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Second Canadian Edition
Randy J. Larsen
Washington University In St. Louis
David M. Buss
University of Texas at Austin
David B. King
University of British Columbia
Carolyn E. Ensley
Wilfrid Laurier University
iii
Part I
The Dispositional Domain
3. Traits and Trait Taxonomies 55
4. Theoretical and Measurement Issues in Trait Psychology 88
5. Personality Dispositions over Time: Stability, Coherence, and Change 123
Part II
The Biological Domain
6. Genetics and Personality 158
7. Physiological Approaches to Personality 189
8. Evolutionary Perspectives on Personality 227
Part III
The Intrapsychic Domain
9. Psychoanalytic Approaches to Personality 263
10. Psychoanalytic Approaches: Contemporary Issues 300
11. Motives and Personality 331
Part IV
The Cognitive/Experiential Domain
12. Cognitive Topics in Personality 371
13. Emotion and Personality 402
14. Approaches to the Self 438
Part V
The Social and Cultural Domain
15. Personality and Social Interaction 470
16. Sex, Gender, and Personality 500
17. Culture and Personality 534
Part VI
The Adjustment Domain
18. Stress, Coping, Adjustment, and Health 568
19. Disorders of Personality 602
Conclusion
20. Summary and Future Directions 644
iv
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vii
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In line with the goals of previous editions, we envision our text as a reflection of the field of personality psy-
chology, both generally and now specifically within a Canadian context. Our desire is to capture the excite-
ment of what the science of personality is all about and how it remains relevant to Canadians. For the second
Canadian edition, we did our best to remain true to that vision. We believe that the field of personality psy-
chology has entered a golden age of sorts, and we hope that the changes we’ve made to this edition convey a
discipline that is vibrant in a way it never has been before. After all, no other field is devoted to the study of all
that it means to be human.
For the previous American edition on which the first Canadian edition was based, each chapter was stream-
lined through judicious trimming. This provided room for discussing new research and made the book a bit
shorter and more economical. The book has since been edited and revised further to resonate with a Canadian
readership. Key additions and revisions to the first and second Canadian editions are described below. We
have updated the language of the text (to improve gender neutrality, to remove potentially stigmatizing lan-
guage, and to ensure that examples are relevant within a modern context), added more salient cultural refer-
ences, and paid special attention to current social issues that many Canadians consider important. In order to
showcase Canadian contributions to personality research, we have included in each chapter a Highlight On
Canadian Research box describing research by Canadian scientists. At the end of each chapter (as well as sec-
tions within), we have also added a few questions (referred to as “Concept Checks”) to help students think
more critically about the material.
• Research on social desirability and impression management, including a highlight of leading Canadian
research by Del Paulhus.
• Updated practical examples of personality assessment and research methods.
• An expanded look at the HEXACO model of personality developed by Canadian researchers, which is
now featured as a main taxonomy following the Five Factor Model.
• A detailed discussion of the Honesty–Humility trait and new research supporting its inclusion as a
sixth factor of personality.
xiii
• A new and expanded examination of the Dark Triad and Dark Tetrad models, including definitions of
narcissism, subclinical psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and dispositional sadism. These additions
better enable the reader’s understanding of research findings on the dark traits discussed throughout
the text.
• Highlighted discussion of the work of Canadian researcher Sampo Paunonen, including expanded
discussions of the hierarchical organization of traits.
• Information on personality testing in RCMP officers.
• New research on gender diversity in the Canadian workforce.
• New research on impulsivity in the section on sensation seeking, including findings on differential
developmental trajectories of these traits.
• New content on increasing openness and creativity.
• New content on volitional personality change.
• Information on the Victoria Longitudinal Study addressing stability and change of personality traits
over time.
• Updated research findings on historical changes in narcissism.
• An overview of the famous Canadian case study of the brain injury of Patient K. C., including the
contributions of the case to modern psychology.
• A highlighted discussion of Canadian research from the Centre for Gambling Research at the
University of British Columbia.
• A closer look at fascinating research that demonstrates how the brain uses its own models of
personality to predict behaviour.
• Research on the adaptive rumination hypothesis, which proposes that depression is an evolved
mechanism in humans.
• Information on how ADHD may have evolved as an adaptive trait.
xiv
• The inclusion of an example of a Canadian court case that was influenced by false memories.
• Research on Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development among Holocaust survivors from Canadian
psychologist Peter Suedfeld.
• Updated research on attachment theory and narcissism.
• Updated research on the basic emotion of pride from Canadian researcher Jessica Tracy.
• Updated research on money and happiness, including Canadian research on prosocial spending.
• A closer look at the link between money and happiness in a Canadian context.
xv
• Updated discussion of sex and gender (including additional definitions of key terms) to better align the
text with a contemporary Canadian perspective.
• New section on gender identity.
• Updated research on sex differences throughout, with outdated research removed or replaced.
• Updated research on masculinity/femininity, gender stereotypes, and theories of sex differences.
• Information on the challenges faced by the transgender community, including a highlight box on
Canadian research examining increased suicide risk resulting from discrimination.
• New and comprehensive highlight box examining cultural identity (and related psychosocial factors) in In-
digenous peoples of Canada, reviewed by David Newhouse, Chair of Indigenous Studies at Trent University.
• An expanded discussion of acculturation, including new Canadian research.
• Intriguing Canadian research on a third type of self-construal, the metapersonal type, and its link to
environmental awareness and conservation behaviour.
