEN FREE-FORM
SHAPES. ARCHITECTS APPRECIATE THE VISUAL BEAUTY AND THE IMPRESSIVE SIMPLICITY OF LINES IN
SPACE FRAMES
 PLAIN FRAMES SPACE FRAMES
▪THE FORCES ACT ONLY ALONG THE AXIS OF THE
MEMBERS HAVING TENSION and COMPRESSION.
▪ THE FORCES ARE ACTING ALONG THE AXIS OF
THE MEMBER. IN ADDITION TO TRANSVERSE
▪EACH MEMBER IS ACTED UPON BY TWO EQUAL
FORCES.
AND OPPOSITE FORCES HAVING LINE OF ACTION
▪ONE OR MORE THEN ONE MEMBER OF FRAME IS
ALONG THE CENTRE OF MEMBERS I.E. EVERY
SUBJECTED TO MORE THEN TWO
MEMBER OF IT IS TWO FORCE MEMBER.
FORCES.(MULTIPLE FORCE MEMBERS)

▪MEMBERS ARE SUBJECTED TO ▪ AT LEAST ONE MEMBER IS SUBJECTED TO

TENSION/COMPRESSION ONLY. BENDING, SHEAR OR TORSION.

▪FORCES MAY ACT ANYWHERE ON THE

▪ FORCES ARE APPLIED ON JOINTS ONLY.
MEMBERS.

▪USUALLY, MORE SIMPLE TO CALCULATE, MORE ▪USUALLY MORE SIMPLE TO MANUFACTURE

WEIGHT EFFECTIVE. AND TO PLACE IN TIGHT LAYOUT.

 PLAIN FRAMES

SPACE FRAMES
ACCORDING TO ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF GRID LAYERS
CURVATURE

FLATCOVERS SINGLE-LAYER

BARRELVAULTS DOUBLE-LAYER

SPHERICALDOMES TRIPLE-LAYER
•FLATCOVERS
•THESE STRUCTURES ARE COMPOSED OF PLANAR SUBSTRUCTURES. THE PLANE ARE CHANNELED
THROUGH THE HORIZONTAL BARS AND THE SHEAR FORCES ARE SUPPORTED BY THE DIAGONALS.
 •BARRELVAULTS
•THIS TYPE OF VAULT HAS A CROSS SECTION OF A SIMPLE ARCH. USUALLY THIS TYPE OF SPACE
FRAME DOES NOT NEED TO USE TETRAHEDRAL MODULES OR PYRAMIDS AS A PART OF

ITS BACKING.

LOAD DISTRIBUTION

HEYDER ALIYEV CENTRE BY ZAHA HADID

•SPHERICAL DOMES THESE DOMES USUALLY REQUIRE THE USE OF TETRAHEDRAL MODULES OR
PYRAMIDS AND ADDITIONAL SUPPORT FROM A SKIN.
CONSTRUCTION LAYERS OF DOUBLE BRACCED DOME

FREE FORM SPACE FRAME

SINGLE-LAYER -ALL ELEMENTS ARE LOCATED ON THE SURFACE TO BE APPROXIMATED.
DOUBLE-LAYER

•THE ELEMENTS ARE ORGANIZED IN TWO

PARALLEL LAYERS WITH EACH OTHER AT A
CERTAIN DISTANCE APART.
•THE DIAGONAL BARS CONNECTING THE
NODES OF BOTH LAYERS IN DIFFERENT
DIRECTIONS IN SPACE.
TRIPLE-LAYER
•ELEMENTS ARE PLACED IN THREE PARALLEL
LAYERS, LINKED BY THE DIAGONALS.
• THEY ARE ALMOST ALWAYS FLAT.
•THIS SOLUTION IS TO DECREASE THE
DIAGONAL MEMBERS LENGTH.
 JOINTS
MEMBER •IN A SPACE FRAME,

•MEMBERS ARE AXIAL CONNECTING JOINTS PLAY

ELEMENTS WITH CIRCULAR AN IMPORTANT ROLE, BOTH

OR RECTANGULAR FUNCTIONAL AND

SECTIONS, ALL MEMBERS ESTHETIC, WHICH DERIVES

CAN ONLY RESIST TENSION FROM THEIR RATIONALITY

OR COMPRESSION. DURING CONSTRUCTION

•THE SPACE GRID IS BUILT OF AND AFTER COMPLETION.