• A detailed discussion of the limitations of Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic
(WEIRD) populations in research, as outlined by Canadian researchers.
• Information on the Cross-Cultural (Chinese) Personality Assessment Inventory and how it differs from
conventional measures and models of personality.
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A project of this scope and magnitude requires the efforts of many people. We are greatly indebted to our col-
leagues who reviewed this and previous editions in their various stages. We sincerely appreciate their time,
effort, and thoughtful feedback. We would also like to thank our team at McGraw-Hill, including Alex
Campbell, Portfolio Manager, Melissa Hudson, Content Developer, Jessica Barnoski, Senior Supervising
Editor, Marnie Lamb, Permissions Editor, and Margaret Henderson, Copy Editor. Thanks to David Newhouse,
Chair of Indigenous Studies at Trent University, for providing invaluable feedback reviewing the Indigenous
content in this edition. For their help and assistance on the first Canadian edition, we would like to give spe-
cial thanks to Karolina Donasewicz and Juliane Dmyterko. Their time, effort, and feedback throughout the
original Canadianization of this book proved invaluable to the project. David King feels especially indebted to
their assistance in the initial research and editing process.
xxi
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Introduction to Personality
Psychology
Personality Defined
Personality Is the Set of Psychological Traits . . .
And Mechanisms . . .
Within the Individual . . .
That Are Organized and Relatively Enduring . . .
And That Influence . . .
The Individual’s Interactions with . . .
And Adaptations to . . .
The Environment
Introduction
Those who carry humour to excess are thought to be vulgar buffoons, striving after humour at all costs, not
caring about pain to the object of their fun; . . . while those who can neither make a joke themselves nor put
up with those who do are thought to be boorish and unpolished. But those who joke in a tasteful way are
called ready-witted and tactful . . . and it is the mark of a tactful person to say and listen to such things as
befit a good and well-bred person.
We might conclude that Aristotle was an amateur personality psychologist. But aren’t we all amateur person-
ality psychologists to some extent? Aren’t we all curious about the characteristics people possess, including
our own characteristics? Don’t we all use personality characteristics in describing people? And haven’t we all
used personality characteristics to explain behaviour, either our own or that of others?
When we say that a friend goes to a lot of parties because they are outgoing, we are using personality to ex-
plain their behaviour. When we refer to another friend as conscientious and reliable, we are describing fea-
tures of their personality. When we characterize ourselves as thoughtful, intelligent, and ambitious, we are
describing features of our personality.
Features of personality make people different from one another, and these features usually take the form of
adjectives; for instance, John is lazy, Lina is optimistic, and Samir is anxious. Adjectives that can be used to
describe characteristics of people are called trait-descriptive adjectives. There are nearly 20,000 such trait-
descriptive adjectives in the English language. This astonishing fact alone tells us that, in everyday life, there
are compelling reasons for trying to understand and describe those we interact with, as well as ourselves.
Notice that the adjectives describing personality refer to several very different aspects of people. Words such as
thoughtful refer to inner qualities of the mind. Words such as charming and humorous refer to the effects a person
has on other people. Words such as domineering are relational and signify a person’s position, or stance, toward
others. Words such as ambitious refer to the intensity of desire to reach our goals. Words such as creative refer both
to a quality of mind and to the nature of the products we produce. Words such as deceitful may refer to the strate-
gies used to attain one’s goals, however socially problematic. All of these features describe aspects of personality.
Exercise
Think of someone you know well—say, a friend, family member, or roommate. Consider the many
characteristics that make this person unique. List the five adjectives you think best capture this
person’s personality. For example, if you were to describe this person to someone, what five adjec-
tives would you use? Now, ask your target person to list the five adjectives they think make them
most unique. Compare your lists. How similar or different are they?
Personality Defined
Establishing a definition for something as complex as human personality is difficult. The authors of the first
textbooks on personality—Gordon Allport (1937) and Henry Murray (1938)—struggled with the definition.
The problem is how to establish a definition that is sufficiently comprehensive to include all of the aspects
mentioned in the introduction to this chapter,
including inner features, social effects, quali-
ties of the mind, qualities of the body, relations
to others, and inner goals. Because of these
complexities, some texts on personality omit a
formal definition entirely. Nonetheless, the
following definition captures the essential ele-
ments of personality: Personality is the set of
psychological traits and mechanisms within the
individual that are organized and relatively en-
during and that influence the individual’s
interactions with, and adaptations to, the intra-
psychic, physical, and social environments. Let’s
examine the elements of this definition more
closely.
fers from others who are more outgoing. Traits science of personality psychology provides an understanding
also define ways in which people are similar to of the psychological ways that people differ from one another.
Clockwise from top left: ©Ingram Publishing/SuperStock; ©Design Pics/
some others. For example, people who are shy
Darren Greenwood; ©Shutterstock/Merla; ©Shutterstock/oneinchpunch;
are similar to each other in that they are anx- ©BananaStock/Alamy; ©A. Ramey/PhotoEdit; ©Shutterstock/Monkey
ious in social situations, particularly when Business Images; ©stevecoleimages/Getty Images; ©Kevin Peterson/Getty
there is an audience watching them. Images; ©Purestock/Superstock.
Consider another example—the trait of talkativeness. This characteristic can be meaningfully applied to peo-
ple and describes a dimension of difference among them. Typically, a talkative person is that way from day to
day, from week to week, and from year to year. Certainly, even the most talkative person can have quiet
moments, quiet days, or even quiet weeks. Over time, however, those with the trait of talkativeness tend to
emit verbal behaviour with greater frequency than those who are low on talkativeness. In this sense, traits
describe the average tendencies of a person. On average, a high-talkative person starts more conversations
than a low-talkative person.
One primary question is how many fundamental traits there are. Are there dozens or hundreds of traits, or
merely a few? The second research question pertains to the organization, or structure, of traits. For example,
how is talkativeness related to other traits, such as impulsivity and extraversion? A third research question
concerns the origins of traits—where they come from and how they develop. Does heredity influence talk-
ativeness? What sorts of cultural and child-rearing practices affect the development of traits such as talkative-
ness? A fourth key question pertains to the correlations and consequences of traits in terms of experience,
behaviour, and life outcomes. Do talkative people have many friends? Do they have a more extended social
network to draw upon in times of trouble? Do they annoy people who are trying to study?
The four research questions constitute the core of the research program of many personality psychologists.
Psychological traits are useful for at least three reasons. First, they help describe people and help understand the
dimensions of difference among people. Second, traits are useful because they help explain behaviour. The rea-
sons people act may be partly a function of their personality traits. Third, traits are useful because they can help
predict future behaviour—for example, the sorts of careers individuals will find satisfying, who will tolerate stress
better, and who is likely to get along well with others. Thus, personality is useful in describing, explaining, and
predicting differences among individuals. All good scientific theories enable researchers to describe, explain, and
predict in their domains. Just as an economic theory
might be useful in describing, explaining, and predicting
fluctuations in the economy, personality traits describe,
explain, and predict differences among people.
And Mechanisms . . .
Psychological mechanisms are like traits, except that
the term mechanisms refers more to the processes of
personality. For example, most psychological mecha-
nisms involve an information-processing activity.
Someone who is extraverted, for example, may look for
and notice opportunities to interact with other people. Courage is an example of a trait that is activated
That is, an extraverted person is prepared to notice and only under particular circumstances.
act on certain kinds of social information. ©RubberBall/Alamy Stock Photo
Most psychological mechanisms have three essential ingredients: inputs, decision rules, and outputs. A psycho-
logical mechanism may make people more sensitive to certain kinds of information from the environment
(input), may make them more likely to think about specific options (decision rules), and may guide their be-
haviour toward certain categories of action (outputs). For example, an extraverted person may look for oppor-
tunities to be with other people, may consider in each situation the possibilities for human contact and
interaction, and may encourage others to interact with them. Our personalities contain many psychological
mechanisms of this sort—information-processing procedures that have the key elements of inputs, decision
rules, and outputs (see Figure 1.1).
This does not mean that all of our traits and psychological mechanisms are activated at all times. In fact, at
any point in time, only a few are activated. Consider the trait of courageousness. This trait is activated only
under particular conditions, such as when people face serious dangers and threats to their lives. Some people
are more courageous than others, but we will never know which people are courageous unless and until the
right situation presents itself. Look around next time you are in class: Who do you think has the trait of coura-
geousness? You won’t know until you are in a situation that provides the potential for courageous behaviour.
intimacy. If you have not eaten for a while and are experiencing hunger pangs, then your desire for food might
override your desire for intimacy. On the other hand, if you have already eaten, then your desire for food may
temporarily subside, allowing you to pursue intimacy. Our personalities are organized in the sense that they
contain decision rules that govern which needs are activated, depending on the circumstances.
Psychological traits are also relatively enduring over time, particularly in adulthood, and are somewhat con-
sistent over situations. To say that someone is angry at this moment is not saying anything about a trait. A
person may be angry now but not tomorrow, or may be angry in this situation but not in others. Anger is more
of a state than a trait. To say that someone is anger prone or generally hot tempered, however, is to describe a
psychological trait. Someone who is anger prone is frequently angry, relative to others, and shows this prone-
ness time and time again in many different situations (e.g., the person is argumentative at work, is hostile and
aggressive while playing team sports for recreation, and argues a lot with family members).
There may be some occasions when this generalization about the consistency of personality from situation to
situation does not hold. Some situations may be overpowering and suppress the expression of psychological
traits. Individuals who are generally talkative, for example, may remain quiet during a lecture, at the movies,
or in an elevator—although you undoubtedly have experienced someone who could not or would not keep
quiet in any of these circumstances!
The debate about whether people are consistent across situations in their lives has a long history in personality
psychology. Some psychologists have argued that the evidence for consistency is weak (Mischel, 1968). For
example, honesty measured in one situation (say, cheating on a test) may not correlate with honesty measured
in another situation (say, cheating on income taxes). We will explore this debate more fully later in the book.
For now we will simply say that most personality psychologists maintain that although people are not perfectly
consistent, there is enough consistency to warrant including this characteristic in a definition of personality.
The fact that personality includes relatively enduring psychological traits and mechanisms does not preclude
change over time. Indeed, describing precisely the ways in which we change over time is one goal of personal-
ity psychologists.
exposed to the same objective event, yet what they pay attention to and how they interpret the event may be
very different. And this difference is a function of their personalities. For example, two people can look at an
inkblot, yet one person sees two cannibals cooking a human over a fire, whereas the other perceives a smiling
clown waving hello. As another example, a stranger may smile at someone on the street; one person might
perceive the smile as a smirk, whereas another person might perceive the smile as a friendly gesture. It is the
same smile, just as it is the same inkblot, yet how people interpret these situations can be determined by their
personalities.