RELATIVELY LONG TENSION

MEMBERS AND SHORT JOINT DESIGN IS CRITICAL

COMRESSION MEMBERS TO SPACE FRAME ECONOMY

•A TREND VERY NOTICEABLE AND SAFETY .

WHICH THE STRUCTURAL

MEMBERS ARE LEFT
WELDED CONNECTION BOLTED CONNECTION THREADED CONNECTION
•THE MERO CONNECTOR, INTRODUCED IN 1948 BY DR. MONGERINGHAUSEN, PROVED TO BE EXTREMELY
POPULAR AND HAS BEEN USED FOR NUMEROUS TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT BUILDINGS.
•ITS JOINT CONSISTS OF A NODE THAT IS A SPHERICAL HOT-PRESSED STEEL FORGING WITH FLAT FACETS
AND TAPPED HOLES. MEMBERS ARE CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS WITH CONE- SHAPED STEEL FORGINGS
WELDED AT THE ENDS,WHICH ACCOMMODATE CONNECTING BOLTS.

SPHERICAL
HOT-PRESSED
STEEL FORGING

•THE MERO CONNECTOR WAS ORIGINALLY DEVELOPED FOR DOUBLE-LAYER GRIDS. DUE TO THE INCREASING USE OF
NON-PLANAR ROOF FORMS, IT IS REQUIRED TO CONSTRUCT THE LOAD-BEARING SPACE FRAME INTEGRATED WITH
THE CLADDING ELEMENT.
•ANEW TYPEOF JOINTING SYSTEM CALLED MERO PLUS SYSTEM WAS DEVELOPED SO THAT A VARIETY OF CURVED
AND FOLDED STRUCTURES ARE POSSIBLE.
•THE METHOD CHOSEN FOR ERECTION OF A SPACE FRAME DEPENDS ON:
• ITS BEHAVIOR OF LOAD TRANSMISSION

• CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS, SO THAT IT WILL MEET THE OVER ALL REQUIREMENTS OF

QUALITY, SAFETY,SPEED OF CONSTRUCTION,AND ECONOMY

•THE SCALE OF THE STRUCTURE BEING BUILT,THE METHOD OF JOINTING THE INDIVIDUAL ELEMENTS,
AND THE STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY OF THE SPACE FRAME UNTIL ITS FORM IS CLOSED MUST ALL BE
CONSIDERED.
•INDIVIDUAL ELEMENTS ARE ASSEMBLED IN PLACE AT ACTUAL ELEVATIONS, MEMBERS AND
JOINTS OR PREFABRICATED SUBASSEMBLY ELEMENTS ARE ASSEMBLED DIRECTLY ON THEIR
FINAL POSITION.

•FULL SCAFFOLDINGS ARE USUALLY REQUIRED FOR THIS TYPEOF ERECTION. SOMETIMES
ONLY PARTIAL SCAFFOLDINGS ARE USED IF CANTILEVER ERECTION OF SPACE FRAME CAN BE
EXECUTED.
•THE ELEMENTS ARE FABRICATED AT THE SHOP AND TRANSPORTED TO THE CONSTRUCTION
SITE,AND NO HEAVY LIFTING EQUIPMENT IS REQUIRED.
•THE SPACE FRAME IS DIVIDED ON ITS PLAN INTO INDIVIDUAL STRIPS OR BLOCKS. THESE UNITS ARE
FABRICATED ON THE GROUND LEVEL, THEN HOISTED UP INTO ITS FINAL POSITION AND ASSEMBLED ON THE
TEMPORARY SUPPORTS.
•WITH MORE WORK BEING DONE ON THE GROUND, THE AMOUNT OF ASSEMBLING WORK AT HIGH ELEVATION IS
REDUCED. THIS METHOD IS SUITABLE FOR THOSE DOUBLE LAYER GRIDS WHERE THE STIFFNESS AND
LOAD-RESISTING BEHAVIOR WILL NOT CHANGE CONSIDERABLY AFTER DIVIDING INTO STRIPS ORBLOCKS,SUCHAS
TWO-WAY ORTHOGONAL LATTICED GRIDS,ORTHOGONAL SQUARE PYRAMID SPACE GRIDS, AND THE THOSE WITH
OPENINGS. THE SIZE OF EACH UNIT WILL DEPEND ON THE HOISTING CAPACITY AVAILABLE.
•THE WHOLE SPACE FRAME IS ASSEMBLED AT GROUND LEVEL SO THAT MOST OF THE WORK CAN