Selection describes the manner in which we choose situations to enter—how we choose our friends, hobbies,
university or college classes, and careers. How we go about making these selections is, at least in part, a reflec-
tion of our personalities. How we use our free time is especially a reflection of our traits. One person may take
up the hobby of parachute jumping, whereas another may prefer to spend time quietly gardening. We select
from what life offers us, and these choices are partly a function of personality.
Evocations are the reactions we produce in others, often quite unintentionally. To some extent, we create the
social environments that we inhabit. A child with a high activity level, for example, may evoke in parents at-
tempts to constrain the child, even though these attempts are not intended or desired by the child. A person
who is physically large may evoke feelings of intimidation in others, even if intimidation is not the goal. Our
evocative interactions are also essential features of our personalities.
Manipulations are the ways in which we intentionally attempt to influence others. Someone who is anxious or
frightened easily may try to influence their group to avoid scary movies or risky activities. Someone who is
highly conscientious may insist that everyone follow the rules. Or a man who is very neat and orderly may
insist that his partner pick up her things. The ways in which we attempt to manipulate the behaviour, thoughts,
and feelings of others are essential features of our personalities. All of these forms of interaction—perceptions,
selection, evocations, and manipulations—are central to understanding the connections between the person-
alities of people and the environments they inhabit.
And Adaptations to . . .
An emphasis on adaptations conveys the notion that a central feature of personality concerns adaptive
functioning—accomplishing goals, coping, adjusting, and dealing with the challenges and problems we face
as we go through life. Few things are more obvious about human behaviour than the fact that it is goal di-
rected, functional, and purposeful. Even behaviour that does not appear functional—such as excessive
worrying—may, in fact, be functional. For example, people who worry a lot often receive lots of support from
others. Consequently, what appears on the surface to be maladaptive (worrying) may, in fact, have some re-
warding characteristics for the person (eliciting social support). In addition, some aspects of personality pro-
cesses represent deficits in normal adaptations, such as breakdowns in the ability to cope with stress, to
regulate one’s social behaviour, or to manage one’s emotions. Although psychologists’ knowledge of the adap-
tive functions of personality traits and mechanisms is currently limited, it remains an indispensable key to
understanding the nature of human personality.
The Environment
The physical environment often poses challenges for people. Some of these are direct threats to survival. For
example, food shortages create the problem of securing adequate nutrients for survival. Extremes of
temperature pose the problem of maintaining thermal homeostasis. Heights, snakes, spiders, and strangers
can all pose threats to survival. Human beings, like other animals, have evolved solutions to these adaptive
problems. Hunger pangs motivate us to seek food, and taste preferences guide our choices of which foods to
consume. Shivering mechanisms help combat the cold, and sweat glands help fight the heat. At a psychologi-
cal level, our fears of heights, snakes, spiders, and strangers—the most common human fears—help us avoid
or safely interact with these environmental threats to our survival.
Our social environment also poses adaptive challenges. We may desire the prestige of a good job, but there are
many other people competing for the same positions. We may desire interesting friends and mates, but there
are many others competing for them. We may desire greater emotional closeness with others, but may not
know how to achieve closeness. The ways in which we cope with our social environment—the challenges we
encounter in our struggle for belongingness, love, and esteem—are central to an understanding of
personality.
The particular aspect of the environment that is important at any moment in time is frequently determined by
personality. A person who is talkative, for example, will notice more opportunities in the social environment
to strike up conversations than will someone who is low on talkativeness. A person who is disagreeable will
occupy a social environment where people frequently argue with them. A person for whom status is very im-
portant will pay attention to the relative hierarchical positions of others—who is up, who is down, who is as-
cending, who is sliding. In short, from among the potentially infinite dimensions of the environments we
inhabit, our “effective environment” represents only the small subset of features that our psychological mech-
anisms direct us to attend and respond to.
In addition to our physical and social environments, we have an intrapsychic environment. Intrapsychic
means “within the mind.” We all have memories, dreams, desires, fantasies, and a collection of private
experiences that we live with each day. This intrapsychic environment, although not as objectively verifi-
able as our social or physical environment, is nevertheless real to each of us and makes up an important
part of our psychological reality. For example, our self-esteem—how good or bad we feel about ourselves
at any given moment—may depend on our assessment of the degree to which we are succeeding in at-
taining our goals. Success at work and success at friendship may provide two different forms of success
experience and, hence, form different intrapsychic memories. We are influenced by our memories of
these experiences whenever we think about our own self-worth. Our intrapsychic environment, no less
than our physical and social environments, provides a critical context for understanding human
personality.
Exercise
Write a one-page essay about a good friend, someone you know well, in which you describe what
is characteristic, enduring, and functional about that person. Include in this description those
elements of the ways in which they interact with, or adapt to, the physical, social, and intrapsy-
chic environments. Which traits or characteristics about this person do you think are most
adaptive?
Another way to think of these distinctions is that the first level refers to “universals” (the ways in which we are
all alike), the middle level refers to “particulars” (the ways in which we are like some people but unlike others),
and the third level refers to “uniqueness” (the ways in which we are unlike any other person) (see Table 1.1).
Human Nature
The first level of personality analysis describes human nature in general—the traits and mechanisms of
personality that are typical of our species and are possessed by everyone or nearly everyone. For example,
most humans have language skills which allow us to learn and use a language. All cultures on Earth speak a
language, so spoken language is part of the universal human nature. At a psychological level, all humans pos-
sess fundamental psychological mechanisms—for example, the desire to live with others and belong to social
groups—and these mechanisms are part of general human nature. There are many ways in which each person
is like most or all other people, and by understanding those ways we may achieve an understanding of the
general principles of human nature.
out of airplanes, riding motorcycles, and driving fast; others avoid physical risks entirely. Some people enjoy
high self-esteem and live life relatively free from anxiety; others worry constantly and are plagued by self-
doubt. These are dimensions of individual differences, ways in which each person is like some other people
(e.g., extraverts, sensation seekers).
Personality can also be observed by studying differences among groups. That is, people in one group may have
certain personality features in common, and these common features make that group of people different from
other groups. Examples of groups studied by personal-
ity psychologists include different cultures, different age
groups, different political parties, and groups from dif-
ferent socioeconomic backgrounds. Another important
set of differences studied by personality psychologists
concerns those between males and females. Although
many traits and mechanisms of humans are common to
both sexes, there are a few that differ. For example,
there is accumulated evidence that, across cultures,
males are typically more physically aggressive than fe-
males. Males are responsible for most of the violence
the world over. One goal of personality psychology is to
understand why certain aspects of personality differ Personality psychologists sometimes study group
among groups, such as understanding how and why differences, such as differences between men and
women are different from men and why people from women.
one culture differ from those from another culture. ©Eric Audras/Getty Images
Individual Uniqueness
No two individuals, not even identical twins raised by the same parents in the same home in the same culture,
have exactly the same personalities. Every individual has personal qualities not shared by any other person in
the world. One of the goals of personality psychology is to support individual uniqueness and to develop ways
to capture the richness of unique individual lives.
One debate in the field concerns whether individuals should be studied nomothetically—that is, as individual
instances of general characteristics that are distributed in the population, or should be studied idiographically,
as single, unique cases. Nomothetic research typically involves statistical comparisons of individuals or
groups, requiring samples of subjects on which to conduct research. Nomothetic research is typically applied
to identify universal human characteristics and dimensions of individual or group differences. Idiographic
(translated literally as “the description of one”) research typically focuses on a single subject, trying to observe
general principles that are manifest in a single life over time. Often, idiographic research results in case studies
or the psychological biography of a single person (Runyon, 1983). Sigmund Freud, for example, wrote a psy-
chobiography of Leonardo da Vinci (1916/1947). An example of another version of idiographic research is
provided by Rosenzweig (1986, 1997), in which he proposes to analyze individuals in terms of the sequence of
events in their lives, trying to understand critical life events within the individuals’ own histories.
The important point is that personality psychologists have been concerned with all three levels of analysis: the
universal level, the level of individual and group differences, and the level of individual uniqueness. Each
contributes valuable knowledge to the total understanding of the nature of personality.
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Many of the textbooks used in teaching university courses in personality psychology are structured around
grand theories. These books have been criticized, however, because many of those theories are primarily of
historical interest. Only parts of them have stood the test of time and guide personality research today.
Although the grand theories are an important part of the history of personality psychology, there is much in-
teresting personality research going on today that is not directly relevant to the historical grand theories.
One way to examine personality psychology would be to pick a dozen or so current research topics and explore
what psychologists have learned about each. For example, a lot of research has been done on self-esteem—
what it is, how it develops, how people maintain high self-esteem, and how it functions in relationships. There
are many other interesting topics in contemporary personality psychology—shyness, aggression, trust, domi-
nance, hypnotic susceptibility, depression, intelligence, attributional style, goal setting, anxiety, temperament,
sex roles, self-monitoring, extraversion, sensation seeking, agreeableness, impulsivity, sociopathy, morality,
locus of control, optimism, creativity, leadership, prejudice, and narcissism.
A course that just surveys current topics in personality research seems unsatisfactory. It would be like going to
an auction and bidding on everything—soon you would be overwhelmed. Just picking topics to cover would
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not result in any sense of the connection among the aspects of personality. Indeed, the field of personality has
been criticized for containing too many independent areas of investigation, with no sense of the whole person
behind the separate topics of investigation. What holds personality together as a coherent field would be miss-
ing in such an approach.
You have probably heard the ancient legend of the three blind men who were presented with an elephant.
They tried to figure out what the whole elephant was like. The first blind man approached cautiously; walk-
ing up to the elephant and putting his hands and then arms around the animal’s leg, he proclaimed, “Why,
the whole elephant is much like a tree, slender and tall.” The second man grasped the trunk of the elephant
and exclaimed, “No, the whole elephant is more like a large snake.” The third blind man grasped the ear of
the elephant and stated, “You are both wrong; the whole elephant more closely resembles a fan.” The three
blind men proceeded to argue with one another, each insisting that his opinion of the whole elephant was
the correct one. In a sense, each blind man had a piece of the truth, yet each failed to recognize that his per-
ceptions of the elephant captured only a narrow part of the truth. Each failed to grasp the whole elephant.
Working together, however, the blind men could have assembled a reasonable understanding of the whole
elephant.
The topic of personality is like the elephant, and personality psychologists are sort of like the blind men, ex-
amining only one perspective at a time. Psychologists often approach the topic of personality from one per-
spective. For example, some psychologists study the biological aspects of personality. Others study ways that
culture promotes personality differences among people and among groups. Still other psychologists study how
various aspects of the mind interact and work together to produce personality. And others study relationships
among people and believe that social interaction is where personality manifests its most important effects.