BE DONE BEFORE HOISTING. THIS WILL RESULT IN INCREASED EFFICIENCY AND BETTER
QUALITY. FOR SHORT AND MEDIUM SPANS, THE SPACE FRAME CAN BE HOISTED UP BY SEVERAL
CRANES.
•FOR LONG-SPAN SPACE FRAME,TEMPORARY POSTS ARE USED AS THE SUPPORT AND ELECTRIC

WINCHES AS THE LIFTING POWER.THE WHOLE SPACE FRAME CAN BE TRANSLATED OR ROTATED IN
THE AIR AND THEN SEATED ON ITS FINAL POSITION. THIS METHOD CAN BE EMPLOYED TO ALL
TYPES OF DOUBLE-LAYER GRIDS.
HALL OF NATION
PRAGATI MAIDAN
PRAGATI MAIDAN HALL NO-18
GEODESIC DOME
CONTENTS:
Introduction
History
Methods of construction
Materials to be used in
construction
Advantages
Disadvantages
Example in architecture
 Introduction
• A geodesic dome is a thin shelled
arrangements made out of triangles
connected together to form a true sphere.
• The triangles are architecturally firm and
distribute the stress throughout the
dome, allowing the structure to bear
heavy loads for their size.
• Space frame is the three dimensional
framework that makes the dome
stabled.
• The triangles are put as hexagons and
pentagons to eventually form the dome.
• In the year 1919, Walter Bauersfelt who is from Germany has decided to base
History ofgeodesic dome
a moveable projectors within a still dome.

• The first model ever made was more that half a sphere but Walter Bauersfeld has
fixed the issue of how to make a really huge sphere by approximating it.

• After 30 years, an American architect R. Buckminster Fuller has invented a similar

idea but the difference is that he designed it to be affordable and efficient that can be
made fast. It was R. Buckminster Fuller who called it a geodesic dome.

• The geodesic dome is the strongest, lightest and most cost-effective building that was
ever made because it’s ability to cover space without any interior supports “such as
columns” that usually cover up space in an interior. Not only is it cost effective but it
is
also easy to construct.
First build geodesic dome
In the year 1957, in Honolulu Hawaii, a geodesic dome was built so
quickly it only took them 22 hours after all the parts/materials were
delivered.
Nowadays there is over 300,000 domes around the world
• R. Buckminster Fuller’s first world
acceptance by the architectural
community happened in the year
1954 where his cardboard dome
was exhibited for the very first
time. His cardboard dome was
presented in the Milan triennale
where they stage international
exhibitions all over the world to
show their most advanced and
groundbreaking accomplishments
in the field of design,
architecture..etc
 METHOD OF
CONSTRUCTION
 Planning the
construction:
✔ Designing the dome is the first step to start with. The size and amount of triangles and their calculations to form the dome is
needed. For example, the basic dome has equilateral 20 triangle, which then further divided into smaller triangles to form the
sphere. More triangles results in bigger and more complex domes.

✔ Struts: these are the framework for the dome which are made up of rods. Normal geodesic domes have same length of struts
where as complex ones have struts of different sizes.

✔ Material selection should be made as different materials create different kinds of dome.

✔ Finalizing the structure: several things should be kept in mind while putting all the pieces together, such as, the struts and their
dimensions, their edges flattened so that they fall on the same plane when attached, and to make sure the flattened edges bend
slightly (found by calculation).

✔ The calculation differs by class of the dome, like 2V, 3V, 4V, etc.
 Strut preparation