Each of these perspectives on personality captures elements of truth, yet each alone is inadequate to describe
the entire realm of human personality—the whole elephant, so to speak.
This degree of specialization is reasonable. Indeed, specialization characterizes many scientific fields. The
field of medicine, for example, has heart specialists and brain specialists, focusing in great detail on their
own domains. It is likewise reasonable for the field of personality psychology to have intrapsychic specialists,
cultural specialists, and biological specialists. Each of these domains of personality has accumulated its own
base of knowledge. Nonetheless, it is desirable to integrate these diverse domains to see how they all fit
together.
The whole personality, like the whole elephant, is the sum of the various parts and the connections among
them. For personality, each part is a domain of knowledge representing a collection of knowledge about
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certain aspects of personality. How are the domains of knowledge defined? For the most part, natural bound-
aries have developed in the field of personality psychology. That is, researchers have formed natural clusters
of topics that fit together and are distinct from other clusters of knowledge. Within these identifiable domains,
researchers have developed common methods for asking questions; have accumulated a foundation of known
facts; and have developed theoretical explanations that account for what is known about personality from the
perspective of each domain.
The field of personality can be neatly cleaved into six distinct domains of knowledge about human nature:
personality is influenced by traits the person is born with and develops over time (dispositional domain); by
biological events (biological domain); by processes within the person’s own mind (intrapsychic domain); by
personal and private thoughts, feelings, desires, beliefs, and other subjective experiences (cognitive-
experiential domain); by social, cultural, and gendered positions in the world (social and cultural domain);
and by the adjustments that the person must make to the inevitable challenges of life (adjustment
domain).
Personality psychologists working within each domain often use different theoretical perspectives and focus
on different facts. As a consequence, psychologists from different domains can sometimes appear to contradict
one another. The psychoanalytic perspective of Sigmund Freud, for example, views the personality as consist-
ing of irrational sexual and aggressive instincts, which ultimately motivate all human activity. The cognitive
perspective on personality, in contrast, views humans as rational “scientists,” calmly trying to anticipate, pre-
dict, and control the events that occur in their worlds.
On the surface, these perspectives appear incompatible. How can humans be both irrational and rational?
How can humans be driven by desire yet be cool and detached in their quest for accurate prediction? On
deeper examination, the contradictions may be more apparent than real. It is entirely possible, for example,
that humans have both powerful sexual and aggressive motivations and cognitive mechanisms designed to
perceive and predict events with accuracy. It is entirely possible that sometimes basic emotions and motiva-
tions are activated and at other times the cool cognitive mechanisms are activated. And it is possible that the
two sets of mechanisms sometimes become linked with one another, such as when the rational mechanisms
are used in the service of fulfilling fundamental desires. In short, although each theoretical perspective may be
focused on a critically important part of human psychological functioning, each perspective by itself does not
capture the whole person.
This book is organized around the six domains of personality functioning—dispositional, biological, intrapsy-
chic, cognitive-experiential, social and cultural, and adjustment. Within each of these domains of personality,
we focus on two key elements: (1) the theories that have been proposed within each domain, including the
basic assumptions about human nature, and (2) the empirical research that has been accumulating within
each of these domains. In an attempt to bridge the gap between theory and research in personality, we focus
primarily on the theories that have received the greatest research attention and the topics within each domain
for which there is the greatest cumulative knowledge base.
Dispositional Domain
The dispositional domain deals centrally with the ways in which individuals differ from one another. As
such, the dispositional domain cuts across all the other domains. The reason is that individuals can differ in
their habitual emotions, their habitual concepts of self, their physiological propensities, and even their
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intrapsychic mechanisms. However, what distinguishes the dispositional domain is an interest in the number
and nature of fundamental dispositions. The central goal of personality psychologists working in the disposi-
tional domain is to identify and measure the most important ways in which individuals differ from one an-
other. They are also interested in the origins of the important individual differences and in how they develop
and are maintained.
Biological Domain
The core assumption within the biological domain
is that humans are, first and foremost, collections of
biological systems, and these systems provide the
building blocks for behaviour, thought, and emotion.
As personality psychologists use the term, biological
approaches typically refers to three areas of research
within this general domain: genetics, psychophysiol-
ogy, and evolution.
The second biological approach is best described as the psychophysiology of personality. Within this domain,
researchers summarize what is known about the basis of personality in terms of nervous system functioning.
Examples of such topics include cortical arousal and neurotransmitters, cardiac reactivity, strength of the
nervous system, pain tolerance, circadian rhythms (whether you are a morning or a night person), and the
links between hormones, such as testosterone, and personality.
The third component of the biological approach concerns how evolution may have shaped human psycho-
logical functioning. This approach assumes that the psychological mechanisms that constitute human per-
sonality have evolved over thousands of years because they were effective in solving adaptive problems
linked to survival and reproduction. An evolutionary perspective sheds light on the functional aspects of
personality.