1. Cutting the struts as per calculations 2. Flattening the edges

3. Drilling holes for joints 4. Bending the flattened 5. Sealing and painting the struts
edges
Dome assembly method

The assembly should be planned according to the class

and complexity of the dome constructed.
It also depend on what arrangement will the triangles be,
for example pentagon, hexagon.
It is better to start the assembly from top pieces
and gradually coming downwards.
Assembly
sample
 Materials used in construction
• There are options when building the geodesic dome, you
can choose to cover the triangular panels with either
plastic, wood, drywall or plastic, you get to decide the
material according to the different categories of geodesic
domes. But the most common material used to build a
geodesic dome is steel as they connect the network of
the beams/struts together.
ADVANTAGES
• Geodesic dome is a stable and easy construction which is very strong. they are ideal for
almost any type of spaces
• The even distribution of weight throughout the structure makes it stable during
earthquakes and similar hazards
• Geodesic domes have an aerodynamic shape which protects them against strong wind or
storms.
• Domes being spherical has less surface area per unit of internal volume, reducing the interior
temperature and heat gain and enables uniform air flow.
• This type of domes can be very large in size with less surface area, meaning less materials are
required, hence lowering costs.
• Very quick and easy assembly, making them less labor intensive
• This type of domes are famous for their vast usage in sustainable projects, because the
materials required are all environment friendly and the structure itself is very safe and
creates healthy interior.
DISADVANTAGES
• The unusable space inside of a geodesic dome.
• Windows and doors: using a normal door in a geodesic sphere can
cause a problem, you’d have to custom make all doors and windows
needed.
• The building’s permit can also be a problem as drainage and fire escapes can be
an issue and they need to meet code requirements.
• The financing and rescale .
• Building a geodesic dome needs very skilled labors.
• Strong wind will cause separation between the materials between the nozzle
and the point of deposit.
• geodesic knowledge is greatly required for such building.
Architectural
examples: 1

BIOSPHERE

▪ Constructed in 1947 for world expo

▪ Largest geodesic dome in the worlds
▪ Located in Canada, the only museum dedicated to Water
Architectural
examples: 2

DISNEY’S EPCOT CENTER

▪ Constructed based on Fuller’s plan for

a temperature controlled dome
▪ It is a theme park + greenhouse
containing over 1500 species of plants
▪ Located in Florida
Architectural
examples: 3

THE EDEN PROJECT

▪ The largest
greenhouse in the
world
▪ Completed in 2001
▪ Located in
United Kingdom
Architectural
examples: 4

TELUS World of Science

▪ Science displays
and exhibition
center
PreCoBeam
(Prefabricated Composite Beam)

• These are Prefabricated Composite Beam

containing of Rolled steel sections cut along its
web with a specific design geometry and then
integrated within a concrete structure.
• The composite nature of these beam design creates
a strong bond between the steel section and
concrete making them effective to carry larger
loads over longer spans. (viz.) bridges etc.
• Further these composite sections have very good
fatigue performance, esp. when used in
structures like bridges where the total load on the
structure constantly keeps shifting increasing
fatigue stresses.
PreCoBeam
(Prefabricated Composite Beam)

• The Prefabricated nature of such beams make them extremely sound in their quality, customizable in design, and more
than all reduces installation time significantly.
Modul Bridge Bögl
A bridge structure with separate
load-bearing system - the
company group offers you an
innovative way of building
bridges.

This prefabricated bridge in steel is

a composite construction,
consisting of prefabricated
composite girders made of steel
and concrete along with
pre-stressed, precast concrete
slabs made of high-performance
concrete, which directly becomes
the surface to be driven on (road)
without any sealing and covering.
Modul Bridge, Bögl

From the ground-breaking ceremony to the opening for traffic, the construction time for the Modul Bridge Bögl is generally
only around 80 working days for spans of up to 50 m.

Compared to conventional construction methods, this corresponds to a construction time reduction of around 40–50
percent.
Modul Bridge Bögl

The superstructure of the Modul Bridge Bögl is divided into two separate load-bearing systems. The longitudinal support
system consists of two prefabricated composite girders, consisting of airtight welded hollow steel boxes with connected
concrete top chord.
Modul Bridge Bögl

The precast concrete slabs, which are produced in the factory, already have the pavement and cycle track caps
monolithically integrated. The precast concrete slabs (cross support system) are prestressed in the longitudinal direction of
the bridge. They are laid on top of the composite beam becoming the road surface to drive on.