Intrapsychic Domain
The intrapsychic domain deals with mental mechanisms of personality, many of which operate outside
of conscious awareness. The predominant theory in this domain is Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis. This
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theory begins with fundamental assumptions about the instinctual system—the sexual and aggressive
forces that are presumed to drive and energize much of human activity. Considerable research reveals that
sexual and aggressive motives are indeed powerful, and their manifestations in actual behaviour can be
studied empirically. The intrapsychic domain also includes defence mechanisms, such as repression, de-
nial, and projection—some of which have been examined in laboratory studies. Although the intrapsychic
domain is most closely linked with the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, there are modern ver-
sions as well. For example, much of the research on the power motives, achievement motives, and inti-
macy motives is based on a key intrapsychic assumption—that these forces often operate outside the realm
of consciousness.
Cognitive-Experiential Domain
The cognitive-experiential domain focuses on cognition and subjective experience, such as conscious
thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and desires about oneself and others. The psychological mechanisms involved in
subjective experience differ, however, in form and content from one another. One important element of our
experience entails the self and self-concept. Descriptive aspects of the self organize how we view ourselves:
knowledge of ourselves, images of past selves, and images of possible future selves. Do we see ourselves as
good or as evil? Are our past successes or past failures prominent in our self-views? Do we envision ourselves
in the future as married with children or as successful in a career? How we evaluate ourselves—our
self-esteem—is another facet of the cognitive-experiential domain.
A somewhat different aspect of this domain pertains to the goals we strive for. Some personality psycholo-
gists, for example, view human nature as inherently goal-directed, stressing the organizing influence of fun-
damental needs or strivings, such as the need for affiliation and the striving to influence others. Recent
research within this tradition includes approaching personality through the personal projects; that is, the
tasks that individuals are trying to accomplish in their daily lives. These can range from the commonplace,
such as getting a date for Saturday night, to the grandiose, such as changing thought in Western
civilization.
Another important aspect of subjective experience entails our emotions. Are we habitually happy or sad?
What makes us angry or fearful? Do we keep our emotions bottled up inside, or do we express them at the drop
of a hat? Joy, sadness, feelings of triumph, and feelings of despair all are essential elements in our subjective
experience and are subsumed by the cognitive-experiential domain.
At a cultural level, it is clear that groups differ tremendously from one another. Cultures such as the Yano-
mamö Indians of Venezuela are highly aggressive; indeed, a Yanomamö man does not achieve full status as a
man until he has killed another man. In contrast, cultures such as the !Kung San of Botswana are relatively
peaceful and agreeable. Overt displays of aggression are discouraged and bring social shame on the perpetra-
tor. Personality differences among these groups are most likely due to cultural influences. In other words,
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One important social sphere concerns relationships between men By studying people in different cultures,
and women. At the level of differences between the sexes, person- psychologists are learning how society
ality may operate differently for men than for women. Gender is an shapes personality by encouraging or
essential part of our identities. discouraging specific behaviours.
©blickwinkel/Alamy Stock Photo
Adjustment Domain
The adjustment domain refers to the fact that personality plays a key role in how we cope, adapt, and adjust
to the ebb and flow of events in our day-to-day lives. Evidence, for example, shows that personality is linked
with important health outcomes, such as heart disease.
Personality is also linked with health-related behav-
iours, such as smoking, drinking, and risk taking. Some
research has even demonstrated that personality is
linked with how long we live.
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Exercise
Think of a behaviour pattern or characteristic that you find interesting in yourself or someone
you know. Such characteristics as procrastination, narcissism, and perfectionism are good exam-
ples, but any personality characteristic that catches your interest is suitable. Then write six sen-
tences about this characteristic, one to represent each of the six domains: dispositional, biological,
intrapsychic, cognitive-experiential, social and cultural, and adjustment. Each sentence should
make a statement or ask a question about the characteristic from the perspective of a particular
domain. Which domain offers you the most insight about the characteristic?
One of the most important purposes of theories is that they serve as a guide for researchers, directing them to
important questions within an area of research.
A second useful function of theories is to organize known findings. In physics, for example, there is a bewilder-
ing array of events—apples fall from trees, planets exert attraction on each other, black holes pull in light. The
theory of gravity neatly and powerfully accounts for all of these observations. By accounting for known find-
ings, theories bring both coherence and understanding to the known world. The same applies to personality
theories. Theories are viewed as powerful if they succeed in accounting for known findings, in addition to
guiding psychologists to important domains of inquiry.
A third purpose of theories is to make predictions about behaviour and psychological phenomena that no one
has yet documented or observed. Einstein’s theory of relativity, for example, predicted that light will bend
around large stars long before we had the technology to test this prediction. When researchers finally con-
firmed that light does, indeed, bend when going around stars such as our sun, that finding bore out the power
of Einstein’s theory.
Finally, we need to distinguish between scientific theories and beliefs. For example, astrology is a collection
of beliefs about the relationship between personality and the position of the stars at birth. Some people hold
that such relationships are true, even in the absence of supporting evidence. To date, psychologists have not
found reliable factual support, using standard research methods and systematic observations, for the idea that
the positions of the stars at a person’s birth influence personality. As such, astrology remains a belief, not a
scientific theory. Beliefs are often personally useful and crucially important to some people, but they are based
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on faith, not on reliable facts and systematic observations. Theories, on the other hand, are tested by system-
atic observations that can be repeated by others and that yield similar conclusions.
In sum, three key criteria of personality theories highlight the interplay of theory and research. They guide research-
ers to important domains of inquiry, account for known findings, and make predictions about new phenomena.
• comprehensiveness
• heuristic value
• testability
• parsimony
• compatibility and integration across domains and levels
The first standard is comprehensiveness—does the theory do a good job of explaining all of the facts and
observations within its domain? Theories that explain more empirical findings are generally superior to those
that explain fewer findings.