The roadway slab elements, which weigh up to 30 tons

Elster Bridge
Elster Bridge
This bridge was conceived as a single-span frame PreCoBeam construction with 21metres between the
supports
Elster Bridge
This economical construction method consisted of two rolled sections separated along their web, which were
connected via composite dowels to a concrete deck of varying height.
Elster Bridge
The superstructure consisted of two prefabricated steel beams with external reinforcement that were complemented with
an in situ concrete deck after assembly.
Placed next to each other, the beams allow for a deck width of 3.5 m with caps on both sides measuring 0.75 m. The
construction height in the center of bridge is 0.7m and 1.4m at the bearings.
SUSTAINABLE STEEL
CONSTRUCTION
CELLULAR BEAMS
Cellular Beams
• Cellular beams are the modern form of the traditional Castellated Beam.
• These are beams formed by profiling a rolled section with, semi-circular opening located in the web of the
beam.
CASTELLATED BEAM

• A castellated beam is a beam style where an I-beam is subjected to a longitudinal cut along its web following a
specific pattern in order to divide it, and reassemble the beam with a deeper web by taking advantage of the
cutting pattern
CASTELLATED BEAM
WHY CUT BEAMS AT WEB?
1. Depth of the beam increases without any additional materials, there by increasing the bending resistance of the
beam.
This makes it possible for the same section to SPAN a longer distance than the original Rolled Joist I beam.

2. Any form of openings can created in the web of the I section, which provides a great opportunity for all kind of
Services to be integrated or aligned within the structural depth of the building. This meger of the service height into
the structure height results in added floors in a Multi Storey building.
CASTELLATED BEAM

• In this section, a Rolled Joist Section is cut

asymmetrically along its web in a
hexagonal profile.

• When they are again put together, the

arrived section has a varying depth along
its length.

• These kind of asymmetrical composition

can also be done in Castellated beams
which makes them very handy to respond
to required structural conditions.
ASYMMETRICAL CASTELLATED BEAM
• Asymmetrical Castellated Beams
have a larger Bottom Flange
section with a thinner top Flange

• This is done by taking 2 different

Rolled steel sections and cutting
them in a similar profile. They are
assembled with the opposite
beam to create the larger flange
at the bottom.

• These sections are good is

transferring TENSION which is
large at the bottom of the beam
where there is more steel.
3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CUT
BEAMS
1. Castellated beams
2. Cellular The opening in these beams are exactly circular making them a bit more efficient in
Beams load
transfer
3. Cellular beams from Steel Plates These are built up sections that are welded from steel plates, unlike the above 2 where
an existing rolled Joist section is cut and re-composed to form the new beam.
CELLULAR BEAM
• Castellated beams with Circular holes are called
CELLULAR
BEAMS
CELLULAR BEAM
SERVICE
INTEGRATION
SERVICE
INTEGRATION
SERVICE
INTEGRATION
SERVICE
INTEGRATION
When the openings get bigger
1. Large openings in the beam do compromise the load bearing capacity of the Cellular / Castellated beam.

2. In these conditions additional horizontal extra reinforcements are provided to ensure the beam doesn’t fail.

3. All openings in a Castellated / Cellular beam is done after a lot of design simulation and calculation. They are
not random holes in the beam.

Beam Stiffener –
Large
openings
 SUSTAINABLE STEEL
CONSTRUCTION
COMPOSITE FLOOR SLAB
STEEL DECKING & COMPOSITE FLOOR SLAB CONSTRUCTION
CONVENTION DECK SLAB
• Steel structural frame work

• Metal decking sheet laid above

• Shear anchors welded on top to

fix metal sheet on to the steel
beam

• Reinforcement added on top of

the decking sheet for concrete
surface

• In-Situ concrete to create a

durable floor on top.
CONVENTIONAL FORMWORK
CONVENTIONAL SLAB FORMWORK
Why DECK Flooring?
• In conditions such as highway crossing its
impossible to do a conventional concrete slab done
using normal form work. Because normal formwork
requires supports or props which will hinder the
traffic moving below.

• In these conditions deck flooring become a lost

formwork as well as integral part of the
structural system.

• Work can start on the finished concrete surface

after its hardening because the deck sheet and
steel structure hold the in position.
ALANDUR METRO – Pedestrian Crossing over GST Highway
COMPOSITE SLIM FLOOR BEAM (CoSFB)
• Composite slim floor beams consist of a steel section embedded in a concrete slab, offering the advantages of a
steel-
concrete composite structure combined with a reduced floor depth.
• Here the Structural Beam and the Decking slab are kept at the same level to reduce the thickness of the overall
structural system (slab and beam depth)
COMPOSITE SLIM FLOOR BEAM (CoSFB)
• The structural I beam has fabricated holes through which the slab reinforcement is passes through increasing the
bonding
between the steel beam and the concrete slab on top.

• The Decking sheet is also effectively attached to the structural I beam for structural stability.
SHELL STRUCTURES