A second evaluative standard is heuristic value—does the theory provide a guide to important new discover-
ies about personality that were not known before? Theories that steer scientists to making these discoveries are
generally superior to theories that fail to provide this guidance. Plate tectonic theory in geology, for example,
guided researchers to discover regions of volcanic activity that were unknown prior to the theory. Similarly, a
good personality theory will guide personality researchers to make discoveries that were previously unknown.
A third important standard for evaluating theories is testability—does the theory provide precise predictions
that can be tested empirically? Some theories—for example, certain aspects of Freud’s theory of intrapsychic
conflict—have been criticized on the grounds that they are difficult or impossible to test; other aspects of
Freud’s theory are testable (see Chapters 9 and 10). As a general rule, the testability of a theory rests with the
precision of its predictions. Precise theoretical predictions aid progress in the science because they allow inad-
equate theories to be discarded (those whose predictions are falsified) and good theories to be retained (those
whose predictions are empirically confirmed). If a theory does not lend itself to being tested empirically, it is
generally judged to be a poor theory.
A fourth standard for evaluating personality theories is parsimony—does the theory contain few premises
and assumptions (parsimony) or many premises and assumptions (lack of parsimony)? As a general rule,
theories that require many premises and assumptions to explain a given set of findings are judged to be poorer
than theories that can explain the same findings with fewer premises and assumptions. Although parsimony
is important, bear in mind that this does not mean that simple theories are always better than complex
theories. Indeed, simple theories often crash and burn because they fail to meet one or more of the other five
standards described here; for example, they may fail to be comprehensive because they explain so little. It is
our view that human personality is genuinely complex, and so a complex theory—one containing many
premises—may ultimately be necessary.
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A fifth standard is compatibility and integration across domains and levels. A theory of cosmology in
astronomy that violated known laws of physics, for example, would be incompatible across levels and hence
judged to be fundamentally flawed. A theory of biology that violated known principles of chemistry similarly
would be judged to be fatally flawed. In the same way, a personality theory in one domain that violated well-
established principles in another domain would be judged highly problematic. For example, a theory of the
development of personality dispositions that was inconsistent with well-established knowledge in physiology
and genetics would be judged to be problematic. Similarly, a theory of evolutionary influences on personality
that contradicted what is known about cultural influences, or vice versa, would be problematic. Although the
criterion of compatibility and integration across domains and levels is a well-established principle in most sci-
ences (Buss, 2012; Tooby & Cosmides, 1992), it has rarely been used to evaluate the adequacy of personality
theories. We believe that the “domains” approach taken in this book highlights the importance of the evalua-
tive criterion of compatibility across levels of personality analysis.
In sum, as you progress through the six domains of personality functioning, keep in mind the five standards
by which theories within each domain can be evaluated—comprehensiveness, heuristic value, testability, par-
simony, and cross-domain compatibility (see Table 1.2).
Perhaps Sigmund Freud, the inventor of psychoanalytic theory, provided the most ambitious attempt at a
grand unifying theory of personality (see Chapter 9). And many grand theories have followed Freud’s. But
over the past several decades, most personality researchers have come to the realization that the field currently
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lacks a grand unifying theory. Instead, most have focused on more specific domains of functioning. It is pre-
cisely for this reason that our book is organized around the six domains—these represent the domains in
which progress, scientific findings, and new discoveries are being made.
In our view, an ultimate grand theory of personality psychology will have to unify all six domains. It will have
to explain personality characteristics and how they develop over time (dispositional domain). It will have to
explain evolutionary, genetic, and physiological underpinnings of personality (biological domain). It will have
to explain deeply rooted motives and dynamic intrapsychic processes (intrapsychic domain). It will have to
explain how people experience the world and process information about it (cognitive-experiential domain). It
will have to explain how personality affects, and is affected by, the social and cultural context in which people
conduct their lives (social and cultural domain). And it will have to explain how people cope and function—as
well as how adjustment fails—as they encounter the numerous adaptive problems they face over the inevita-
bly bumpy course of their lives (the adjustment domain).
Although the field of personality psychology currently lacks a grand theory, we believe that work in these six
domains will ultimately provide the foundations on which such a unified personality theory will be built.
Concept Check
What does it mean to say that personality consists of both traits and mechanisms? What does it mean
to say that personality traits are organized and relatively enduring?
What are the three levels of analysis in personality research? Provide an example of each.
Name and describe the five standards for evaluating personality theories. What is a “good” theory?
Key Terms
20
Personality Assessment,
Measurement, and Research
Design
Sources of Personality Data
Self-Report Data (S-Data)
Observer-Report Data (O-Data)
Test Data (T-Data)
Life-Outcome Data (L-Data)
Issues in Personality Assessment
Introduction
I magine that a federal election is looming. You are faced with a choice among numerous candidates and par-
ties to vote for. The personalities of the candidates may prove to be critical to your decision. How will they
hold up under stress? What are their attitudes toward climate change or immigration? Will they stand tough
in negotiating with leaders from other countries? This chapter is concerned with the means by which we gain
information about other people’s personalities—the sources from which we gather personality data and the
research designs we use in the scientific study of personality.
When deliberating among political parties, you might want to know what the party leaders say about their
values and attitudes—through a self-report. You might want to know what others say about their strengths in
dealing with foreign leaders—through an observer report. You also might want to place the party leaders in a
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